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GRAMMAR

Parts of SpeechParts of the Sentence

PhrasesClausesVerbals

GRAMMAR REVIEW

PARTS OF SPEECH

I. NOUNS

A noun is a word that names one (or more) person, place, thing or idea.

8, 9, 10 Proper Noun

A proper noun names a particular person, place or thing and always begins with a capital. e.g. Fred, Vancouver, Big Mac

8, 9, 10 Common Noun

A common noun does not name any particular person, place or thing. e.g. child, city, perfume

8, 9, 10 Abstract Noun

An abstract noun names a quality, characteristic, or an idea. e.g. kindness, freedom, communism

8, 9, 10 Collective Noun

A collective noun names a group, and is singular in form but plural in meaning. e.g. class, committee, crew, team

II. PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun and refers back to an antecedent which is named or implied.

8, 9, 10 Personal Pronoun

I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it, we, us, they, them

8, 9, 10 Possessive Personal Pronoun

my, mine, your, yours, his, hers, its, their, our, ours, their, theirs

Reflexive Pronoun (Personal Pronoun and "Self"

himself, myself, themselves

9, 10 Relative Pronoun

The relative pronoun is used to introduce subordinate clauses -- who, whom, which, what, that

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9, 10 Interrogative Pronoun

The interrogative pronoun is used in questions. Who...? Whom...? Which...? What...? Whose...?

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9, 10 Demonstrative Pronoun

The demonstrative pronoun is used to point out -- this, that, these, those. e.g. That is red.

9, 10 Indefinite Pronouns

Care must be taken in using indefinite pronouns because errors can easily be made when determining whether they are singular or plural.

Singular: any, anybody, each, either, neither, none, no one, somebody, everybody, everyone

Plural: all, both, few, many, several, some

III. ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun.

8, 9, 10 To modify -- means to describe, or to make more definite the meaning of the word.

Adjectives may modify nouns or pronouns in any one of four ways:

1. by telling what kind (blue eyes, strong wind)2. by pointing out which one (that tall man, this suggestion)3. by telling how many (several reasons, 10 players)4. by telling whose (Geoff's watch, their papers)

9, 10 Interrogative Adjective

e.g. Which man is he? What book do you want? I don't know what magazine you mean?

8, 9, 10 Article

The, a, an, are modifiers or determiners.

"the" = definite article "a, an" = indefinite article

8, 9, 10 IV. VERBS

The verb is the heart of the sentence -- without a verb, any words is only a sentence fragment. A verb is a word, or group of words, that expresses action, indicates a state of being, or asserts something. It is used in:

making a statement (The rain falls gently.) asking a question (Are you happy?) giving a command (Walk carefully.)

Action Verb

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An action verb may express either physical or mental action.

hit, blow, run (physical) think, know (mental)

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9, 10 Linking Verbs

Linking verbs do not express action. They help to make a statement by linking the subject to a word or idea in the predicate which we call a subjective completion.

e.g. appear, feel, sound, become, smell, taste, seem

The most common linking verb is the verb to be and its many forms.

SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURALI am we are I was we wereyou are you are you were you werehe, she, it is the are he, she, it was they were

I have been we have been I can be we, you can beyou have been you have been you can be you can behe, it has been they have been he, she, it can be they can be

8, 9, 10 Transitive Verb

A transitive verb is a verb with a receiver of the action (direct object) to complete its meaning.

e.g. The boy caught a salmon. (The direction object tells what he caught.)

9, 10 Intransitive Verb

An intransitive verb is a verb with NO receiver of the action to complete its meaning.

e.g. The boy fished in the stream. (The sentence tells where he fished, not what he hoped to catch.)

9, 10 Verb Phrase

A verb phrase is made up of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs) are so called because they help the main verb to express action or make a statement.

e.g. has played will be coming must have been hurt

9, 10 Common Helping Verbs

e.g. do, did, am, are, was, were, have, has, had, can, may, will (shall) be, has (had), been, could, would, should, must, must have been, might have seen

8, 9, 10 V. ADVERB

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An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb may tell when, where, how, why, to what extent, or how much.

e.g. The band played stirringly. (how it played)The band played immediately. (when it played)The band played there. (where it played)The band played endlessly. (how much it played)

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Often adding "ly" to an adjective changes it into an adverb.

Adverbs are generally placed after the verb they go with, but they may appear anywhere in a sentence for emphasis. Adjectives are generally put before the noun or pronoun they modify.

8, 9, 10 VI. PREPOSTIONS

A preposition is a connective. It always introduces a prepositional phrase and shows the relationship between its object (noun or pronoun) and some other word in the sentence. The noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase is the object of the preposition which begins the phrase.

Common Prepositions

e.g. at, by, for, from, in, of, to, with

others: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, before, behind, below, beside, between, beyond, concerning, despite, down, during, except, inside, into, like, near, off, on, out, over, past, since, through, throughout, toward, under, underneath, until, up, upon, within, without

e.g. The boy (with a dog) lives (on a farm).

preposition (with) preposition (on)noun object (dog) noun object (farm)prepositional phrase (with a dog) prepositional phrase (on a

farm)

This phrase tells us about boy. This phrase tells us where he lives.

The phrase with the dog is an Lives is a verb.adjectival phrase. The phrase on a farm is anThe full name of the phrase is a adverbial phrase.prepositional adjectival phrase. The full name of the phrase is a

prepositional adverbial phrase.

The adjectival phrase modifies a noun or pronoun.The adverbial phrase modifies the verb.

e.g. The teacher (of the class). - adjectival phrase modifying the noun "teacher"

The boys stood (around the room). - adverbial phrase modifying the verb "stood"

8, 9, 10 VII. INTERJECTIONS

An interjection is a word which expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to the other words in the sentence.

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e.g. Oh! Ah! Ouch! Alas! Ha! My goodness!

Interjections are followed by an exclamation mark or comma.

8, 9, 10 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses.

e.g. John and Joe ran to school and away from the park.

"and" joins two words "and" joins two phrases

There are four kinds of conjunctions.

8, 9, 10 Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and sentences of equal value. The Coordinating Conjunctions are: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so.

9, 10 Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions join words, phrases, and sentences of equal value and are always used in pairs.

The Correlative Conjunctions are: either -- or, neither -- nor, not only -- but also, whether -- or.

9, 10 Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join less important clauses to the main ideas of the sentence. Therefore, the clauses are not of equal value.

The Subordinating Conjunctions are: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, since, so that, that, unless, until, when, where, while, unless, as though, as if, wherever, provided that, even though, even if, no matter what, in spite of the fact that, in as much as, so that, in order that, whereas.

9, 10 Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs join two independent clauses. The conjunctive adverb is preceded by a semicolon and is followed by a comma.

The Conjunctive Adverbs are: however, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, still, then.

e.g. We drove to Blackcomb; however, it was too foggy to ski.

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PARTS OF THE SENTENCE8, 9, 10 IX. THE SENTENCE

A sentence is a group of words containing a subject and a predicate.

A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.

e.g. The whole class sang songs. (simple subject and simple verb)Dawn and Sue were studying together. (compound subject)Roberta finished her letter and mailed it. (compound verb or compound bare predicate)

8, 9, 10 X. SUBJECT

The subject is the doer of the action, or the word or group of words spoken about in a sentence.

Bare Subject

The head-word of the subject is the bare subject and it is usually a noun.

Complete Subject

The word or group of words spoken about in a sentence including its modifiers.

e.g. The little boy with the smile on his face ran down the street.

The simple subject (boy)The complete subject (The little boy with the smile on his face)

8, 9, 10 XI. PREDICATE

The word or group of words that tells us something about the subject. (predicates indicate action or state of being)

The predicate always contains a verb.

Bare Predicate

The head-word of the predicate is the bare predicate and is always a verb.

Complete Predicate

The word or group of words that tell us something about the subject.

e.g. The little boy with the smile on his face ran down the street.

The simple predicate (ran)The complete predicate (ran down the street)

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9, 10 XII. PHRASES

A group of words without a verb which usually acts as a modifier. A phrase makes sense but not complete sense by itself. It depends on the rest of the sentence to complete the thought.

** THERE ARE MANY KINDS OF PHRASES

prepositional phrases (adjectival or adverbial) verb phrases gerund phrases participial phrases infinitive phrases

** for specific information, refer to: verb phrases (p. 4), prepositions (p. 5) and verbals (p. 12)

XIII. CLAUSE

A clause MUST contain a subject and a predicate.

9, 10 Main Clause

A main clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate and can be a sentence by itself.

9, 10 Subordinate Clauses

A subordinate clause depends on another clause for its full meaning. Subordinate clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns.

9, 10 Adjectival Clauses

Adjectival clauses are subordinate clauses that modify nouns. Adjectival clauses begin with relative pronouns (who, which, that, whom, whose, where, when).

e.g. I know the architect who designed your house. (The adjectival clause modifies architect, telling us which architect is being discussed.)

9, 10 Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses are subordinate clauses that usually modify verbs, but sometimes adverbial clauses modify adjectives or other adverbs. They begin with subordinate conjunctions (because, although, since, when, where, etc.)

e.g. Because the car went through the stop sign, the police arrested the driver. (The adverbial clause modifies the verb "arrested" and explains why the police arrested the driver.)

10 Noun Clauses

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Noun clauses function as nouns in a sentence and are part of the main clause. Noun clauses begin with a subordinate conjunction (where, when, why, what, etc.).

e.g. What you said is foolish. (The noun clause functions as the subject of the verb "is".)

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PARTS OF SPEECH AND RELATIONSHIPS IN A SENTENCE

XIV. NOUNS AND NOUN RELATIONSHIPS

8, 9, 10 Subject of the Verb

The subject is the doer of the action. The word or group of words spoken about in a sentence. The subject usually comes before the verb. It is usually at the beginning of a sentence or after an introductory

phrase or clause.

** Ask the question "Who?" or "What?" and then say the verb.

e.g. The zookeeper fed the monkeys.Who fed the monkeys? (the zookeeper)The noun "zookeeper" is subject of the verb "fed".

8, 9, 10 Direct Object

The receiver of the action. The direct object usually comes after the verb. It is the receiver of the action. Transitive verbs take a direct object.

** Say the verb and then ask "Whom?" or "What?".

e.g. Subject Verb Direct Object

The zookeeper fed the monkeys.The cat caught a mouse.

The direct object answers the question "what?"The zookeeper fed what? (the monkeys)The cat caught what? (the mouse)

8, 9, 10 Indirect Object

The indirect object of the verb precedes the direct object and usually tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done.

When two or more nouns or pronouns follow a transitive verb the first one is often the indirect object.

** Say the verb and the direct object and then say "to whom?" or "for whom?".

e.g. The zookeeper fed the monkeys peanuts.

Subject Predicate Indirect Object Direct Object

The indirect object answers the question to whom, to what or for whom.14

The zookeeper fed peanuts to what? (to the monkeys).Monkeys is the indirect object of the verb fed.

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8, 9, 10 Object of the Preposition

The object of the preposition is the noun that ends a prepositional phrase.

There must be a preposition in the sentence for there to be an object of the preposition.

e.g. Sally sat (in the room).

"in" is the preposition. "room" is the object of the preposition.

9, 10 Subjective Completion to the Subject

The subject completion is a noun or an adjective which follows a linking verb and refers back to the subject.

The subject completion follows the verb. It is the same as or tells you more about the subject.

** Say the non-action verb and then ask "Who?" or "What?".

e.g. Sally is a friend. Who or what is Sally?(a friend)

The doctor was angry. What was the doctor?(He was angry.)

Note: A subjective completion may be a noun, pronoun or adjective (predicate adjective).

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THE PROCESS FOR DETERMINING THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE

1. LOCATE AND ISOLATE THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES.

Remember you will not find subjects, predicates (verbs), direct objects, indirect objects and subject completions in prepositional phrases.

The nouns at the end of a prepositional phrase are THE OBJECTS OF THE PREPOSITION.

2. IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE (VERB)

LOOK AT THE VERB -- IS IT AN ACTION OR A LINKING VERB?

IF IT IS AN ACTION VERB

3. LOOK FOR A DIRECT OBJECT

Say the subject and the verb and ask "what?".

4. IF YOU FIND A DIRECT OBJECT, LOOK FOR AN INDIRECT OBJECT

Say the subject and the verb and direct object and ask "to whom/what?" OR "for whom/what?"

5. Check the format. Far more often than not, the structure of a sentence will be:

S + V + I.O. + D.O.

(The indirect object almost always comes before the direct object)

IF IT IS A LINKING VERB

3. LOOK FOR A SUBJECT COMPLETION

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Say the subject and the verb and ask "what?". The answer, if it is a noun or an adjective, is the subject completion.

WARNING: Beware of verb phrases.

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XV. VERBALS

A verbal is a form of the verb that has some of the characteristics of a verb but is used as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. There are three types of verbals: gerund, participle and infinitive.

10 Gerunds

A gerund functions as a noun. When it functions as a noun, it may take an object and be modified by an adverb. We call this a gerund phrase. Gerunds always end in "ing".

Forms of the Gerund

Active Passive

reading (present) being readhaving read (perfect) having been read

e.g. In the examples below the gerund is in bold print and the gerund phrase is underlined.

1. Reading the note was painful for her. (gerund phrase used as subject)

2. He was punished not for his crime but for being in the wrong place at the wrong time. (gerund phrase used as object of the preposition)

10 Participles

A participle may function as an adjective. When it functions as an adjective, it may take an object and be modified by an adverb. We call this a participial phrase. (A participle may also act as part of a verb phrase with an auxiliary verb.)

Participles may end in "ing", "ed", or "t".

Forms of the Participle as a Verbal

Active Passive

reading (present) being readhaving read (perfect) having been readread (past) read

e.g. In the examples below the participle is in bold print and the participial phrase is underlined.

1. I am not at all surprised that the girl reading the book is my sister. (modifies girl)

2. The class likes the book now being studied . (modifies book)

3. John, having called the police , sat and waited. (modifies John)19

4. The newly married couple went on a trip. (modifies couple)

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10 Infinitives

An infinitive may act as a noun, an adjective or an adverb. It may take an object and be modified by an adverb and then be called an infinitive phrase. Infinitives always begin with "to" plus the verb.

Forms of the Infinitive as a Verbal

Active Passive

to read (present) to be readto be reading (present progressive) to have been readto have been reading (present perfect progressive)

e.g. In the examples below the infinitive is in bold print and the infinitive phrase is underlined.

1. John wanted to read David Copperfield . (noun used as direct object)

2. The essay to be read is not long. (adjective modifying "essay")

3. He seems to be reading now . (adjective modifying "he" used as subjective completion)

4. He is wise to have read widely . (adverb modifying the adjective "wise")

5. These books were to have been read during the summer . (adjective modifying "books" used as subjective completion)

6. To have been reading all this time without understanding is foolish. (noun used as subject of the verb "is")

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