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netw rksReading Essentials and Study Guide

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Lesson 1 Medieval Christianity

Content Vocabularylay investiture the practice by which secular rulers both chose nominees to church offices and gave them the symbols of their office

interdict a decree by the pope that forbade priests from giving the sacraments of the Church to the people

sacrament a Christian rite

heresy the denial of basic Church doctrines

relic bones or other objects connected with saints; considered to be worthy of worship by the faithful

Academic Vocabularypursue to follow up or proceed with

remove to eliminate

Crusades and Culture in the Middle Ages

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONHow did the Church influence political and cultural changes in medieval Europe?

How did both innovations and disruptive forces affect people during the Middle Ages?

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TAKING NOTES: Categorizing

ACTIVITY as you read, use a table like the one below to identify the characteristics of the Cistercian, Dominican, and Franciscan religious orders.

Cistercians Franciscans Dominicans

IT MATTERS BECAUSEThe Catholic Church reached the height of its political power in the thirteenth century under Pope Innocent III. Religious interest spread. New monastic orders developed. The Catholic Church was an important force in Europe by the High Middle Ages.

The Papal MonarchyGUIDING QUESTION How did the political power of the Catholic Church change between the papacies of Pope Gregory VII and Pope Innocent III?

the popes of the Catholic Church had claimed leadership of the Church since the fifth century. they had also gained control of territories in central Italy. these territories came to be known as the Papal States. this control kept the popes involved in political matters, but it also took time away from their spiritual, or religious, duties.

the Church also became more involved in the feudal system. the Church’s chief officials included bishops and abbots. they got their positions from nobles. they were also required to carry out the usual feudal services as vassals, which included military duties. Lords often chose their vassals from other noble families for political reasons. this meant that the bishops and abbots they chose were often more interested in everyday life instead of their spiritual duties.

Reform of the PapacyChurch leaders in the eleventh century wanted to stop the lords’ control over choosing Church officials. People were given a ring and a cane when they became Church officials in the middle ages. these objects symbolized the spiritual authority the Church gave to the official. Secular rulers usually chose people for Church offices. they also gave them the symbols of their office. this was a practice known as lay investiture. Pope Gregory VII decided to fight this practice.

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Gregory was an elected pope in 1073. He was convinced that he had been chosen by God to reform the Church. to pursue this aim, he claimed that the pope’s authority extended over all of the Christian world, including rulers. the Church could regain its freedom only by getting rid of lay investiture. the Church would appoint clergy and run its own affairs. the pope would remove rulers who did not accept his ideas.

Henry IV was the king of Germany. Gregory VII soon found himself in conflict with the king over these claims. German kings had appointed high-ranking clerics, especially bishops, as their vassals for many years. they did this in order to use them as administrators. the king could not hope to keep power over the German nobles without them.

Pope Gregory issued a decree, or law, in 1075, which stated that no one in the clergy would be allowed to receive an investiture from any lay person. But Henry would not agree to a decree from the pope that went against his administration.

the struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII was known as the Investiture Controversy. It was one of the great conflicts between church and state in the High middle ages. It dragged on until a new German king and a new pope reached an agreement known as the Concordat of Worms in 1122. a bishop in Germany was first elected by Church officials under this agreement. the new bishop paid homage, or respect, to the king as his lord after election. then the king invested him with the symbols of earthly office. a representative of the pope then invested the new bishop with the symbols of his spiritual office.

The Church SupremePope Gregory VII also tried to improve the Church’s spiritual guidance to the faithful. twelfth-century popes did not give up Gregory’s reforms. But they wanted to strengthen papal power and build a strong administrative system. the Catholic Church had the most political power in the 1200s. this was during the papacy of Pope Innocent III.

Innocent used religious practices and rules to reach his political goals. His favorite was the interdict. an interdict forbids priests from giving the sacraments of the Church to a particular group of people. the people did not have access to the comforts of religion. the goal was to cause them to act against their ruler. For example, King Philip augustus of France tried to have his marriage annulled, or ended. Innocent used an interdict to force Philip to take back his wife.

PROGRESS CHECKDetermining Importance Why was the Concordat of Worms an important turning point for the Catholic Church?

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New Religious OrdersGUIDING QUESTION What effects did the new religious orders formed after 1098 have on medieval europe?

Religious enthusiasm, or interest, spread in europe in the late 1000s and early 1100s. this movement led to an increase in the number of monasteries. New monastic orders also developed.

Cistercians One of the most important new orders of the middle ages was the Cistercian (sis•TUHR•shuhn) order, which was founded in 1098 by a group of monks. They were unhappy with the lack of discipline at their own Benedictine monastery. Cistercian monasticism spread rapidly from southern France into the rest of europe.

the Cistercians were strict. they ate a simple diet, and each had only a single robe. all decorations were removed from their churches and monastic buildings. they spent few hours at religious services, which gave them more time for prayer and manual labor.

the Cistercians played a major role in developing an active new spiritual model for twelfth century europe. Benedictine monks spent hours inside the monastery in personal prayer, but the Cistercians took their religion to the people outside the monastery. Saint Bernard of Clairvaux expressed the new spiritual ideal of Cistercian monasticism more than any other person. He talked about how monks should think of themselves as soldiers of Christ. they needed to return to the battle and fight for their religion.

Women in Religious Orders the number of women joining religious houses also increased. most nuns in the High middle ages were from the landed aristocracy. Families who were unable or unwilling to find husbands for their daughters sent them to convents. aristocratic women who did not wish to marry or were widows also went to convents.

Female intellectuals found convents a supportive place for their activities. most educated women of the middle ages, especially in Germany, were nuns. Hildegard of Bingen became abbess of a religious house for females in western Germany. Hildegard was also one of the first important women composers and was an important writer of music known as Gregorian chant. Her work is important because she succeeded at a time when music, especially sacred music, was almost completely controlled by men.

Franciscans and Dominicanstwo new religious orders developed that had a strong impact on the lives of ordinary people in the 1200s. they were the Franciscans and the Dominicans.

Francis of assisi founded, or started, the Franciscans. Francis was born to a wealthy Italian merchant family in assisi. He had a series of important spiritual experiences after having been imprisoned during a local war. these experiences led him to give up all worldly goods and to live and preach in poverty. He worked and begged for his food. His simplicity, joyful nature, and love for others soon attracted a group of followers who took vows of absolute poverty. they agreed to reject all property and live by working and begging for their food.


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the Franciscans became very popular. they lived among the people, preached repentance (the act of showing that you are sorry for something bad that you did), and helped the poor. Their calls for a return to the simplicity and poverty of the early Church and their actions were very effective. the Franciscans also undertook missionary work throughout Italy first and then in all parts of europe and even in the muslim world.

Dominic de Guzmán was a Spanish priest. He founded the Dominican order. Dominic wanted to defend Church teachings from heresy. Heresy is a belief that does not agree with basic Church doctrines, or practices. the spiritual revival of the High middle ages had led to the development of heresies within the Church. People who followed these ideas were called heretics. these movements became especially widespread in southern France. Dominic believed that a new religious order of men who lived in poverty and could preach effectively would best be able to attack heresy.

The Inquisition the Church created a court to deal with heretics called the Inquisition, or Holy Office. this court developed a regular procedure to find and try heretics. the Dominicans became especially well known for their roles as examiners of people suspected of heresy.

those who confessed to heresy performed public penance and received punishment, such as whipping. the Inquisition added torture to get confessions beginning in 1252. those who did not confess but were still considered guilty were executed, or put to death, by the state. So were those who had done penance for heresy but returned to it again. thirteenth-century Christians believed the only path to salvation was through the Church. Heresy was a crime against God and humanity, so using force to save souls was the right thing to do.

PROGRESS CHECKMaking Connections What led to the creation of the Cistercian order? explain how it was different from the Benedictine order.

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Religion in the High Middle AgesGUIDING QUESTION How did religion influence the daily lives of people in the High middle ages?

the Catholic Church of the High middle ages was an important part of ordinary people’s lives from birth to death. the sacraments included baptism, marriage, and the eucharist, or Communion. these were seen as a way to receive God’s grace, or forgiveness and were necessary for salvation. Only the clergy could give these rites. People depended on them to achieve this goal. Ordinary people also worshiped saints. Saints are men and women who had achieved a special position in Heaven because of their holiness. Saints could ask for favors, or special treatment, before the throne of God for people who prayed to them. this made them very popular with all Christians.


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the recognized saints included Jesus’ apostles, his mother mary, and many local saints of special importance to a single area. For example, the Italians had Saint Nicholas. He is the patron saint of children. He is known today as Santa Claus. mary was the most highly respected of all the saints in the High middle ages. many churches all over europe were dedicated to her in the 1100s and 1200s. Such churches in France were named Notre Dame, or “Our Lady.”

the worship of saints was closely tied to the use of relics. Relics are bones of saints or objects connected with saints. Relics provided a link between the earthly world and God. many believed that relics could heal people or produce other miracles.

medieval Christians also believed that a pilgrimage, or journey, to a holy shrine was important. the greatest shrine was the Holy City of Jerusalem, but it was also the most difficult to reach. two pilgrim centers were especially popular in the High middle ages. Rome contained the relics of apostles Peter and Paul. the Spanish town of Santiago de Compostela was supposedly the site of the tomb of the apostle James.

PROGRESS CHECKInferring Why were relics important to Christians living in europe during the middle ages?

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netw rksCrusades and Culture in the Middle Ages

Reading Essentials and Study Guide

Reading HELPDESK

Lesson 2 The Crusades

Content VocabularyCrusades military expeditions carried out by european Christians in the middle ages to regain the Holy Land from the muslims

infidel an unbeliever; a term applied to the muslims during the Crusades

Academic Vocabularyproceed to advance or move along a course

libel a written or oral defamatory statement or representation that conveys an unjustly unfavorable impression



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ACTIVITY as you read, use a table like the one below to identify each of the crusades and the result of each.

Crusade Result

IT MATTERS BECAUSEEuropean Christians carried out a series of military expeditions from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. This was to regain the Holy Land from the Muslims. These expeditions are known as the Crusades.

The Early Crusades GUIDING QUESTION What were the religious, political, and economic motivations behind the Crusades?

the Crusades started when the Byzantine emperor alexius I Comnenus asked for help against the Seljuk turks. the Seljuk turks were muslims who had taken control of asia minor. Pope Urban II responded to the request. He saw an opportunity to provide leadership for a great cause. He wanted europe’s warriors to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the muslims, who Christians viewed as infidels, or unbelievers.

the Council of Clermont took place in southern France near the end of 1095. Urban II asked Christians to take up their weapons and join in a holy war. the pope promised that any who died would have all of their sins forgiven and the excited crowd responded that it was God’s will.

Warriors of western europe, particularly France, formed the first crusading armies. these knights were mostly motivated by religion, but some wanted adventure and welcomed the chance to fight. Others saw an opportunity to gain wealth and a possible title. Italian buyers and sellers of goods also wanted new trading opportunities in Byzantine and muslim lands.

But the Byzantines became worried after asking for help. alexius I’s daughter was anna Comnena, the Byzantine empire’s only female historian. the western

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crusading armies would have to go through Byzantine lands. alexius and anna feared that might be harmful to the Byzantine empire itself.

the First Crusade began as three organized groups, mostly made up of French warriors who made their way to the east. the crusading army included thousands of men in cavalry and infantry. they captured antioch in 1098 and proceeded down the Palestinian coast. they avoided the well-defended coastal cities and reached Jerusalem in June 1099. the Holy City was taken during a horrible massacre of its people.

the crusaders organized four Latin crusader states in the east after more conquests, or takeovers. One of these was the kingdom of Jerusalem under Godfrey de Bouillon. He was one of the Frankish leaders of the First Crusade. Godfrey rejected the title of king because he felt that it belonged only to God. muslims surrounded these crusader kingdoms, so the kingdoms depended on Italian cities for supplies. Some Italian port cities, such as Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, grew rich and powerful because of this.

But it was not easy for the crusader kingdoms to support themselves in the east. the muslims had begun to fight back by the 1140s. One of the Latin kingdoms fell to the muslims. this monastic leader Bernard of Clairvaux called for another crusade. He exclaimed that the enemies of Christianity were attacking because of Christians’ sins. He wanted Christians to fight to keep Christianity alive in the Holy Land. Bernard managed to get support from two powerful rulers in a Second Crusade. King Louis VII of France and emperor Conrad III of Germany agreed to help, but this campaign was a total failure.

In 1187 Jerusalem fell to muslim forces under Saladin. Saladin had made himself sultan of egypt in 1169. He led the muslim attack against the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. three european rulers then agreed to lead a third Crusade after Saladin’s success: German emperor Frederick Barbarossa, english king Richard I (Richard the Lionhearted), and French king Philip II augustus.

Some members of the third Crusade arrived in the east by 1189, but they had problems. Frederick drowned in a local river. the english and French arrived by sea and captured the coastal cities, but they were unable to move inland against the muslim forces. Richard worked out a settlement, or agreement, with Saladin after Philip returned home. It allowed Christian pilgrims free access to Jerusalem.

PROGRESS CHECKSummarizing How many early crusades were there? What was the common factor?

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The Later Crusades GUIDING QUESTION How did the Crusades affect europe and Southwest asia?

Pope Innocent III started the Fourth Crusade about six years after Saladin’s death in 1193. the crusading army became involved in a fight over the Byzantine throne as the army headed east. the Byzantine empire was Venice’s greatest commercial competitor. the Venetian leaders used the situation to weaken the empire. the



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crusaders attacked Constantinople in 1204. this added to the division between the eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. Western forces also set up a new Latin empire of Constantinople.

a Byzantine army recaptured the city in 1261. But the Byzantine empire was no longer a great mediterranean power. It was now made up of the city of Constantinople and its surrounding lands. It also included part of asia minor. the empire existed in this reduced, or smaller, size for another 190 years. But it was weak. this helped the Ottoman turks conquer it in 1453.

the crusading beliefs continued even though there were failures. about 20,000 French children headed to marseilles in 1212. two ship-owners agreed to take them to the Holy Land. two of the ships went down in a storm. the other five sailed to North africa where the children were sold into slavery.

the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of adult warriors were hardly more successful. Louis IX was the saintly king of France who organized the last two major Crusades. Baybars was the sultan of egypt. Louis tried again after Baybars defeated him, but he died of the plague without any conquests.

Historians disagree about the effect the Crusades had on european civilization. the Crusades did help the Italian port cities. But Italian merchants would have increased trade with the eastern world even without the Crusades.

the Crusades had some unfortunate side effects on european society. the first widespread attacks on the Jews were related to the Crusades. Some Christians blamed the Jews for the death of Jesus. they argued that it was unthinkable to fight the muslims while Jews at home were free. the Jews of medieval europe faced periodic libels, attacks, and removals.

Perhaps the greatest impact of the Crusades was political. the Crusades eventually helped to break down feudalism. Nobles joining the Crusades sold their lands and freed their serfs as kings issued taxes and raised armies. the kings created stronger central governments as nobles lost power. taxing trade with the east also provided kings with new wealth. this helped the development of true nation-states. three strong nation-states would develop in europe by the mid-1400s. these were Spain, england, and France.

PROGRESS CHECKMonitoring Was the Fourth Crusade successful? explain your answer.

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Reading HELPDESK

Lesson 3 Culture in the Middle Ages

Content Vocabularytheology the study of religion and God

scholasticism a medieval philosophical and theological system that tried to reconcile faith and reason

vernacular the language of everyday speech in a particular region

chanson de geste a type of vernacular literature, this heroic epic was popular in medieval europe and described battles and political contests

Academic Vocabularytechnical of or pertaining to a technique

corporation a business organization that has a separate legal entity with all the rights and responsibilities of an individual, including the right to buy and sell property, enter into legal contracts, and sue and be sued



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TAKING NOTES: Contrasting

ACTIVITY as you read, use a table like the one below to compare the Romanesque style of architecture with the Gothic style of architecture.

Romanesque Gothic

IT MATTERS BECAUSENew ideas about architecture and learning developed in Europe during the High Middle Ages. Beautiful cathedrals, or large churches, were built across Europe. Europe’s first universities were created.

ArchitectureGUIDING QUESTION How did innovations change the architecture of churches and cathedrals in the High middle ages?

many cathedrals were built in europe during the eleventh and twelfth centuries. these churches were built in the Romanesque style, which normally followed the basilica shape of churches built in the late Roman empire.

Basilicas were rectangular buildings with flat wooden roofs. Romanesque builders replaced the basilica’s flat wooden roof with a long, round, arched vault made of stone. this was called a barrel vault. Some roofs were built with a cross vault in which two barrel vaults intersected. the builder used the cross vault to create a church plan shaped like a cross. Romanesque churches required huge pillars and walls to hold them up. this was because stone roofs were very heavy. there was not much space for windows, so Romanesque churches were dark on the inside.

a new style appeared in the twelfth century called Gothic. It was perfected in the thirteenth century. the Gothic cathedral is still one of the greatest artistic successes of the High middle ages. two basic innovations made Gothic cathedrals possible.

One innovation was replacing the round barrel vault of Romanesque churches. this was replaced with a combination of ribbed vaults and pointed arches. Builders could now make Gothic churches higher. this gave the churches a feeling of upward movement, as if the building was reaching to God.

another technical innovation was the flying buttress. this was a heavy, arched support of stone built onto the outside of the walls. Flying buttresses made it possible to distribute, or spread out, the weight of the church’s vaulted ceilings outward and down. this also got rid of the heavy walls that were needed in


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Romanesque churches. Gothic cathedrals were built with thinner walls filled with stained glass windows.

these windows show both religious scenes and scenes from daily life. the colored glass windows create a play of light inside the cathedral. the light changes with the sun at different times of the day. the Gothic cathedral’s towers reach up toward Heaven. this demonstrates to us a time when most people believed in a spiritual world.

PROGRESS CHECKVisualizing Imagine visiting a Romanesque church and then a Gothic church on a warm and sunny day. How might you describe your experience?

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UniversitiesGUIDING QUESTION How did innovations change the architecture of churches and cathedrals in the High middle ages?

today’s universities include faculty, students, and degrees. this is a product of the High middle ages. the word university comes from the Latin word universitas, which means “corporation” or “guild.”

The first European university appeared in Bologna (buh•LOH•nyuh), Italy. Students were men only. they came from all over europe to learn law from the great teacher Irnerius. the University of Paris was the first university in northern europe. many students and masters left Paris in the late 1300s to start their own university at Oxford, england. Kings, popes, and princes thought it was honorable to found universities. europe had 80 universities by 1500.

Students began their studies with the traditional liberal arts. Subjects included grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. teachers lectured by reading from a basic text and adding explanations. Students took oral examinations after four to six years to earn a bachelor of arts degree and later a master of arts. Students earned a doctorate of law, medicine, or theology after about ten more years.

the most highly thought of subject was theology. this is the study of religion and God. the study of theology was strongly influenced by a philosophy known as scholasticism. Scholasticism tried to show that faith was in harmony, or agreement, with reason. Its main goal was to make Christian teachings fit with the works of the Greek philosophers. aristotle reached his conclusions by rational thought, not by faith. His ideas sometimes contradicted Church teachings.

anselm of Canterbury was a monastic theologian. His major work was the Proslogion, which made one of the first attempts in the eleventh century to show how faith could be used with reason. anselm argued that reason could prove God’s existence.

Thomas Aquinas (uh•KWY• nuhs) made the most famous attempt to harmonize the teachings of aristotle and Christianity in the 1200s. aquinas is best known for his Summa theologica. a summa was a summary of all knowledge on a topic. His masterpiece followed a logical, or reasonable, method of scholarly study. aquinas



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first asked a question such as, “Does God exist?” then he discussed opposing opinions before making his own conclusions. He believed that truths arrived at through reason or faith could not conflict with each other. Reason without faith could only show truths about the physical world. It could not show spiritual truths. aquinas also believed that humans could arrive at Natural Law by using reason. Natural Law determines what is naturally good or evil. It is part of God’s eternal law.

Roger Bacon was an english philosopher who wrote Opus majus in the late 1260s at the request of Pope Clement IV. It was an encyclopedia supporting a reformation, or improvement, of all sciences. these sciences included logic, mathematics, physics, experimentation, and philosophy. Bacon felt mathematics was very important for the study of philosophy.

PROGRESS CHECKSummarizing What degrees could students obtain by going to university?

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Vernacular LiteratureGUIDING QUESTION How did innovations change the architecture of churches and cathedrals in the High middle ages?

Latin was the universal language of medieval civilization. But new literature was being written in the vernacular in the twelfth century. this is the language of everyday speech in a particular region. It includes languages such as Spanish, French, english, or German. a need for vernacular literature appeared in the twelfth century. educated people at courts and in the cities took an interest in new sources of entertainment.

Perhaps the most popular vernacular literature of the twelfth century was troubadour poetry. this was chiefly the product of nobles and knights. this poetry told of the love of a knight for a lady who inspires him to become a braver knight and a better poet.

another type of vernacular literature was known as the chanson de geste. this is a heroic epic. the main events described in heroic epic poems are battles in which knights fight with courage for their kings and lords. the earliest and best example of this literature is the Song of Roland. It appeared around 1100 and was written in French.

the english author Geoffrey Chaucer used the english vernacular in his famous work the Canterbury tales in the fourteenth century. this work is a collection of stories told by a group of 29 pilgrims. they represented many people in english society. they journeyed together to the tomb of Saint thomas á Becket at Canterbury, england.


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PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying What were two popular types of vernacular literature in the twelfth century?

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Reading HELPDESK

Lesson 4 The Late Middle Ages

Content Vocabularyanti-Semitism hostility toward or discrimination against Jews

new monarchy in the fifteenth century, government in which power had been centralized under a king or queen, i.e., France, england, and Spain

taille an annual direct tax, usually on land or property, that provided a regular source of income for the French monarchy

Academic Vocabularyperiod an interval of time

consequence the effect or result of an action



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ACTIVITY as you read, use a chart like the one below to identify the impact of the Black Death.

Black Death

IT MATTERS BECAUSEMedieval European society reached its high point in the 1200s, but much changed in the 1300s. A series of problems caused trouble across Europe. The Black Death spread, killing over one-third of the population. The Great Schism disturbed the Catholic Church, and people’s faith was weakened. Then the Hundred Years’ War started. Recovery began in the 1400s, aand rulers responded by creating their “new” monarchies.

The Black DeathGUIDING QUESTION What social and economic effects did the Black Death ave on europe?

Weather patterns changed in europe toward the end of the thirteenth century. europe entered a period that has been called a “little ice age.” there was a drop in overall temperatures, which led to shorter growing seasons and bad weather conditions. Heavy rains between 1315 and 1317 in northern europe destroyed crops and caused food shortages. this caused extreme hunger and starvation. the Great Famine expanded to other parts of europe as well. Famine may have led to constant malnutrition. malnourished people are less able to stop infection. this may help explain the high mortality of the great plague known as the Black Death, which was the most destructive natural disaster in european history.

Bubonic plague was the most common form of the Black Death. It was spread by black rats infested with fleas carrying a deadly bacterium. Italian merchants brought the plague with them from Kaffa on the Black Sea to the island of Sicily in October 1347. the plague had spread to southern Italy and southern France by the end of 1347. the path of the Black Death usually followed trade routes. the plague spread through France, the Low Countries (modern Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands), and Germany in 1348 and 1349. It spread to england in


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1349 and then it expanded to northern europe and Scandinavia. eastern europe and Russia were affected by 1351.

the total european population was 75 million. Possibly more than one-third of the population died of the plague between 1347 and 1351. Italy’s crowded cities were hit very hard, where between 50 and 60 percent of the people died. entire villages disappeared in england and Germany.

People did not know what caused the plague. many believed that God sent it as punishment for their sins or that the devil caused it. extreme reactions led to anti-Semitism, or a feeling of anger toward Jews. Jews were sometimes accused of causing the plague by poisoning town wells.

the death of so many people had economic consequences. trade declined, and a shortage of workers caused a sharp rise in the price of labor. the decline in the number of people also lowered the demand for food, which resulted in falling prices. Landlords were now paying more for labor while their incomes from rents were declining. Serfdom had been declining throughout the High middle ages. Some peasants made an agreement with their lords to pay rent instead of owing services. this change freed them from serfdom.

PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying What did many people believe caused the plague?

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Decline of Church Power GUIDING QUESTION How did the Great Schism and other crises lead to the decline of Church power?

the popes reached the height of their power in the 1200s. the Church’s power declined in the 1300s.

The Popes at Avignon european kings started to reject the pope’s authority by the end of the 1200s. Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France struggled with each other. this had serious results for the papacy.

Philip claimed the right to tax the clergy, but Boniface argued that taxing the clergy required the pope’s permission. this was because popes had power over both Church and state. Philip rejected the pope’s position and sent French forces to Italy to bring Boniface back to France for trial. the pope escaped but died soon afterward. Philip then had Frenchman Clement V elected as pope in 1305. Clement moved to Avignon (a • v e e n • YOHN) in southern France. The popes lived in avignon from 1305 to 1377.

Feelings against the papacy grew during this time. the pope was also bishop of Rome, and many believed that the pope should live in Rome, not in avignon. the expensive living of the pope and cardinals in avignon also led to criticism.



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Pope Gregory XI saw that there was decline in papal status, and he returned to Rome in 1377.

The Great Schism Gregory XI died soon after his return to Rome. the cardinals met to elect a new Italian pope, Pope Urban VI. this was what the citizens of Rome asked for. a group of French cardinals declared the election invalid five months later, and they chose a Frenchman as pope. this pope returned to avignon.

there were now two popes because Urban stayed in Rome. this started the Great Schism of the Church, which lasted from 1378 to 1417 and divided europe. France and its allies supported the pope in avignon. england and its allies supported the pope in Rome.

the Great Schism created political conflict and damaged the Church. the pope was believed to be the true leader of Christianity. each line of popes accused the other as the antichrist. this is someone who opposes, or is against, Christ. People’s faith in both the papacy and the Church weakened. the situation became worse after an effort to solve the problem in 1409 resulted in the reign of three popes at the same time. a church council finally met at Constance, Switzerland, and ended the schism in 1417. the competing popes either quit or were removed. then a new pope whom everyone accepted was elected.

these problems in the Catholic Church had led to calls for reform, or change. John Wyclif was from england. He was upset with clerical corruption. this led him to an attack on papal authority. Wyclif’s ideas spread to a group of Czech reformers led by John Hus. this was because of a marriage between the royal families of england and Bohemia. the reformers called for an end to clerical corruption and to excessive papal power within the Church. the Council of Constance accused Hus of heresy, a belief that goes against basic Church practices and he was burned at the stake in 1415. the Czechs then led a revolutionary fight in Bohemia that was not crushed until 1436. Hus’s ideas would later have an impact on the German monk martin Luther.

the Church had lost much of its political power by the early 1400s. the pope could no longer claim control over the state. Christianity remained central to medieval life, but the papacy and the Church had lost much of their authority.

PROGRESS CHECKSummarizing Why were popes living in avignon criticized?

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The Hundred Years’ WarGUIDING QUESTION Why was the Hundred Years’ War a turning point in warfare and what were its consequences?

Plague, economic crisis, and the decline of the Catholic Church were not the only problems of the late middle ages. War and political instability also caused problems. The Hundred Years’ War was the most violent struggle during this period.


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trouble began over the duchy of Gascony in France. england controlled it, and France wanted it. King edward III of england was also the duke of Gascony and a vassal to the French king. But King Philip VI of France seized, or took over by force, the duchy in 1337. edward declared war on Philip, which started the Hundred Years’ War.

Knights were looking forward to battle when this war between england and France began. Knights were trained to be warriors. they viewed battle as a chance to show their fighting abilities. But the Hundred Years’ War was an important turning point in the nature of warfare. Peasant foot soldiers instead of knights won the main battles of the war.

France’s heavily armed noble cavalrymen viewed foot soldiers as social inferiors. the english also used heavily armed cavalry, but they relied more on large numbers of peasants. they were paid to be foot soldiers. english soldiers were armed with pikes, or heavy spears. they also used longbows. these had greater striking power, longer range, and more rapid speed of fire than the crossbow.

The first major battle of the Hundred Years’ War occurred in 1346 at Crécy. The larger French army did not follow a battle plan and attacked in a disorderly way. the english archers defeated them.

The Battle of Crécy was not decisive, or key. The English simply did not have enough resources to conquer all of France, but they continued to try. the english king Henry V achieved victory at the Battle of agincourt in 1415. the French knights who attacked Henry’s forces across a muddy field were defeated. about 1,500 French nobles died in battle.

Charles was heir to the French throne. It was now up to him to handle the French cause. a French peasant woman saved the fearful monarch. Joan of arc was the daughter of successful peasants. She was a very religious person and she experienced visions and believed that saints had commanded her to free France. Charles felt Joan was honest. He allowed her to accompany a French army to Orléans when she was only 17. Joan’s faith also inspired the French armies. They found new confidence and seized Orléans.

Joan had brought the war to a turning point but did not live to see its end. the english captured Joan in 1430. they turned her over to the Inquisition on charges of witchcraft. Visions were thought to be inspired by either God or the devil. Joan was put to death, but her achievements were decisive. the war dragged on for another two decades, but english defeats at Normandy and aquitaine led to a French victory by 1453. also important to the French success was the use of the cannon. It was a new weapon made possible by the invention of gunpowder.

PROGRESS CHECKIdentifying What event sparked the Hundred Years’ War?

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Political RecoveryGUIDING QUESTION What kind of political recovery occurred in europe in the 1400s?

european rulers faced serious problems in the 1300s. many hereditary monarchies or dynasties in europe were unable to produce male heirs. the founders of new dynasties had to fight for their positions when groups of nobles supported opposing candidates for the kingship. Rulers also had financial problems.

Recovery set in during the 1400s when many new rulers in europe tried to reestablish, or bring back, the central power of monarchies. Some historians called these reestablished states the new monarchies. this term can be used for the monarchies of France, england, and Spain as they existed at the end of the 1400s.

France France was worn out after the Hundred Years’ War, but the war had also developed a strong French national feeling toward a common enemy. the kings used that spirit to reestablish royal power.

King Louis XI ruled France from 1461 to 1483. He wanted to develop a strong French state. many called Louis the Spider because of his tricky ways. He strengthened the use of the taille as a permanent tax imposed by royal authority. this was an annual direct tax usually on land or property. this tax gave Louis a regular source of money. Louis relied on support from the lower nobility and middle class to stop the power of the great French nobles. He added anjou, maine, Provence, and other regions to his kingdom. He created the foundations of a strong monarchy by strengthening his power and by promoting industry and business.

England The Hundred Years’ War had also strongly affected the English. Both the cost of the war and losses in manpower strained the economy. england faced even greater problems at the end of the war. Civil conflicts known as the Wars of the Roses erupted. Noble factions, or groups, fought to control the monarchy. this ended when Henry tudor established a new dynasty in 1485.

Henry VII was the first tudor king. He worked to create a strong royal government. Henry ended the wars between the nobles by getting rid of their private armies. He was also very thrifty and won support from the nobles and the middle class because he did not make them pay too many taxes.

Spain Spain also experienced the growth of a strong national monarchy at the end of the 1400s. Christian rulers in Spain had fought to regain their lands from the muslims during the middle ages. Several independent Christian kingdoms had developed in the course of the long re-conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. among them were aragon and Castile.

aragon and Castile were both strong kingdoms. Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of aragon in 1469. this was a major step toward unifying Spain. Castile and aragon remained separate kingdoms. But Isabella and Ferdinand worked together to strengthen their royal control in the dual monarchy. Ferdinand and Isabella believed that religious unity was necessary for political unity. they felt


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that their people should be Catholic. they forced out all Jews from Spain who did not convert in 1492.

muslims lost their final battle to Ferdinand and Isabella’s armies in 1492. muslims were given the choice of converting to Christianity or exile. Ferdinand and Isabella were the “most Catholic” monarchs. they had achieved their goal of religious uniformity, or sameness. to be Spanish was to be Catholic.

Central and Eastern Europethe Holy Roman empire did not develop a strong monarch authority. Germany was a land of hundreds of states. most of these states acted independently of the German ruler. the Hapsburg dynasty held the position of Holy Roman emperor after 1438. the Hapsburgs ruled the austrian lands along the Danube.

Rulers in eastern europe found it difficult to centralize their states. Religious differences troubled the area. there were problems between Roman Catholics, eastern Orthodox Christians, and other groups, including mongols and muslims.

Russia had been under mongol control since the 1200s, but Ivan III had overthrown the mongols by 1480. the next ruler of muscovy was Ivan IV. He was recognized as the ruler and czar (Russian ruler) of Russia by the Orthodox Church.

PROGRESS CHECKMonitoring What type of government had France, england, and Spain developed by the end of the 1400s?

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