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Biology Final EXAM Review

Section 1: Scientific Method

1. What are the major sections to a lab write-up? a. Question, hypothesis, materials, procedures, prediction, data, graph, discussion, conclusion, extensions

2. What is an independent variable? What is a dependent variable? a. Independent – the variable you control and change b. Dependent – the variable you are observing or looking for, you DO NOT change the dependent, you observe

it to see what your independent variable does to the dependent 3. When you do a lab, why are you only supposed to change the independent variable?

a. If you change more than your independent variable, then you will not be able to tell if the data you collect is due to your independent variable or another variable. We keep everything else constant except the independent so that we can know what affect the independent variable has.

4. Why would it be difficult to determine if there is a correlation with your data if you change more items that just your independent variable?

a. If you change more than your independent variable, then you will not be able to tell if the data you collect is due to your independent variable or another variable. We keep everything else constant except the independent so that we can know what affect the independent variable has.

5. How many trials do we typically conduct? Why? a. 3 trials so that we can get an average and to rule out human error in the lab

6. Write a proper question for a lab here: a. How does (the independent variable) affect the (dependent variable)? b. How does the amount of sunlight affect a plant’s growth?

7. Why should questions for a lab not be a yes or no question? What does it mean to be a testable question? a. Yes and no questions are not testable. You should not be able to answer the question before conducting the

lab. b. A testable question is one that you can conduct a lab for and see if the question is correct or incorrect.

8. Interpret data that show a variety of possible relationships between variables a. Draw a line or curve showing the following relationships:

i. Positive

ii. Negative

iii. No relationship

9. What are the two major types of graphs that we make?

a. Bar graph and line graph 10. What type of data would you have in order to make a line graph? A bar graph?

a. Line graph has numerical (numbers) data for the x and y axis (independent and depended) b. Bar graph has words for one of the axes

11. Why do we not make circle/pie graphs? a. These graphs are not able to show the relationship between an independent and dependent variable

12. When making a graph, which axis is the independent variable? Which axis is the dependent? a. The x axis is the independent variable and the y axis is the dependent variable

13. Evaluate the design of an investigation to identify possible sources of procedural error. a. List 4 possible sources of error that were witnessed in labs throughout the semester:

i. Not measuring correctly

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ii. Not recording observations correctly iii. Etc. iv. Etc.

b. What can future students do/what can you do in the future, to insure that you will not make the same errors in future labs?

i. Read and re-read directions ii. Take your time when doing labs, don’t rush

iii. Be exact with your measurements iv. Don’t goof around in the lab

14. Convert measurements into various sizes. a. What is the size of the following metric measurements:

v. 1 km = _1000______________ meters vi. 1 meter = __100___________ cm

vii. 1 liter = __1000____________ mL 15. What lab equipment do we use when we need to take the mass of something?

a. The electronic scale or triple beam balance 16. What equipment do we use to measure out a volume of liquid?

a. Graduated cylinder 17. What equipment do we use to mix chemicals in?

a. Beakers 18. Try to test your understanding of designing experiments, read the following essays and answer the accompanying

questions. A student collects seeds from a Honey Locust tree and tries to grow them. None of the seeds grow. The student reads in biology textbook that seeds of some species will not grow because the seed cover does not allow oxygen and water to enter the seed. To test this possible explanation, the student collects more seeds and divides them into two batches. In one seed batch the seed covering is removed; in the second batch, the seed coverings are left intact. Both batches are then placed in separate dishes and watered. The amount of seeds that grew is then recorded.

a. What is the question being addressed in this story? a. How does the seed cover affect the growth (or germination) of plants?

b. What is the hypothesis being tested? a. Seeds without a seed cover will grow quicker/better than seeds with a seed cover.

c. What is the independent variable in this experiment? a. Presence of a seed cover

d. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? a. Growth of the plants

e. Why are batches of seeds used instead of just a single seed? a. To rule out errors with one seed. A large sample size helps to minimize the amount of errors

present in a lab.

19. What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data? a. Quantitative = data using numbers (numerical data) b. Qualitative = data not involving numbers (quality data)

20. What is a hypothesis?

a. a trial idea or tentative explanation that can be tested b. A scientific hypothesis is the initial building block in the scientific method. Many describe it as an “educated

guess,” based on prior knowledge and observation, as to the cause of a particular phenomenon. It is a suggested solution for an unexplained occurrence that does not fit into current accepted scientific theory. A hypothesis is the inkling of an idea that can become a theory, which is the next step in the scientific method.

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21. What is a scientific theory?

a. a hypothesis that has been tested many times and is supported by a large body of scientific evidence

i. Often revised ii. Explains data we already know and predicts new data

b. A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported with repeated testing. If enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next step—known as a theory—in the scientific method and becomes accepted as a valid explanation of a phenomenon.

22. Can scientific theories be proven incorrect? What do scientists do when new data is found that refutes a current scientific theory?

a. Yes, when new information is found that refutes a current theory, they do not discard the original/current theory

b. Instead, they modify or revise the theory to include the new information

05

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Ion

ize

d w

ate

r

Tim

e (

se

c)

Type of water

Diffusion Time

Hot

Warm

Cold

23. Dye was dropped in ionized and regular water and was timed to see how long it took for the dye to diffuse. Which

of the following conclusions can be made? a. Ionized water has more salt then regular water. b. The time of diffusion is about the same in both ionized and regular water. c. The temperature affects the diffusion rate more than if the water is ionized. d. The dye in cold water spreads faster than in hot water. e. Both a and b are conclusions supported by the graph. f. Both b and c are conclusions supported by the graph.

Both b and c are correct for this graph. The times are similar between the ionized and the regular water. And we can see that temperature plays a huge role in how fast something diffuses.

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The following question refers to the following investigation: A student took a sample of water from a pond and examined it under a microscope. She identified several species of protozoans, including two species of Paramecium that are known to eat the same food. The student decided to examine the water sample every day for a week. She added food for the Paramecia each day and counted the number of each species. Her findings are summarized in the table below.

NUMBER OF PARAMECIA IN POND WATER SAMPLE

Day Species S

Species T

1 50 50

2 60 80

3 100 90

4 150 60

5 160 50

6 160 30

7 160 20

Using the axes below, construct a graph showing the number of each species of Paramecium the student found each day. Be sure to label the axes.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Day Since day or time is the indepdent variable in this lab, it should be on the X axis

Since the number of paramecia each day is what is being recorded, that is the dependent variable and this goes on the y-axis. This graph should have two different lines, one showing the number of paramecium with species S over time and one showing species T. The solid black line shows species S and the dotted line shows species T.

24. Which of the following can be correctly concluded from the data?

A) Species S is the food for species T. B) Species T is more common than species S.

C) Species S is a more successful competitor than species T. D) Species T is a more successful competitor than species S.

25. A student is studying the factors that affect seed germination. She wants to test whether soaking the seeds in

water affects the sprouting process. What should she measure to get the most useful results? A. Germination of 100 soaked seeds at a given temperature

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B. Germination of 100 regular seeds at different temperatures C. Germination of 50 soaked seeds and 50 seeds not soaked at a given temperature D. Germination of 50 soaked and 50 regular seeds at different temperatures

26. Explain your answer:

The student is only looking at soaked seeds and unsoaked seeds. They need to sample both types to see if soaking affects seed germination. They cannot change the temperature too, because if they do then they will not be able to tell if the seeds germinated due to soaking the seeds or due to the temperature. In any lab, you should only ever have one independent variable and keep everything else the same.

Section 1a: Biochemistry

1. List and define all 5 traits of life. a. 1. Made of one or more cells

i. cells are the smallest units of life ii. organisms can be single-celled or multicelled

b. 2. Reproduction i. process by which organisms make more of their own kind

ii. essential to carry on life c. 3. Metabolism

i. chemical reactions of an organism ii. the use of energy to carry out life processes

iii. Ex: eating, breathing d. 4. Growth and Development

i. increase in the amount of living material ii. changes taking place throughout the life cycle of an organism

e. 5. Respond to Stimuli -Response or reaction to an outside factor f. 6. Any kind of inherited trait that improves an organisms chance of survival and reproduction in a given

environment (some people say this is a trait of life, so do not) g. For an organism to be considered alive, it must have all 5 traits of life!!!

i. Note: all living things may not have all characteristics at one time, but all organisms have these characteristics at some point in their life.

2. Give an example of each trait of life. 1. Plants are made of plant cells 2. Plants can reproduce by pollination to produce new plants 3. Plants use the sunlight and water to produce energy 4. Plants use their energy to grow from a seed to a plant to a taller plant 5. Plants grow to face the sun to get the most amount of energy 6. Plants can have thick waxy coatings to minimize their water loss

3. Explain the difference between living, nonliving, and once living. Give an example of each category. a. Living means that the organism is currently living and exhibits the traits of life (i.e. human) b. Nonliving means that the organism was never living and did not exhibit the traits of life (i.e. rock) c. Once living means that the organism was at one point living and now is not (i.e. dead fish)

4. List the 5 “Wants”. a. W” is for Water – An organism can survive several weeks without food but only a few days without water b. “A” is for air – All organisms require some sort of gas for survival – oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen etc c. “N” is for Nutrients – Every living thing must be able to obtain nutrients (food). d. “T” is for Temperature – All organisms have a comfortable temperature they live in. e. “S” is for Space – All organisms have a particular space they need for survival.

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5. Compare/contrast organic and inorganic compounds. a. Organic compounds – Organic compounds contain carbon and are found in all living things

b. Inorganic Compounds – compounds that do NOT contain carbon 6. What are the two major inorganic compounds?

a. 1. ATP b. 2. Water

7. Explain why water is important and define cohesion, adhesion. Also give an example of each. a. Water is important because:

i. 70% of your body is water ii. Body’s cells are filled with water

iii. Most cellular events must take place in water iv. Water helps nutrients move in and out of cells

b. Cohesion:

i. Attraction between molecules of the same substance

1. water is attracted to itself 2. causes surface tension

ii. Example: water bug resting on the surface of the water without falling through c. Adhesion:

i. Attraction between molecules of different substances 1. water has an attraction to other polar molecules

ii. ex: Capillary action – allows the tops of plants to get water from the soil 8. Why is water important to the human body?

a. 70% of your body is water b. Body’s cells are filled with water c. Most cellular events must take place in water d. Water helps nutrients move in and out of cells

9. Water is called the universal solvent, what does this mean? a. It can dissolve most substances b. Most other polar substances (substances with a charge) are dissolved easily in water

10. What is a compound and give 2 examples. a. A compound has two different types of elements bonded together b. Water (H2O – has hydrogen and oxygen bonded together) c. Carbon dioxide (CO2 – has carbon and oxygen bonded together)

11. What is an element? Give 2 examples. a. An element is made up of only one kind of atom. This is the simplest building block of chemistry. b. Find them located on the periodic table c. Carbon, hydrogen, etc.

12. What are the major organic compounds? a. Carbohydrates b. Lipids c. Proteins d. Nucleic acids

13. Explain the main points of the following: carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, and ATP. What is the function for each of these?

a. Carbohydrates: i. Building blocks

1. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 ratio ii. Function

1. Simple sugars provide energy to the organism iii. Monomer is monosaccharide which is the simplest type of sugar

1. Examples of Monomers: a. Glucose

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b. Fructose iv. Disaccharides = 2 monosaccharides

1. Sucrose is known as common table sugar. 2. Composed of glucose and fructose 3. Lactose is a sugar found mostly in milk. 4. Composed of glucose and galactose. 5. Comprises between 2-8% of milk.

v. Polymer = Polysaccharide 1. Cellulose in plants 2. Starch and glycogen in animals

b. Lipids: i. H and C chains, small amount of O

ii. Hydrophobic iii. Combination of fatty acids & glycerol iv. Monomers

1. Fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated) v. Function

1. Store energy & makes hormones 2. Insulation 3. Maintaining cell membrane

vi. There are 4 types of lipids 1. Triglycerides – fat used for energy 2. Phospholipids – main component of the cell membrane 3. Steroids – carbon rings that are used for signaling (includes sex hormones and cholesterol) 4. Wax – used as protection

vii. Saturated fats – Fatty acids with a single carbon-to-carbon bond (solid at room temperature) viii. Unsaturated fats – Fatty acids with the carbon-to-carbon bonds being double or even triple (liquid

at room temperature) c. Proteins:

i. Monomer 1. Amino Acids (there are 20 common)

ii. Polymer 1. Polypeptide (many amino acids connected by peptide bonds)

iii. Functions: 1. Carrying out chemical reactions, transporting oxygen, immunity, building living material 2. Includes all enzymes

iv. Examples 1. Hair, fingernails, muscle, kidney beans, hemoglobin

d. Nucleic acids: i. Building blocks

1. Nucleotides (1 nitrogen base, 1 sugar, 1 phosphate group) ii. Examples

1. DNA – sugar is deoxyribose 2. RNA – sugar is ribose

iii. Function 1. Contains instructions used to form an organisms enzymes and proteins & helps aid in

reproduction of the cell 14. What is a carbohydrate made out of?

a. Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) in a 1:2:1 ratio b. EX: CH2O or C2H4O2

15. What is a lipid made out of? a. H and C chains, small amount of O b. Combination of fatty acids & glycerol

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16. What is a protein made out of (what are the building blocks)? a. building blocks are amino acids like glycine and alanine to produce polypeptides like transport proteins in

the cell 17. What is a nucleic acid made out of?

a. Nucleotides (1 nitrogen base, 1 sugar, 1 phosphate group) 18. _____________ and _________________ are the major nucleic acids present in nature.

a. DNA and RNA 19. Explain what an enzyme is and define catalyst.

a. Enzyme: proteins that speed up the rate of chemical reactions that take place in cells b. A catalyst is a change in the rate of a chemical reaction but is not consumed by the reaction itself.

i. Positive catalysts – speed up the rate of the reaction ii. Negative catalysts or inhibitors – slow down the rate of the reaction

20. Why are enzymes important? a. Without enzymes, chemical reactions would not occur fast enough to sustain life.

21. List the 2 factors that affect enzymes in cells. a. Temperature b. pH

i. Enzymes only operate within certain ranges of temperature and pH – enzymes not in optimum range will slow down or stop functioning

22. Other information – lab write-ups. What is the difference between an independent and dependent variable? a. Independent – the variable you control and change b. Dependent – the variable you are observing or looking for, you DO NOT change the dependent, you observe

it to see what your independent variable does to the dependent 23. When making a data table which variable should always be in the first column?

a. The independent variable 24. When graphing, which variable goes on the x axis and which one goes on the y axis?

a. X-axis = independent variable b. Y-axis = dependent variable

25. What are the properties of water that make it an important molecule for life? (in your inorganic chemistry notes) a. _water is polar_______________________

i. Polar Molecules – molecule with an unequal distribution of charge ( has a positive end and a negative end) – similar to a magnet

ii. O and H unevenly share the electrons b. _Water Resists Temperature Change_________________________

i. Water requires more energy to increase its temperature than other liquids ii. Water loses a lot of energy when it cools

iii. Helps prevent large temperature changes in organisms c. __Water Expands When it Freezes___________________________

i. Ice is less dense than water (ice floats on water) ii. Bottoms of lakes and ponds won’t freeze

d. __ Water is a “Universal Solvent”___________________________ i. Most other polar substances are dissolved easily in water

Section 2: Cells

1. What is a cell? What is an organelle? What is a tissue? What is an organ? What is an organ system? What is an organism?

A. Cell i. the basic unit of organization of organisms

B. Organelle i. “Tiny organs”

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ii. Specialized internal structures within eukaryotic cells that carry out specific functions C. Tissue

i. A group of cells in an organism that have similar structure and function D. Organ

i. A group of tissues that perform a specific function or group of functions E. Organ system

i. A group of organs that perform a specific function or group of functions F. Organism

i. A group of organ systems that perform a specific function or group of functions 2. Rank the items from #1 in order of smallest to largest (simplest to most complex)

A. Cell → tissue → organ →organ system → organism 3. What are the two basic types of cells?

A. Eukaryotic and prokaryotic 4. Why are cells typically small?

A. Cell size needs to be small to get materials in and out of the cell B. Nutrients must get into the cell rapidly to supply needs C. Waste must be removed quickly so it does not build up and harm the cell D. Cell size is limited by surface area to volume ratio E. materials pass through cell membrane that covers the cell (surface)

i. the more surface area, the more materials can be exchanged with the environment ii. the smaller an object is, the larger the surface area it has

F. if cells are small, they have a high surface area to volume ratio (all parts of the cell are close to external environment)

G. If cells are large, surface area to volume ratio is small (many parts of the cell are farther away from the environment)

5. What is a prokaryote cell? What is an example of one? A. lack internal membrane-bound organelles B. smaller C. only includes bacteria D. only unicellular

6. What is a eukaryote cell? What is an example of one? A. contain membrane-bound organelles B. larger C. can be multicellular D. animals, plants, fungi, protists

7. What are the two main types of eukaryotic cells? A. Plant B. Animal

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8. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities between a prokaryote and eukaryote cell.

Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell

Nucleus: Present Absent

Number of

chromosomes:

More than one One--but not true chromosome: Plasmids

Cell Type: Usually multicellular Usually unicellular (some cyanobacteria

may be multicellular)

True Membrane bound

Nucleus:

Present Absent

Example: Animals and Plants Bacteria and Archaea

Genetic

Recombination:

Meiosis and fusion of gametes Partial, undirectional transfers DNA

Lysosomes and

peroxisomes:

Present Absent

Microtubules: Present Absent or rare

Endoplasmic

reticulum:

Present Absent

Mitochondria: Present Absent

Cytoskeleton: Present May be absent

DNA wrapping on

proteins.:

Eukaryotes wrap their DNA around proteins

called histones.

Multiple proteins act together to fold and

condense prokaryotic DNA. Folded DNA is

then organized into a variety of

conformations that are supercoiled and

wound around tetramers of the HU protein.

Ribosomes: larger smaller

Vesicles: Present Present

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Eukaryotic Cell Prokaryotic Cell

Golgi apparatus: Present Absent

Chloroplasts: Present (in plants) Absent; chlorophyll scattered in the

cytoplasm

Flagella: Microscopic in size; membrane bound;

usually arranged as nine doublets

surrounding two singlets

Submicroscopic in size, composed of only

one fiber

Permeability of Nuclear

Membrane:

Selective not present

Plasma membrane with

steriod:

Yes Usually no

Cell wall: Only in plant cells and fungi (chemically

simpler)

Usually chemically complexed

Vacuoles: Present Present

Cell size: 10-100um 1-10um

9. What is an organelle?

A. “Tiny organs” B. Specialized internal structures within eukaryotic cells that carry out specific functions

10. What types of organelles are in a plant cell? What types are in an animal cell? A. Plant:

i. cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell, but is inside the cell wall. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.

ii. cell wall - a thick, rigid membrane that surrounds a plant cell. This layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most of its support and structure. The cell wall also bonds with other cell walls to form the structure of the plant.

iii. centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. Unlike the centrosomes in animal cells, plant cell centrosomes do not have centrioles.

iv. chlorophyll - chlorophyll is a molecule that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide gas into sugar and oxygen (this process is called photosynthesis). Chlorophyll is magnesium based and is usually green.

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v. chloroplast - an elongated or disc-shaped organelle containing chlorophyll. Photosynthesis (in which energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy - food) takes place in the chloroplasts.

vi. christae - (singular crista) the multiply-folded inner membrane of a cell's mitochondrion that are finger-like projections. The walls of the cristae are the site of the cell's energy production (it is where ATP is generated).

vii. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located. viii. Golgi body - (also called the golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like

organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. The golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

ix. granum - (plural grana) A stack of thylakoid disks within the chloroplast is called a granum. x. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner

membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.

xi. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus. xii. nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced.

xiii. nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane

xiv. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.

xv. rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transport materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).

xvi. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transport materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body and membranes

xvii. stroma - part of the chloroplasts in plant cells, located within the inner membrane of chloroplasts, between the grana.

xviii. thylakoid disk - thylakoid disks are disk-shaped membrane structures in chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are made up of stacks of thylakoid disks; a stack of thylakoid disks is called a granum. Photosynthesis (the production of ATP molecules from sunlight) takes place on thylakoid disks.

xix. vacuole - a large, membrane-bound space within a plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most plant cells have a single vacuole that takes up much of the cell. It helps maintain the shape of the cell.

B. Animals: i. cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is

semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others. ii. centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the

nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the dense center of the centrosome.

iii. cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located. iv. Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like

organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

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v. lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.

vi. mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.

vii. nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus. viii. nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells

have more than one nucleolus. ix. nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus

controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

x. ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.

xi. rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).

xii. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, lysosomes, and membranes.

xiii. vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.

C. Plants have a cell wall, chlorophyll, and chloroplasts while animal cells do not D. Animals have centrioles while plant cells do not

11. What is the cell wall made of? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. made of cellulose with small openings B. encloses the cell

i. gives cell shape and protection C. Found in plant cells but NOT found in animal cells

12. What is the cell membrane made of? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. made of 2 layers of lipids with proteins embedded in it B. separates the inside of the cell from the outside

i. Selectively Permeable – only allows certain substances to enter or leave the cell C. in both plants and animal cells

13. What is the nucleus? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. Round, membrane-bound – largest organelle B. Controls most functions of the cell (growth, metabolism, reproduction)

i. Contains the DNA C. Found in both plant and animal cells

14. What are nucleoli (nucleolus)? Where is it located? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. located inside the nucleus B. made of DNA, RNA, and protein C. makes ribosomes D. found in both plant and animal cells

15. What are chromosomes? Where are they located? What is their function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle?

A. not a true organelle but found inside the nucleoli B. long, thin threads made of chromatin

Name:

C. contain DNA and RNA D. found in both plant and animal cells

16. What is the cytoplasm? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. jelly-like fluid that fills the cell B. holds organelles in place C. made of water and minerals important for the cells survival D. found in both plant and animal cells

17. What are ribosomes? What are their functions? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. small dots of protein with no membrane B. found on membrane of endoplasmic reticulum or in the cytoplasm C. make proteins using instructions found on DNA D. found in all cells (including bacteria)

18. What are lysosomes? What are their functions? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. small sacs that contain digestive enzymes B. gets rid of waste in the cell C. found in both plant and animal cells

19. What are centrioles? What are their functions? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. pair of cylinder shaped structures (bundles of microtubules) B. found near the nucleus of animal cells C. Not found in plant cells D. allows the cell to divide

20. What is a mitochondria? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. found in highest concentrations in muscles B. round with a double membrane folded inside C. releases energy from the cell

i. acts as the “power house” D. found in both plant and animal cells

21. What are chloroplasts? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. found in plant cells; NOT found in animal cells B. contain green pigment chlorophyll

i. (what makes plants green) C. site of photosynthesis

22. What are cilia? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. short, hair-like organelles

i. (usually many of them) B. Used for movement or protection

i. brushes mucus, dust and dirt to the back of the throat, they filter the air to make it safe.

C. Found in eukaryotic cells

23. What are flagella? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. long, whip-like structure

i. (usually 1-3) B. Used for movement C. Found in eukaryotic cells

24. What are vacuoles? What is its function? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. Used to store food, water, and waste B. Found in both plant and animal cells C. Larger in plant cells because must store large amounts of water.

25. What are microtubules? What are their functions? What type(s) of cell has this organelle? A. Rods used for support and shape for the cell B. Found in both plant and animal cells

26. Why are plant cells typically green? A. contain green pigment chlorophyll - (what makes plants green)

Name:

27. In the circles, draw a typical animal AND plant cell labeling all the following terms (if applicable).

Cell Membrane Cell Wall Mitochondria

Chloroplast Nucleus

Cytoplasm Golgi apparatus

Name:

28. Define the following: homeostasis, osmosis, diffusion, active transport, passive transport, equilibrium, isotonic, hypotonic, hypertonic, endocytosis, exocytosis, photosynthesis, aerobic respiration, and anaerobic respiration.

A. Homeostasis: The ability of a cell to maintain a stable, internal environment.

i. Without precise control of things moving in and out, the cell would shrivel or pop! B. Osmosis: The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

i. A type of passive transport C. Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low

concentration. i. A type of passive transport

D. Active transport: i. Uses energy to move substances across the cell membrane

ii. Moves materials against the concentration gradient 1. - materials move from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration

E. Passive Transport: The movement of molecules in or out of a cell that requires no cellular energy. i. Materials move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

F. Equilibrium: The desire or ability to be equal. i. Example: The cell’s internal environment should be the same as the outside environment.

ii. The cell will do what it can to maintain this balance. G. Isotonic:

i. The outside and the inside of the cell have the same concentration of a certain molecule. ii. Result: The cell stays the same size and no net movement of water. A small amount of water

will still move. H. Hypotonic:

i. When there is a higher concentration of molecules on the inside of the cell. ii. Result: The cell gets larger in size. Water moves inside the cell to “dilute” the molecules. (the

molecules can’t move.) I. Hypertonic:

i. When there is a higher concentration of molecules outside of the cell. ii. Result: The cell gets smaller in size. Water moves out to “dilute” the molecules. (the molecules

can’t move.) J. Endocytosis:

i. materials move into the cell a. cell takes in large particles by engulfing them

K. Exocytosis: i. moving materials out of a cell

b. opposite of endocytosis L. Photosynthesis:

i. a process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and water.

1. Chlorophyll or closely-related pigments (substances that color the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.

M. Aerobic respiration: i. A form of cellular respiration that occurs when oxygen is abundant

N. Anaerobic respiration: i. A form of cellular respiration that occurs when oxygen is absent or scarce.

29. What part of the cell allows for the movement of substances in and out of the cell?

A. The permeable cell membrane

30. In terms of isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions: a. Explain what happens to the cell (change in size?) when the molecules can move in/out of the cell.

a. When molecules can move in and out, the cell will not change size due to the environment. The molecules will move from high to low concentration using passive transport

Name:

B. Explain what happens to the cell (change in size?) when the molecules cannot move in/out of the cell. i. when molecules cannot move, the water will either enter or leave the cell depending on the

environment that the cell is placed in 1. if placed in hypertonic – the cell will get smaller in size, Water moves out to “dilute” the

molecules 2. if placed in hypotonic - The cell gets larger in size. Water moves inside the cell to

“dilute” the molecules 3. if placed in isotonic – the cell will remain the same size and there is no net movement of

water 31. If a red blood cell were placed in a hypotonic solution, what would happen?

A. The cell gets larger in size. Water moves inside the cell to “dilute” the molecules 32. If a red blood cell were placed in a hypertonic solution, what would happen?

A. the cell will get smaller in size, Water moves out to “dilute” the molecules 33. Little Billy purchased a freshwater fish from the pet store and then absent-mindedly placed the fresh water fish

in a saltwater fish tank. What will happen to the fishes’ cells?

A. The fresh water fish’s cells would lose water

B. This is a hypertonic solution:

i. When there is a higher concentration of molecules outside of the cell. ii. Result: The cell gets smaller in size. Water moves out to “dilute” the molecules. (the molecules

can’t move.) 34. If a saltwater fish was placed in a freshwater tank, explain what would happen to the cells in terms of osmosis

and the 3 types of solutions. Also tell if the size of the cells would change. A. The salt water fish’s cells would take in water B. This is a Hypotonic solution:

i. When there is a higher concentration of molecules on the inside of the cell. ii. Result: The cell gets larger in size. Water moves inside the cell to “dilute” the molecules. (the

molecules can’t move.) 35. What would happen if you put a fresh water plant in salt water? Which solution type is this?

A. The fresh water plant would lose water

B. This is a hypertonic solution:

i. When there is a higher concentration of molecules outside of the cell. ii. Result: The cell gets smaller in size. Water moves out to “dilute” the molecules. (the molecules

can’t move.) 36. What would happen if you put a salt water plant in fresh water? Which solution type is this?

A. The salt water plant would take in water B. This is a Hypotonic solution:

a. When there is a higher concentration of molecules on the inside of the cell. b. Result: The cell gets larger in size. Water moves inside the cell to “dilute” the molecules. (the molecules

can’t move.) 37. When cells are placed in hypertonic and hypotonic solutions, ________ enters or leaves the cell to equalize the

solutions inside and outside of the cell.

A. water

38. Why is water important for cells?

A. Body’s cells are filled with water B. Most cellular events must take place in water C. Water helps nutrients move in and out of cells D. Water can move to reach homeostasis with the environment

39. What is the different between passive transport and active transport? A. Passive Transport: The movement of molecules in or out of a cell that requires no cellular energy.

i. Moves materials along the concentration gradient

Name:

1. Moves the materials from an area of high concentration to low concentration B. Active transport:

i. Uses energy to move substances across the cell membrane ii. Moves materials against the concentration gradient

1. Materials move from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration 40. What are the two types of passive transport?

A. Osmosis: The movement of water from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration i. A type of passive transport

B. Diffusion: The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

i. A type of passive transport 41. What are the three types of active transport?

A. 1. Cell Membrane pumps i. Ex: Sodium Potassium Pump - the cell pumps out 3 sodium ions and takes in 2 potassium ions.

B. 2. Endocytosis – materials move into the cell i. cell takes in large particles by engulfing them

C. 3. Exocytosis – moving materials out of a cell i. opposite of endocytosis

42. Fill in the blanks for the following pictures of the special cases of osmosis.

43. What is photosynthesis? Why is it important to plants? Why is it important to humans? What is the equation for photosynthesis?

A. a process in which plants convert sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into food energy (sugars and starches), oxygen and water.

i. Chlorophyll or closely-related pigments (substances that color the plant) are essential to the photosynthetic process.

B. Process plants use to produce sugar and oxygen from sunlight C. Sugars are turned into carbohydrates to be stored

Name:

D. Plants need photosynthesis to make energy to survive E. Humans need plants to do photosynthesis so that we have oxygen to survive and so that the carbon

dioxide that we exhale is removed from the atmosphere F. 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

44. List all of the reactants (what the plant uses) and products (what is created) involved in photosynthesis A. The plant uses carbon dioxide and water B. The plants produce sugar (glucose) and oxygen

45. What is cellular respiration? Why is it important to plants? Why is it important to humans? What is the equation for cellular respiration? What type of cells do cellular respiration?

A. How cells break down the pyruvic acid from glycolysis B. Happens in the mitochondria for eukaryotes C. For prokaryotic cells this happens in the cytoplasm D. This process produces carbon dioxide which the plants need for photosynthesis to make energy E. Humans need this process to break down sugar for energy

i. Energy is released from glucose, then packaged and stored in ATP molecules ii. ATP = Adenosine Triphosphate

F. 6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O 46. Explain the connection and interdependence between photosynthesis and cellular respiration (aerobic only).

A. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are opposites of each other 47. List all of the reactants (what the plant uses) and products (what is created) involved in cellular respiration

(aerobic only) A. The plant uses oxygen and sugar B. The plant produces carbon dioxide and water

48. What process is “B”? What organelle would be placed in “B”?

A. Photosynthesis

B. chloroplasts

49. What process is “A”? What organelle would be placed in “A”?

A. Cellular respiration

B. mitochondria

CO2 + H2O

C6H12O6 + O2

B A

Name:

Carbon Dioxide is a by-product of fermentation, Yeast and molasses were placed in an inverted test tube and

the amount of CO2 produced by the yeast was measured. The following data table represents the data

collected.

010203040506070

0 2 4 6 8 10

Co

2 P

rod

uc

tio

n (

mL

/s)

Molasses Concentration (g/dL)

Fermentation & Sugar Concentration

50. What is the relationship between molasses (sugar) concentration and fermentation rate?

A. There is no relationship between sugar concentration and fermentation rate. B. As the sugar concentration increases the fermentation rate increases, up to a certain point, then rapidly

decreases. C. As the sugar concentration increases the fermentation rate decreases, up to a certain point, then

rapidly decreases. D. As the sugar concentration increases the fermentation rate increases continually.

51. At what wavelength does chlorophyll A have the highest absorption rate? Chlorophyll B? A. A absorbs around 720 nm and 400 nm B. B absorbs around 550 nm

Section 3: Mendelian Genetics

1. What is the hereditary material in the cell, and where is it located? a. DNA b. Stored as chromosomes in the nucleus

Name:

2. Define: Mitosis, Cytokinesis, Daughter cells, Chromosomes, Chromatin, Centromere, Chromatid, sister chromatids

a. Mitosis i. The division of the nucleus during cell division

b. Cytokinesis i. Division of the cytoplasm with telophase

c. Daughter cells i. The cells produced after mitosis or meiosis

d. Chromosomes i. not a true organelle but found inside the nucleoli

ii. long, thin threads made of chromatin iii. contain DNA and RNA iv. found in both plant and animal cells v. Combination of DNA and proteins

vi. When the DNA is unorganized (not in chromosome form) it is called chromatin vii. After duplication a chromosome is made of two chromatids

e. Chromatin i. Mass of genetic material composed of DNA and proteins that condense to form chromosomes

during eukaryotic cell division. ii. Chromatin is located in the nucleus of a cell iii. All the DNA in the nucleus is normally in a big tangle called chromatin

f. Centromere i. Holds the two chromatids together

1. A chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

2. During cell division, the identical copies are joined together at the region of the

chromosome called the centromere.

3. They are known as sister chromatids.

4. Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another in anaphase of mitosis,

each is known as a daughter chromosome.

g. Chromatid i. A chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

ii. During cell division, the identical copies are joined together at the region of the chromosome

called the centromere.

iii. They are known as sister chromatids.

iv. Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another in anaphase of mitosis, each is

known as a daughter chromosome.

h. Sister chromatid i. A chromatid is one-half of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome.

ii. During cell division, the identical copies are joined together at the region of the chromosome

called the centromere.

iii. They are known as sister chromatids.

iv. Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another in anaphase of mitosis, each is

known as a daughter chromosome.

3. How many of the following are there in mitosis: phases, daughter cells, chromosomes at the start of mitosis, chromosomes in each cell at the end of mitosis.

a. Phases: i. there are technically four phases (Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase)

1. Interphase (not really considered a phase, but this occurs before mitosis), prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and then cytokinesis (not really considered a phase but this has to happen to end mitosis)

Name:

b. Daughter cells: i. Two identical daughter cells are produced at the end of mitosis

c. Chromosomes at the start of mitosis: i. 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes

d. Chromosomes at the end of mitosis: i. 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes

4. What are the phases in mitosis? And explain what happens in each phase. a. Prophase

i. Nuclear envelope breaks down ii. Centrosomes move to opposite sides of cell

b. Metaphase i. All the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell

ii. Does not last a long time c. Anaphase

i. Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides of the cell d. Telophase

i. The chromosomes loosen up into a tangle ii. Nuclear membrane forms again

iii. Spindle breaks down e. Cytokinesis

i. Division of the cytoplasm with telophase ii. Animal cells split at a cleavage furrow and plant cells split using a cell plate

5. When you receive a cut on your arm, what cell division process bridges the gap in your cut (would your arm use

mitosis or meiosis)? a. Your cells would use mitosis to create identical cells to replace the damaged cells

6. In what phase of mitosis would mutations occur? Why? a. Mutations would occur in interphase before mitosis starts because this is when the DNA is elongated

and replicating 7. How many daughter cells are produced at the end of mitosis? How many chromosomes do they have?

a. There are two identical daughter cells produced at the end of mitosis b. 23 pairs or 46 chromosomes

Name:

8. Define: Meiosis, homologous chromosomes, tetrads, gametes, haploid, diploid, sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction

a. Meiosis i. A process similar to mitosis except that the result is 4 cells that have 1/2 the amount of

chromosomes (haploid) ii. Only happening for the gametes!

iii. Includes meiosis I and II b. Homologous chromosomes

i. Two copies of each autosome ii. Contain the exact same genes

iii. One from each parent c. Tetrads

i. A tetrad is a group of four chromosomes (2 sets of sister chromatids) that come together during sexual reproduction.

ii. Crossing-over occurs at the level of the tetrad. d. Gametes

i. Cells produced by meiosis ii. Sex cells (sperm and egg)

e. Haploid i. One set of chromosomes

ii. Sex cells that are used for reproduction (gametes) f. Diploid

i. Both chromosomes for each homologous pair ii. All normal cells except sex cells (also known as somatic cells)

g. Sexual reproduction i. Offspring from union of 2 haploid cells

ii. Allows for variation from parents h. Asexual reproduction

i. Production of offspring from one parent ii. Genetically identical to parent

9. What are the phases of meiosis? And explain what happens in each phase. a. Meiosis I

i. Stage names are the same as mitosis ii. Divides Homologous chromosomes

iii. Result is 2 cells with 2 identical copies of each chromosomes b. Meiosis II

i. Second half of meiosis that results in 4 haploid cells ii. Divides sister chromatids

c. Prophase I i. Nuclear membrane breaks down

ii. Spindle fibers get ready iii. Chromosomes condense iv. Homologous chromosomes pair up

d. Metaphase I i. Spindle fibers move the homologous chromosomes to the middle of the cell

e. Anaphase I i. The paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other to opposite sides of the cell

ii. The sister chromatids are still attached together f. Telophase I

i. Spindle fibers break down and cytokinesis happens ii. Result: 2 cells

g. Prophase II i. The centrosomes move to opposite sides of the cell

Name:

ii. Spindle fibers assemble h. Metaphase II

i. Spindle fibers move the chromosomes to the equator of the cell

i. Anaphase II i. Sister chromatids are pulled apart and moved to

opposite sides of the cell j. Telophase II

i. Nuclear membrane starts to form around the chromosomes again

ii. Spindle fibers break down iii. Cytokinesis happens iv. Result is 4 haploid cells

10. How many daughter cells are produced at the end of meiosis? How many chromosomes do they have?

a. Four daughter cells are produced at the end of meiosis b. These daughter cells are NOT genetically identical c. The cells are haploid, meaning they only have half the

number of chromosomes that they started with d. For humans, meiosis starts with 46 chromosomes and each e. cell ends with 23 chromosomes

11. How many chromosomes does a human normally have? a. A human has 46 chromosomes in their somatic cells (not

sex cells) b. A human has 23 chromosomes in their sex cells

12. After meiosis, how many chromosomes does each gamete receive? a. Each gamete receives 23 chromosomes

13. What is spermatogenesis? a. The process of making the haploid cell from meiosis into a

sperm cell in the male. b. Sperm will contribute just DNA to the embryo

14. What is oogenesis? a. The process of making the haploid cell from meiosis into an egg cell in the female b. The splitting of cytoplasm is uneven during cytokinesis so only one egg is useful.

i. The other 3 cells are called polar bodies 15. Are all four of the egg cells and sperm cells produced at the end of meiosis genetically identical? Why or why

not? a. No, they are not identical to each other b. Since they are only receiving half of the chromosomes, they will have different chromosomes from each

other 16. Is mitosis asexual or sexual? Is meiosis asexual or sexual?

a. Mitosis is considered asexual b. Meiosis is considered sexual

17. Explain why genetically sexual reproduction is advantageous over asexual reproduction. a. Asexual reproduction results in the parent organism passing on its exact genetic material to its offspring.

As a result, there is no change in genetic material and no adaptation to the surroundings. In a stable environment, this is fine, since there is no need to adapt.

b. In a changing environment, there is a need to adapt to one's surroundings, which is why sexual reproduction is best. There is input from two parent organisms, and therefore a genetically unique offspring is produced, with a mixture of both parents' genes.

18. Which process increases genetic diversity: Meiosis or Mitosis? EXPLAIN YOUR ANSWER! a. Meiosis increases genetic diversity because the cells produces are not identical to each other b. Also because the cells are haploid and most combine with another gamete to create a zygote

Name:

19. Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

Meiosis Mitosis

Definition: A type of cellular reproduction in which the

number of chromosomes are reduced by

half through the separation of homologous

chromosomes, producing two haploid cells.

A process of asexual reproduction in which

the cell divides in two producing a replica,

with an equal number of chromosomes in

each resulting diploid cell.

Function: sexual reproduction Cellular Reproduction & general growth and

repair of the body

Type of Reproduction: Sexual Asexual

Occurs in: Humans, animals, plants, fungi all organisms

Genetically: different identical

Crossing Over: Yes, mixing of chromosomes can occur. No, crossing over cannot occur.

Pairing of

Homologues:

Yes No

Number of Divisions: 2 1

Number of Haploid

Daughter Cells

produced:

4 2

Chromosome Number: Reduced by half Remains the same

Steps: The steps of meiosis are Interphase,

Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I,

Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II,

Anaphase II and Telophase II.

The steps of mitosis are Interphase,

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,

Telophase and Cytokinesis

Karyokenesis: Occurs in Interphase I Occurs in Interphase

Cytokinesis: Occurs in Telophase I & Telophase II Occurs in Telophase

Centromeres Split: The centromeres do not separate during

anaphase I, but during anaphase II

The centromeres split during Anaphase

Name:

Meiosis Mitosis

Creates: Sex cells only: Female egg cells or Male

sperm cells

Makes everything other than sex cells

Discovered by: Oscar Hertwig Walther Flemming

20. With mitosis, the parent and daughter cells are __identical__ to each other. With meiosis, the parent and

daughter cells are __not identical_______________________ to each other.

21. (Circle one of the answers) Meiosis produces 4 haploid/diploid cells and mitosis produces 2 haploid/diploid cells.

22. How similar are daughter cells to parental cells after mitosis? _they are identical_________________________

23. If an alligator has 32 chromosomes in their non-sex cells how many chromosomes will be found in the gametes of the alligator?

a. Since sex cells are haploid, the sex cells would have half of the amount of the other cells b. The other cells have 32; so the sex cells will have 32/2 = 16 chromosomes

24. What is the diploid number for humans? ___45_____________________ 25. What is the haploid number of humans? __23______________________ 26. How many chromosomes are found in a human sperm cell? _______________

a. Since the sperm cell is haploid, it would have 23 27. Mitosis produces:_______________________________ (type of cells)

a. All cells except sex cells

b. Autosomal chromosome cells

c. Somatic cells

28. Meiosis produces:______________________________(type of cells)

a. Gametes

b. Sex cells

c. Sperm and egg

29. Define the following: genotype, phenotype, dominant, recessive, homozygous recessive, homozygous dominant, Heterozygous dominant, punnett squares, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, co-dominant, sex-linked traits.

a. Genotype i. Genetics of the organism

ii. Represented by the letters iii. (ex: RR, Rr, or rr)

b. Phenotype i. Physical appearance of the organism

ii. What you see iii. (ex: Red hair)

c. Dominant i. Represented by capital letter

ii. Trait that can mask (or cover) other traits 1. Example: Detached earlobes and brown eyes

iii. Trait that is expressed 1. Has at least 1 capital letter

a. Example: BB or Bb d. Recessive

i. Represented by lower case letter ii. Trait that can be masked by another trait.

Name:

1. Example: Blue eyes and attached earlobes iii. Both are lower case letters

1. Example: bb e. homozygous recessive

i. (Same) Both letters are the same and are both recessive ii. Example: bb

f. homozygous dominant i. (Same) Both letters are the same and are both dominant

ii. Example: BB g. Heterozygous dominant

i. (Different) Letters are different ii. A recessive allele can be “hiding” behind the dominant trait.

iii. Example: Bb h. punnett squares

i. A Punnett square is a four-square diagram for showing the probabilities of an offspring to inherit a certain pair of alleles from its parents. For example,

ii. ___T_ t__ T | TT| Tt | t | Tt | tt |

iii. The Tt's (representing both parents' genotype) outside the Punnett square tell what the inner four squares will read. The inner squares tell what trait the parents' offspring might have. The Punnett square above shows that the offspring has a 25% chance of inheriting the homozygous dominant trait, 50% chance for heterozygous trait, and 25% for recessive.

i. incomplete dominance i. Form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely

dominant over the other allele. ii. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the

dominant and recessive phenotypes. The dominant letter is not as dominant

iii. Hetero offspring have mixed traits (blending) iv. Ex: Pink flowers and beta fish

j. multiple alleles i. Genes with 3 or more alleles (options)

ii. Examples: ABO Blood Type k. co-dominant

i. A condition in which both alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed, with neither one being dominant or recessive to the other.

ii. Both alleles (letters) are expressed iii. Neither allele is dominant or recessive iv. Ex: red and white cow

l. sex-linked traits i. Sex linkage is the phenotypic expression of an allele related to the chromosomal sex of the

individual. ii. This mode of inheritance is in contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes,

where both sexes have the same probability of inheritance. iii. Since humans have many more genes on the X than the Y, there are many more X-linked traits

than Y-linked traits. 30. What is the difference between a phenotype and a genotype?

a. Genotype i. Genetics of the organism

Name:

ii. Represented by the letters iii. (ex: RR, Rr, or rr)

b. Phenotype i. Physical appearance of the organism

ii. What you see iii. (ex: Red hair)

31. What is the difference between homozygous and heterozygous? a. Homozygous

i. (Same) Both letters are the same ii. Example: BB or bb

b. Heterozygous i. (Different) Letters are different

ii. A recessive allele can be “hiding” behind the dominant trait. iii. Example: Bb

32. What is the difference between homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive?

a. Homozygous dominant

i. Two dominant genes together

ii. Ex: BB

b. Homozygous recessive

i. Two recessive genes together

ii. A recessive allele can be “hiding” behind the dominant trait.

iii. Ex: bb

33. What is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene? a. Dominant

i. Represented by capital letter ii. Trait that can mask (or cover) other traits

iii. Only need one of these genes to phenotypically show the trait b. Recessive

i. Represented by lower case letter ii. Trait that can be masked by another trait.

iii. Must have two of these genes to phenotypically show the trait 34. A cross was performed with purple and white plants, and all the offspring were purple. What is the dominant

allele? a. Since all four of the offspring are purple, the dominant allele must be for Purple (P) b. All of the offspring would get a gene from the purple and white parent, making them heterozygous.

Since they show the purple trait, this is the dominant trait 35. What is the difference between heterozygous and homozygous?

a. Homozygous i. (Same) Both letters are the same

ii. Example: BB or bb b. Heterozygous

i. (Different) Letters are different ii. Example: Bb

36. What is a genotypic ratio? What information does it provide? a. Shows the number ratio of each genotype (letter combination) in a cross b. Hom. Dom.(TT) : Het. (Tt): Hom. Rec.(tt)

1 : 2 : 1 c. 1:2:1 = genotype ratio

Name:

37. What is a phenotypic ratio? What information does it provide? a. Shows the number ratio of each phenotype (physical appearance) in a cross b. Dominant (TT or Tt): Recessive (tt)

3 : 1 c. (There will always be 2 numbers in the phenotypic ratio)

38. What cross between parents will result in an approximate 3 to 1 phenotypic ratio?

a. If the parents are both heterozygous then they will produce three offspring that show the dominant trait

and one that shows the recessive trait

i. ___T_ t__ T | TT| Tt | t | Tt | tt |

b. This gives a 3 dominant to 1 recessive ratio

39. What cross between parents will result in an approximate 1:2:1 genotypic ratio?

a. If the parents are both heterozygous then they will produce one homozygous dominant, two

heterozygous, and one homozygous recessive offspring

i. ___T_ t__ T | TT| Tt | t | Tt | tt |

b. This gives a 1 homozygous dominant to 2 heterozygous to 1 homozygous recessive ratio

40. Will the dominant or recessive trait be expressed in a heterozygous individual?

a. Since they are heterozygous they have one dominant and one recessive trait

b. The dominant trait will be expressed

41. If two heterozygous parents were crossed, what is the probability of having a child who expresses the recessive

trait? Dominant trait? (SHOW YOUR WORK)

a. ___T_ t__ T | TT| Tt | t | Tt | tt |

b. There is a 25% chance that a child would express the recessive trait

42. A punnett square is done for a couple showing that 3 offspring will have brown hair and one will have blonde

hair, if the couple has four children, will three of them have brown hair and one have blonde? Why?

a. No, the punnett square shows the possible genotypes of the children

b. There is always a chance of getting the other genotypes

c. Just because three children have brown hair, doesn’t mean that the fourth one will be blonde. That

child still has the chance of being a brunette

43. Practice heredity problems: F = fat nose f = slim nose D = no Hemophilia d = Hemophilia E = sticky ear wax e = moist ear wax

a. Cross a homozygous sticky ear wax person with a heterozygous person.

- means that we are crossing a person with EE with a person with Ee

a. ___E_ e__ E | EE| Ee | E | EE | Ee |

1) give genotype ratio: 2:2:0 (2 homozygous dominant: 2 heterozygous: 0 homozygous recessive) 2) give phenotype ratio: 4:0 (4 with the dominant trait: 0 with the recessive trait)

b. Give the genotype(s) for a fat nose person. 1) Could be FF or Ff depending on if they are homozygous or heterozygous

Name:

c. What could you do to determine if the fat nose person is homo. dominant or hetero.? 1) Do a test cross

i. Have them reproduce with a homozygous recessive and see if they produce any offspring with the recessive trait

1. A homozygous dominant individual will only be able to pass on the dominant gene, so all four of their possible offspring genotypes are dominant for fat noses

2. A heterozygous individual could have offspring with the recessive trait d. How can 2 people with fat noses produce a slim nose kid?

1) If they are both heterozygous, there is a 25% chance that they will have an offspring with a slim nose, the recessive trait

e. If you cross two heterozygous people for sticky ear wax together, and they have 100 kids, how many will have sticky ear wax?

1) According to the punnett square, 75% should have sticky ear wax and 25% will have moist ear wax (so 75 and 25)

2) But remember that the punnett square gives the probability of offspring having these traits. We cannot guarantee that 75 will have sticky ear wax and 25 will have moist

f. Cross a male with Hemophilia with a carrier female. What are the phenotypic results of the cross? 1) 1 girl has hemophilia and 1 girl is a carrier for hemophilia but does not show the trait 2) 1 boy has hemophilia and 1 boy does not 3) Phenotypically: 2 have hemophilia: 1 is a carrier: 1 does not have it

g. A phenotypically normal “no Hemophilia” man marries a homozygous no Hemophilia woman. What percentage of their kids could have Hemophilia?

1) 0% of their children can have hemophilia 2) If neither of the parents have the trait, since the dad does not have it and the mom is not the

carrier), then none of the kids can get hemophilia h. A blue alien mates with a red alien and all of their offspring are purple.

1) show the cross in a punnett square: i. ___R_ R__

B | BR| BR | B | BR | BR |

2) Explain how this happened. What is this an example of? i. The offspring received a blending of the traits of the parents

ii. This is an example of incomplete dominance i. A couple has 9 kids – 8 boys and 1 girl. What is the probability that their next child will be a girl?

1) It is still a 50% chance that their next child will be a girl 2) The offspring gender chance is not related to each other, just because one was a boy does not mean

that the next one will be a girl j. Carol and Mike have brown hair. They have 3 kids: Marsha who is blonde, Greg and Bobby who are both

brunette. Marsha married Fred who has brown hair. They have 2 kids: Sally who is blonde and Cindy who is a brunette. Make a pedigree for brown hair.

Black means that the person has the trait – in this pedigree that is brown hair

Name:

44. Is it possible for a person to be both heterozygous and recessive at the same time? Explain your answer.

a. No.

b. When a person is heterozygous, they have a dominant and a recessive gene. The dominant gene is

displayed. The person cannot be recessive unless they are homozygous recessive.

45. Can males be carriers for sex-linked traits? Why?

a. No

b. If they have one of the traits, there is no other X chromosome to mask it, so they display the trait

46. Why do more men have the traits that are linked to sex-chromosomes than females? Why is it easier for men to have x-linked traits?

a. Some traits are only on the X chromosome

b. If a male has a recessive trait on this chromosome, there is no other X chromosome to cover it.

c. All of a male’s sex-linked genes are expressed.

47. Why would it be difficult for a female to be colorblind? a. It is more difficult for females to exhibit sex-linked traits because they have two X chromosomes and

they have to have the sex-linked trait on both chromosomes to show the trait

i. Females can be carriers because they have two Xs, if one does not have the sex linked trait, then

the female is a carrier and does not show the trait

48. A normal woman whose father had hemophilia marries a man with hemophilia. What is the probability that they will have a son with hemophilia? A daughter with hemophilia? (SHOW YOUR WORK)

a. The normal woman must be a carrier for hemophilia because the dad had it and could only pass on the trait with the x chromosome

i. This means that she is Xi b. ___Y_ Xi __

X | XY | X Xi | Xi | XiY | Xi Xi |

c. The offspring will be one normal son, one some with hemophilia, one carrier daughter, and one daughter with hemophilia

d. There is a 25% chance that their son will have hemophilia (50% out of the sons) e. There is a 25% chance that their daughter will have hemophilia (50% out of the daughters)

49. What is the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance? Provide an example of both. a. Codominance:

i. A condition in which both alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed, with neither one being dominant or recessive to the other.

ii. Both alleles (letters) are expressed iii. Neither allele is dominant or recessive iv. Ex: red and white cow

b. Incomplete dominance: i. Form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely

dominant over the other allele. ii. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the

dominant and recessive phenotypes. The dominant letter is not as dominant

iii. Hetero offspring have mixed traits (blending) 50. When you cross a red flower and a white flower, the F1 generation is pink. What is this pattern of inheritance

called? a. This type of inheritance is called incomplete dominance

i. Form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely dominant over the other allele.

Name:

ii. This results in a third phenotype in which the expressed physical trait is a combination of the dominant and recessive phenotypes. The dominant letter is not as dominant

iii. Hetero offspring have mixed traits (blending) b. The red parent had the genotype of RR; the white parent had the genotype of WW c. Their offspring all have the genotype of RW = pink

51. If 2 pink flowers from the F1 generation in question 50 were mated, what would be the F2 phenotypic and genotypic ratios?

a. Genotypic: 1 RR: 2 RW: 1 WW (1 Homozygous dominant: 2 heterozygous: 1 homozygous recessive) b. Phenotypic: 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white

52. What are sex chromosomes? Where does an offspring get these? Which parent determines the gender of a child? Why?

a. Chromosomes that determine the individual’s sex i. Examples:

1. Human Male = XY 2. Human Female = XX

b. Offspring get this from the gametes that are fertilized during sexual reproduction c. The mom is able to give an X or X since she only has XX d. The dad is able to give an X or Y chromosome since he has XY e. This means that the Y chromosome came from the sperm and that the father is always the determining

individual with the gender of offspring i. If he gives a Y, then the offspring will be a boy

ii. If he gives an X, then the offspring will be a girl 53. If two parents had a boy, did the boy get the Y chromosome from the egg or sperm?

a. The mom is able to give an X or X since she only has XX b. The dad is able to give an X or Y chromosome since he has XY c. This means that the Y chromosome came from the sperm and that the father is always the determining

individual with the gender of offspring i. If he gives a Y, then the offspring will be a boy

ii. If he gives an X, then the offspring will be a girl

Section 4: Molecular Genetics

1. What type of nucleic acid carries the genetic code from generation to generation?

A. DNA

2. What is DNA? Where is DNA stored in eukaryotic cells?

A. Deoxyribonucleic acid, genetic material stored in the nucleus of the eukaryote

3. What are the three major parts to DNA?

A. Phosphate group, sugar (deoxyribose) and nitrogen base

4. What is a nucleotide?

A. Building block of DNA made of a phosphate group, nitrogen base and sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)

5. What are the four major nitrogen bases in DNA?

A. Adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine

6. Who are the major scientists that studied DNA? Who determined the shape of DNA? Know who they are and what they discovered. A. Watson and Crick discovered the shape. Franklin and Wilkins used X-rays to discover the shape

7. What are the 4 bases involved in DNA. A. Adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine

8. What base letters bond together with DNA?

A. Adenine with thymine and cytosine with guanine

Name:

9. What is a complementary base sequence?

A. The opposite side of the DNA

10. What nitrogenous bases would bind to the following DNA sequence?

T-A-T-G-G-G-C-C-T-A-T-A-A-T-A-A-C-G

A-T-A-C-C-C-G-G-A-T-A-T-T-A-T-T-G-C

11. What is the shape of DNA?

A. Double helix

12. Can the bonds between DNA bases be broken and reformed? If yes, when does this occur?

A. Yes the bonds are broken when DNA is opened for replication and transcription. Once the process is

complete the bonds reform

13. Does DNA code for physical characteristics of an organism, the function of a cell, or both?

A. Both function and physical characteristics

14. How many strands are bonded together with DNA?

A. 2 strands

15. If a sample of double stranded DNA was analyzed and found to have 18% Adenine, what are the other

percentages of bases that make up the DNA molecule?

A. 18% thymine, 32% guanine and 32% cytosine

16. What is RNA? Where is it found?

A. Ribonucleic acid (similar to RNA except ribose for sugar)

17. What are the three different types of RNA and what do each of them do?

A. mRNA is the messenger that carries the info from the nucleus to the ribosome. It contains the codons.

B. rRNA is a part of the structure of RNA

C. tRNA transfers the amino acids to the growing protein. It contains the anticodon.

18. What are the differences between RNA and DNA? What are the similarities?

A. DNA and RNA are different in their sugar, nitrogen bases (thymine and uracil), location, size and number of

types. They are similar in that they are both made of nucleotides, found in all cells and found in the nucleus

of eukaryotes.

19. What are the four major nitrogen bases in RNA?

A. Adenine with uracil and guanine with cytosine

20. What base letters are bonded together with RNA?

A. 4 letters bonded in pairs

21. How many strands are bonded together with RNA?

A. Each RNA is a single strand

22. What is DNA replication?

A. Process of copying DNA to replace damaged cells. It is semi-conservative meaning that each DNA made is

half old and half new.

23. What are the major steps of DNA replication?

A. Unwind the DNA

B. Daughter strands are formed using complementary base pairing. C. The DNA of the daughter strands winds with together with its parent strand. D. DNA winds back together

24. Where does DNA replication take place?

A. nucleus

25. What is the product of DNA replication?

A. 2 whole strands of DNA

Name:

26. When does DNA replication occur (What phase of cell division)?

A. S phase (during Interphase)

27. What carries out the process of DNA replication? Be careful, it is not the DNA – DNA only serves as a template.

A. DNA polymerase

28. Number the steps of DNA replication in the correct order (1, 2, 3): B, A, C A. Daughter strands are formed using complementary base pairing. B. DNA unwinds C. The DNA of the daughter strands winds with together with its parent strand.

29. Why is DNA replication called "semi-conservative"? A. each DNA made is half old and half new

30. Where does DNA replication take place? A. nucleus

31. What is transcription? What is its purpose? A. Transcription is the process of transferring the information from DNA to RNA. DNA is too big to come out of

the nucleus and RNA is a smaller alternative 32. What is the central dogma of molecular biology that states how information flows? What are the three parts of

it? What direction does it flow? DNA to RNA to protein 33. How does genetic information flow from the nucleus to the cell? From _DNA_ to _RNA__ to protein__ 34. Where does transcription take place?

A. nucleus 35. What are the different steps of transcription? What happens in each step? Be specific.

A. DNA unwinds, RNA polymerase attaches to DNA and makes a new strand of RNA, RNA detaches and then DNA winds back together

36. What enzymes are involved in each step of transcription? RNA polymerase 37. Once transcription begins, what enzyme glues all the nucleotides together with covalent bonds for the growing

RNA? RNA polymerase 38. What is the product of transcription?

A. RNA 39. What nitrogenous bases would bind to his DNA strand during TRANSCRIPTION?

T-A-T-G-G-G-C-C-T-A-T-A-A-T-A-A-C-G

A-U-A-C-C-C-G-G-A-U-A-U-U-A-U-U-G-C

40. What are the similarities and differences between replication and transcription? A. Both involve taking the information from DNA and happen simultaneously in multiple places. Replication

makes DNA and transcription makes RNA. 41. Where does protein synthesis (also known as translation) takes place?

A. Ribosome 42. What is translation? Where does it occur?

A. Process of making a protein from RNA. It happens in the ribosomes. 43. What are the major steps of translation? What enzymes are involved? What does the ribosome do?

A. Ribosomes attach to the mRNA at the start codon. The matching tRNA attaches to the mRNA. The next tRNA finds its matching mRNA and the corresponding amino acids bond. The ribosome continues down the chain. As the tRNAs match to the mRNA and release the amino acids they are released from the ribosome complex into the cytoplasm. This process continues until the stop codon is reached. At the stop codon the complex falls apart and a new chain of amino acids has been formed

44. What is the product of translation? A. Protein

45. What is mRNA? When is it produced? A. The messenger RNA that carries the info from the nucleus. It is produced during transcription

46. What is a tRNA? What does it do for translation? 47. What are amino acids? How are they involved in translation?

A. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and are part of the final product of translation. 48. How many necessary amino acids are there in the human body? 20

Name:

49. What are peptide bonds? How are they involved in translation? A. Peptide bonds hold the amino acids together during translation

50. What is a codon? Where is it found? How are they involved in translation? A. A 3 letter sequence of mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid

51. What is an anticodon? Where is it found? How are they involved in translation? A. A 3 letter sequence of tRNA that matches to a codon in mRNA.

52. What is the start codon? What does it do? What is the only formula for the start codon? A. initiation - the small subunit of the ribosome binds to the mRNA with the help of initiation factors (IF) B. It bonds to the start codon: For all proteins this is the nucleotide sequence "AUG" and this codes for the

amino acid methionine. C. AUG starts every protein formed during translation

53. What is a stop codon? What does it do? What are the possible formulas for a stop codon? A. A stop codon stops translation B. These codons are UAA, UAG, or UGA

i. The tRNA cannot recognize or bind to this codon. ii. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a release factor protein that prompts the disassembly

of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex. 54. Using the amino acid table what amino acids would be made from the following mRNA strand?

A-U-G-C-G-C-A-A-U-U-C-C-G-G-G-C-C-C

1. AUG = Met = Methionine

2. CGC = Cys = Cysteine

3. AAU = Asn = Asparagine

4. UCC = Ser = Serine

5. GGG = Gly = Glycine

6. CCC = Pro = Proline

Met Cys Asn Ser Gly Pro

55. Explain, in detail, DNA replication, going thru transcription, and then ending with translation. What are the starting

materials? What are the molecules involved? Where does it occur? Where do the next steps occur? What are the

products of each step? What is the ultimate product?

A. DNA Replication

i. A single strand of DNA serves as a template for a new strand.

ii. The rules of base pairing direct replication.

iii. DNA is replicated during the S (synthesis) stage of the cell cycle.

iv. Each body cell gets a complete set of identical DNA.

v. Occurs in the nucleus of the cell

vi. Steps:

DNA serves only as a template.

Enzymes and other proteins do the actual work of replication.

a. 1. Enzymes (helicase) unzip the double helix. Free-floating nucleotides form

hydrogen bonds with the template strand.

b. 2. DNA polymerase enzymes bond the nucleotides together to form the double

helix.

c. 3. Polymerase enzymes form covalent bonds between nucleotides in the new

strand.

vii. End Result: Two new molecules of DNA are formed, each with an original strand and a newly formed

strand.

B. Transcription:

i. Transcription is the synthesis of RNA using a molecule of DNA as the blueprint

Name:

ii. Process of copying the information from DNA to RNA

iii. Then the RNA leaves the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm

iv. Happens in the nucleus

v. With DNA so large and contained in the nucleus, RNA allows for a smaller more flexible form

vi. Steps:

Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerase.

1. RNA polymerase and other proteins form a transcription complex (RNA Polymerase

binds to DNA).

a. Specific nucleotide sequences tell RNA polymerase where to begin and where to

end.

b. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA at a specific area called the promoter region.

c. The transcription complex recognizes the start of a gene and unwinds a segment of

it.

2. Nucleotides pair with one strand of the DNA.

a. RNA polymerase bonds the nucleotides together.

b. The DNA helix winds again as the gene is transcribed.

c. Elongation

d. Certain proteins called transcription factors unwind the DNA strand and allow RNA

polymerase to transcribe only a single strand of DNA into a single stranded RNA

polymer called messenger RNA (mRNA).

3. The RNA strand detaches from the DNA once the gene is transcribed

a. Termination

b. RNA polymerase moves along the DNA until it reaches a terminator sequence. At

that point, RNA polymerase releases the mRNA polymer and detaches from the

DNA.

vii. Product is mRNA

C. Translation:

i. A step in protein synthesis where the genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded to produce the

specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain

ii. In translation, mRNA along with tRNA and ribosomes work together to produce a protein.

iii. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm where the ribosomes are located.

It consists of four phases:

a. (1) activation – the correct amino acid is covalently bonded to the correct tRNA – a

step required for translation to proceed

b. (2) initiation - the small subunit of the ribosome binds to the mRNA with the help of

initiation factors (IF)

i. It bonds to the start codon: For all proteins this is the nucleotide sequence

"AUG" and this codes for the amino acid methionine.

ii. For translation to begin, tRNA binds to a start codon and signals the

ribosome to assemble.

iii. For all proteins this is the nucleotide sequence "AUG" and this codes for the

amino acid methionine.

c. (3) elongation – the next tRNA in line binds to the ribosome along with an

elongation factor.

d. (4) termination - the ribosome faces a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA)

i. tRNA cannot recognize or bind to this codon.

Name:

ii. Instead, the stop codon induces the binding of a release factor protein that

prompts the disassembly of the entire ribosome/mRNA complex.

iii. Once the stop codon is reached, the ribosome releases the protein and

disassembles

b. The ultimate product is a protein

AMINO ACID SEQUENC ACID mRNA CODON

Eyes: alanine GCU

Blue: alanine, valine, tyrosine arginine GCU

Brown: tyrosine, alanine, valine asparagine AAU

Green: alanine, tyrosine, valine cysteine UGU

Hair: glutamic acid GAA

Curly: glycine, asparagine, histidine glutamine CAA

Straight: asparagine, glycine, histidine glycine GGU

Lips: histidine CAU

Thin: cysteine, serine, tryptophan leucine UUA

Medium: tryptophan, serine, cystein methionine AUG

Full: serine, cysteine, tryptophan phenylalanine UUU

Skin Pigment: proline CCC

Light: methionine, phenylalanine, threonine serine UCU

Medium: threonine, methionine, phenylalanine threonine ACU

Dark: phenylalanine, threonine, methionine tryptophan UGG

Dimples: tyrosine UAU

With: glutamic acid, alanine, tyrosine valine GUU

Without: tyrosine, alanine, glutamic acid stop codon UAA

Earlobes:

Attached: proline, serine, valine

Unattached: proline, valine, serine

56. Using the chart above: What is the correct amino acid sequence for medium lips? (List the names of the amino acids) A. Tryptophan, serine, cysteine B. UGG, UCU, UGU

i. UGGUCUUGU

Name:

Section 5: Evolution/Natural Selection

1. What is the difference between pure and applied science? Give an example of each.

a. Pure science is basic research or knowledge

i. Example: Anatomy, Physiology, Embryology, Cell Biology, Botany, etc

b. Applied science is the practical use and application of information (sometimes called technology)

i. Example: smoke detector, cell phone, etc.

2. Define theory, fact, hypothesis.

a. Theory - a hypothesis that has been tested many times and is supported by a large body of scientific

evidence

i. Often revised

ii. Explains data we already know and predicts new data

b. Fact - something known to be true or to have happened based on evidence and/or observations

c. Hypothesis - a trial idea or tentative explanation that can be tested

3. What is evolution? How long does it take to occur? Do all species evolve at the same rate?

a. Evolution is the process of biological change by which descendants come to differ from their ancestors

b. Evolution takes a long time to occur

c. The length it requires differs due to the species

4. Who evolves; individuals, populations, or species?

a. Populations can evolve and then that can lead to new species

5. What is an adaptation? What do they allow the species to do?

a. an inherited trait which enables an organism to survive and reproduce.

b. Survive and reproduce

c. The three types are behavioral (adaptations involving the actions of an organism – cockroaches hide when

lights turn on), coloration (adaptations involving color or patterns – black widow’s coloring), and structural

(adaptations involving the body – stick bugs body shape)

6. What is the theory of natural selection?

a. those with best traits survive and pass their traits to offspring

b. Natural selection is a mechanism by which individuals that have inherited beneficial adaptations produce

more offspring on average than do other individuals.

c. those with the best traits survive and pass their traits to offspring

d. There is a struggle for survival due to overpopulation and limited resources.

7. What are the 4 principles necessary for natural selection?

a. 1. Overproduction - Many children but limited resources so not everyone will survive

i. individuals tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support

ii. individuals that are better able to cope with the challenges presented by their environment tend to

leave more offspring than those individuals less suited to the environment.

b. 2. Adaptation - Some variations allow the organism to live longer and have more offspring

i. Process by which an organism changes to become better suited to survive in their environment

ii. A physical or genetic trait that helps an organism to be better suited to survive in their environment

iii. Example: polar bears are adapted to living in the cold because they grow thick fur that keeps them

warm, and thus allows them to survive in their frigid environment

iv. The color of their fur is also an adaptation. Because the environment they live in is mostly white,

they have produced white fur to blend in, so they are not seen by the prey they hunt.

Name:

c. 3. Variation - small differences that occur naturally between different organisms of the same species

d. 4. Descent with Modification - advantageous traits that are heritable will become more common

e. From these principles: these two inferences can be made:

i. Individuals with inherited characteristics that increase their probability of survival and reproduction

will have more offspring.

ii. Favorable traits accumulate in the population as individuals have an unequal ability to reproduce.

8. Who was Lamarck? What did Lamarck believe?

a. Proposed first theory of evolution in 1809

i. Present species evolved from preexisting species

ii. Caused by their need to adapt to changes in their environment

iii. The more an animal uses a particular part, the stronger & better developed it becomes

iv. These characteristics could be passed to offspring

b. Lamarckism:

a. says an organism’s or organ’s lifestyle could bring about changes that are passed to offspring

b. Believed life experiences were passed down to offspring

a. ex: said giraffes got long necks because they strained to reach food, thereby stretching their necks.

This got passed on to offspring – he thought that particles from giraffe’s neck are sent to its gametes

and therefore are passed on!

b. We now know that genes are not affected by an individual’s life experiences!

9. Who was Darwin? What did Darwin believe about evolution and natural selection?

a. Failed medical school and took a position on a trip around South America.

b. Gathered specimens as he travelled

c. Waited to publish his ideas for a while after returning partially because of fear of religious controversy

d. While on the Galapagos Islands he noticed the finches were the same species on the different islands, but

they looked totally different

e. Reported his theory of natural selection in 1858

f. Darwin believed in natural selection:

i. those with best traits survive and pass their traits to offspring

10. List Darwin’s 5 steps of natural selection.

a. 1. organisms overproduce

b. 2. not all organisms survive

c. 3. some organisms are born with variations

d. 4. those w/the best variations survive (survival of the fittest)

e. 5. those that survive pass their traits to their offspring

11. What are the 6 major evidence categories for evolution? Describe each one.

a. Fossil records - In rock layers, more complex organisms were found the higher up you were (more primitive

forms were buried further down)

b. Artificial selection /reproduction: you determine who will mate and who won’t

i. Eventually you get a population that looks different than the original

c. Comparative embryology: closely related species develop similarly

d. Comparative Anatomy: Similar types of organisms have similar structures

i. Homologous and Vestigial Structures

e. Comparative biochemistry closely related species have similar genes/proteins

f. Biogeography: Study of the distribution of organisms on the planet

i. Island species most closely resemble nearest mainland species and populations can show variation

from one island to another

Name:

12. What are the 5 factors that affect/cause evolution? Describe each one.

13. What are homologous structures?

a. Structures with the same embryonic origin and similar appearance found in different species

b. Ex: forelimbs in mammals

c. FYI: Analogous: Structures with similar functions but different structure/development (NOT evidence of

evolution)

d. Ex: wings of a bird and butterfly have the same function, but different structure

14. Our arm is homologous to what structure on a horse?

a. Their arm/leg

15. Which of the following data would suggest that species do not change over time?

a. There are no fossils b. The same fossils are found in old and new rocks c. Fossils look different in older and newer rocks. d. Fossils found lower in the ground are younger than fossils found higher in the ground.

16. Similarities in homologous structures and comparative embryology suggest that organism derived from a _______________ ancestor.

a. common 17. What is a vestigial structure?

a. organs useless to present owners but serve(d) important functions in other species

b. remnants of once used structures that are now smaller and serve little or no function.

18. Which of the following is a vestigial structure in humans: Liver, Kidney, Stomach, or Appendix? EXPLAIN YOUR

ANSWER. Does not serve a function for humans and they can live with or without it, it can be removed and the

humans can still survive

19. The key to evolution by natural selection is that organisms will survive and _________________. Reproduce and

pass on their genes

20. What is fitness? (NOT LA Fitness….Evolutionary fitness).

a. The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. b. A biological condition in which a competing variant is increasing in frequency relative to other competing

variants in a population. c. A relative measure of reproductive success of an organism in passing its genes to the next generation.

21. What is the advantage of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction?

a. Sexual reproduction allows for genetic variation that allows the population to survive to changes in the

environment because not every individual will be wiped out due to environmental changes

22. Mutations are the essential root for all variability in organisms. However, what will dictate if that mutation will

increase in frequency in a population?

a. If the mutation is advantageous, then the individual with the mutation will survive to reproduce and pass on

their genes

b. If the mutation is not advantageous, then the individual will not survive to reproduce and will not pass on

their genes

23. What is immigration? What is emigration? How do each of these affect a populations size?

a. Immigration = individual moves into a population from a different one

i. Increases the population’s size

b. Emigration = individual leaves its population for another one

i. Decreases the population’s size

Name:

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Moth Population

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24. Look at the graph about moth population, analyzing the data in the graph make 3 conclusions about the moth

population or the environment the moths live in.

a. The moths must live in a lighter colored environment since the white moths are blending in and able to

survive

b. The environment must show the grey moths easily so there could be light environment patches and dark

patches, grey would show with both

c. The environment must have been dark to start with because there were a lot of black moths but then the

environment change to light and that is why the black moths are being eaten

25. What conclusion can be made by analyzing the data?

a. The thicker the turtle shell is, the less likely the turtle will survive

b. It is more advantageous to have a thinner shell compared to a thicker shell

26. What is a cladogram? What do cladograms show?

a. diagrams that show the evolutionary relationships among a group of organisms

i. Shows:

1. probable relationships

2. probable sequence of origins

3. derived characters

b. One of Darwin’s revolutionary ideas was that all living organisms are related. They are connected like

branches on a “tree of life.”

Name:

c. At the root of that tree is a 3.8 billion year old single-celled organism that gave rise to all subsequent life

forms – all living things are descendants of that ancestor

27. Where will derived characters appear on a cladogram?

a. Closely related organisms don’t always look alike

b. Use derived characters to show evolutionary trends - a characteristic that appears in recent parts of a

lineage, but not in its older members

c. Use derived characters to show evolutionary trends

i. a characteristic that appears in recent parts of a lineage, but not in its older members

d. More derived characteristics will appear at the top

e. More distant relatives are on lower branches that split off a long time ago

f. The closest relatives that grew apart very recently are on branch tips

28. Where will more primitive traits appear on a cladogram?

a. Primitive traits will appear at the bottom of the tree

Section 6: Ecology

1. What is ecology? a. The relationship of plants, animals, and their natural environment

2. What is a biome? a. Ecosystems that have similar climates and organisms

3. What are the major biomes? Describe a characteristic of each one. 4. Tropical Rainforest

a. PPT: 70-80 inches/year b. Temperature: 27ºC/90% humidity c. Location: Amazon in South America d. Animals: tropical birds, monkeys, insects e. Plants: vines, tall trees, ferns, rubber tree f. Facts: 28% worlds O2 turnover & 25% medicine ingredients – many animals are nocturnal

5. Savanna a. PPT: 40-60 inches/year b. Temperature: 27-30ºC in summer c. Location: Central & S. Africa, Australia d. Animals: zebra, elephant, lion, vulture e. Plants: acacia trees, grasses, shrubs f. Facts: Wet and dry seasons – dry season is Oct. to March – animals migrate following rain

6. Grassland a. PPT: 10-35 inches/year b. Temperature: 0-30º C c. Location: Central U.S. d. Animals: mice (crepuscular), rabbits, prairie dogs e. Plants: many species of grasses f. Facts: not near large bodies of water – many animals live in burrows to avoid cold weather & wind

7. Deciduous Forest a. PPT: 30-60 inches/year b. Temperature: Up to 35º C summer c. Location: E. U.S. and Europe d. Animals: bear, deer, skunk (crepuscular), rabbits, birds e. Plants: oak & maple trees, shrubs f. Facts: deciduous means “falling off at maturity” referring to the leaves – some birds migrate for

winter

Name:

8. Desert a. PPT: 10 inches/year or less b. Temperature: -1 – 46ºC c. Location: SW U.S., N. Africa, Asia, Australia d. Animals: camel, coyote, lizard, snake e. Plants: cactus, grass, small shrubs f. Facts: xerophytes (drought tolerant plants: small leaves, succulents, thorns) & nocturnal animals to

avoid heat of day 9. Coniferous Forest (Taiga)

a. PPT: 8-24 inches/year b. Temperature: -53 to 30ºC c. Location: Alaska, Canada, Russia d. Animals: grizzly bear, moose (crepuscular), birds, caribou e. Plants: pine trees, ferns f. Facts: 29% of all Earth’s forests – pine trees w/needles & waxy coat to keep from freezing

10. Tundra a. PPT: 10 inches/year b. Temperature: Avg. -28ºC c. Location: N. & S. poles d. Animals: polar bears, arctic fox & hare, caribou e. Plants: grasses, no trees, moss, lichen f. Facts: white coated animals for camouflage – sensitive to human interference

11. Freshwater a. Location: ponds, rivers, lakes, streams b. Animals: Fish, amphibians, insects, protists c. Plants: water plants, moss, d. Facts: <1% salt (<500 parts per million [PPM] of dissolved salts)

12. Marine a. Location: Approx. 71% of Earth’s surface b. Temperature: -1 – 27º C c. Animals: fish, mammals, plankton d. Plants: seaweed, grasses e. Facts: Average depth 12,430 ft.; max. depth 6.787 miles & total mass is 0.023 of Earth’s total mass

13. What is the difference between nocturnal, diurnal, and crepuscular? a. Nocturnal: Active during night b. Diurnal: Active during day c. Crepuscular: Active during dawn & dusk

14. What are the three types of organisms in a biome? And what is their role in the biome? a. 1. Producers (autotroph) –

i. They make their own food ii. Example: plants perform photosynthesis to create sugar (glucose) from sunlight

iii. Include: plants, algae, bacteria, protists b. 2. Consumers (heterotroph) –

i. They eat other organisms (cannot make own food) ii. An organism that relies on other organisms for food

1. 3 types: a. Herbivore – eats plants only b. Carnivore – eats animals only c. Omnivore – eats both plants & animals

c. 3. Decomposers (saprotroph)- i. They consume dead organisms &

ii. return nutrients to soil for reuse iii. Examples: bacteria, fungi, maggots (insects), scavengers, detritivore

Name:

15. What is a food chain? What does it always start with? What does it always end with? a. series of organisms through which energy (food) is passed b. Always begins with producers c. Always ends with decomposers

16. Define and give an example of: carnivore, omnivore, herbivore a. Herbivore – eats plants only

i. cows b. Carnivore – eats animals only

i. hawk c. Omnivore – eats both plants & animals

i. bear 17. What is the energy pyramid?

a. Amount of energy available decreases as you go up a food chain (trophic levels) 18. What percent of food is stored and passed on as energy up the food chain/pyramid?

a. Only about 10% of food is stored as new tissue i. Where does the rest go?

1. Used for movement, respiration, etc. 2. Released as waste 3. Lost as heat

19. Food/energy pyramid (explain what happens to energy with each step? Which consumer gets the most energy from their food? Which gets the least? Why?) b. Producer has the most energy primary consumer gets 10% of the

Producer’s energy secondary consumer gets 10% of the primary’s Energy tertiary consumer gets 10% of the secondary’s energy

c. Energy is lost along the way and each step requires more energy To survive than the previous step

20. What is the difference between a food chain and a food web? Be specific. a. Food chain - series of organisms through which energy (food) is passed

i. Food chains follow a single path as animals eat each other b. Food web – complex network of all food chains in an ecosystem

i. Food weds show how plants and animals are interconnected by different paths 21. Predict what might happen to a community if all the primary consumers (1st order consumers) were eliminated.

Be specific. a. If all the primary consumers were eliminated, the producers were grow out of control and would be

competing for space and resources and the other consumers would need to find new food or will die due to their food source being eliminated

b. If the producers use up all of the resources, then they will struggle to survive c. Losing the primary consumers could destroy the entire ecosystem

22. Give the 3 examples of a decomposer. a. bacteria, fungi, maggots (insects), scavengers, detritivore

23. What is the difference between a decomposer and a scavenger? a. Decomposers- Convert waste into nutrients that can be used by plants

i. fungus b. Scavengers- Go around and eat the remains of the already dead organisms

i. vulture 24. Put the 6 levels of ecosystems in order from individual biosphere.

a. Individual population community ecosystem biome biosphere

Name:

25. What happens to poisons in the food chain? a. Transfer through the food chain via energy and matter b. Become more concentrated as they move up the food chain

26. What is a population? a. Population - Definition: Includes all individuals of a particular species within a certain area

i. Example: All the great white sharks in the Pacific Ocean

27. What is a community? a. Community - Definition: All the populations of different organisms within a given area

i. Example: All of the fish, shellfish, and mammals make up a coral reef

28. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic? a. Biotic means living b. Abiotic means nonliving

29. What is an ecosystem? a. Ecosystem - Definition: Includes a community plus its physical environment (both biotic and abiotic

factors are included)

i. Example: coniferous forest

30. What is biodiversity?

a. Definition: The variety of species in a specific area

b. Increases as you move toward the equator and decreases as you move away 31. How does temperature relate to the biodiversity of an area?

a. The warmer the area, the more biodiversity 32. Why is biodiversity important?

a. Important to nature in general b. Allows for stability of populations c. Important to native peoples and ecotourism d. Decreases the spread of plant and animal diseases

33. Why is the loss of biodiversity a problem? a. Threatened species: Few # of a particular species b. Endangered species: Very few animals left in the wild c. Extinct species: No more of a particular species

34. What are the threats to biodiversity? a. Habitat loss b. Habitat fragmentation (separation of habitat) c. Edge effect (where 2 habitats meet) d. Habitat degradation (damage by clear cutting forests) e. Water, air, & land pollution f. Exotic & introduced species (new species that threaten existing plants/animals)

35. What is biotic potential? Why is this not possible? a. Maximum reproduction rate of a species b. 2 things must occur:

i. Ideal conditions (WANTS) ii. All young live to reproduce

c. *Not possible for either of these to occur 36. What is environmental resistance?

a. All of the factors which reduce a population’s growth rate 37. What are the results of environmental resistance?

a. Prevents: i. Overpopulation

ii. Massive die-offs iii. Genetic weakness “survival of the fittest” (old, weak, sick die off)

38. Define carrying capacity.

Name:

a. The # of animals of any species that an area can support b. Example: The plains of Africa can only support a certain # of lions c. After that, they will overpopulate the area

39. What are the three options that an organism can do if their habitat is damaged/changed or their food source is changed?

a. Adapt b. Migrate (move) c. Die

40. What is an invasive species? How can it affect an ecosystem? a. When a non-native species outcompetes native species in natural communities and causes

ecological/environmental, economical, or health problems, they are considered an invasive species b. Common characteristics:

i. Tolerates wide range of conditions ii. Produces lots of seeds or eggs

iii. Has few natural controls (predators, disease, insects, etc) iv. Disperses easily v. Has long growing season or short generation time

vi. New location has similar conditions to native habitat c. Impacts:

i. Ecological/environmental 1. Extinction of already endangered species 2. Displacement of native species 3. Alteration of the ecosystem’s functions 4. Destruction of native fisheries & waterways 5. Forests unable to regenerate

ii. Economical 1. Benefits: 2. Non-native crops and livestock comprise 98% of the US food supply 3. Costs: 4. Damage and control costs in the U.S. amount to more than $138 billion annually 5. Reduction in U.S. agriculture production amounts to nearly $1 billion annually

iii. Health 1. Introduced species can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human diseases 2. Ex: AIDS, malaria, yellow fever, typhus, bubonic plague, West Nile virus

41. How can invasives be prevented? a. Landscape with plants native to your area b. Clean boating equipment after each use c. Don’t release pets to the wild d. Clean the mud off your boots and vehicle tires e. Tell others about the harm that invasive species cause

42. Explain how human populations have gotten out of control and what can be done to prevent overpopulation. a. Humans are increasing at an exponential amount

i. This means that there are more humans that their ecosystems can support ii. This means that humans are using up resources quicker than they can be replenished

b. We could limit the number of offspring people can have, we can ration our resources, we could limit the medical help to reduce the lifespan of humans, etc.

43. Why are carnivores the easiest to go extinct? a. Carnivores are typically larger species that require a lot of energy to survive b. They have to eat a lot of prey to survive c. If the prey number decreases, the carnivores will not have enough food to survive and they will die out

44. List 5 ways to increase carrying capacity and 5 ways to decrease it. a. Increase: increase in food availability, the water supply increases or is healthier, the environmental

conditions improve, and living space increases.

Name:

b. Decrease: decrease in food availability, the water supply decrease in amount of quality, the environmental conditions decrease, and living space decreases.

45. What are the biotic relationships? a. Symbiosis

i. Mutualism ii. Commensalism

iii. parasitism 46. What is symbiosis/symbiotic relationships?

a. Symbiosis – 2 different organisms are associated with each other, to the benefit of at least one i. Three types

1. Mutualism 2. Commensalism 3. Parasitism

47. What is mutualism? Give an example a. Both organisms benefit from the relationship

i. Bacteria in a cow’s digestive system ii. Clownfish in a sea anemone (Clownfish cleans anemone, anemone provides protection)

iii. Termites have intestinal organisms that digest the cellulose in wood (the termite cannot do it) 48. What is commensalism? Give an example

a. One organism benefits, and other is not affected i. Barnacles on a whale

ii. Moss living on trees 49. What is parasitism? Give an example

a. One organism benefits, and other is harmed i. Tapeworms

ii. Ticks iii. Heartworms in dogs

50. Describe each of the following situations as Commensalism, Parasitism, or Mutualism.

a. A flower and a bee. __mutualism – bee gets nectar, flower gets help with pollination__________

b. A tapeworm and a dog. _parasitism – dog is harmed while tapeworm gets food_____________

c. A fish hiding in the roots of aquatic trees. _commensalism – fish gets protection, tree is not harmed or

benefited

51. What is predation? Give an example a. The preying on other animals

i. Lions eat antelope 52. What are the two types of parasites?

a. 1. External parasites – live on outside of the body i. Examples: leaches, ticks, mosquitoes, fleas, lamprey, bot flies, bed bugs

b. 2. Internal parasites – live on inside of the body i. Examples: tapeworms, flukes, blood and heart worms

53. Discuss in detail human impacts on the environment. a. Humans can have positive impacts but usually have negative impacts on the environment b. Humans transplant or help the spread of invasive species c. Humans cut down and destroy habitats for human growth and materials d. Etc.

54. What is the difference between an abiotic and biotic factor in an ecosystem? a. Biotic - All the living organisms (plants and animals) in the environment and their effects

i. Plants produce oxygen, animals produce carbon dioxide ii. Humans and their impact on environment (pollution)

b. Abiotic - Non-living factors in the environment i. Examples:

1. Weather

Name:

2. Water 3. Air 4. Soil 5. Temperature 6. Light

c. Biotic means living, abiotic means non-living 55. Categorize each factor as either BIOTIC or ABIOTIC: Rocks, Plant life, Soil, Humans, earth worms, water, salt

concentration of the water, and temperature.

Biotic Abiotic

Plant life Rocks

Soil – has both parts Soil – has both parts

Humans Water

Earth worms Salt concentration of the water

Temperature

56. What is the difference between an ecosystem and a community and a population?

a. Ecosystem - Definition: Includes a community plus its physical environment (both biotic and abiotic

factors are included)

i. Example: coniferous forest

b. Community - Definition: All the populations of different organisms within a given area

i. Example: All of the fish, shellfish, and mammals make up a coral reef

c. Population - Definition: Includes all individuals of a particular species within a certain area

i. Example: All the great white sharks in the Pacific Ocean

57. What is a consumer and producer? Give an example of each.

a. 1. Producers (autotroph) – i. They make their own food

ii. Example: plants perform photosynthesis to create sugar (glucose) from sunlight iii. Include: plants, algae, bacteria, protists

b. 2. Consumers (heterotroph) – i. They eat other organisms (cannot make own food)

ii. 3 types: iii. Herbivore – eats plants only iv. Carnivore – eats animals only v. Omnivore – eats both plants & animals

58. What is a niche? How does this relate to an ecosystem?

a. In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species. b. Each species is thought to have a separate, unique niche. c. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources

and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey)

59. What happens to a population’s size if the death rate (mortality) declines? What will happen to a region if the

population is too big?

a. If the death rate declines, the population increases

b. If the population gets too big, the organisms are competing for resources and they can reach beyond the

carrying capacity. When this happens, they are competing with each other and some individuals will die

due to lack of resources. If the population eats all of the food sources, then the entire population will

die

Name:

60. What happens to a population’s size if the birthrate rate decreases? Increases?

a. If the birthrate decreases, the population’s size will decrease since new individuals are not replacing the

older ones when they dies

b. If the birthrate increases, the population’s size will increase since there are several new individuals

replacing the older ones

61. What happens to the number of prey in a population once the number of predators stabilizes?

a. The number of prey will stabilize too

i. In a healthy ecosystem predators and prey reach a balance so that there are always enough prey

animals to continue reproducing.

1. This ensures a permanent supply of food for the predators. If the predators over hunt

the prey animal, the population of prey will decline causing the predators to starve.

2. The ecosystem will not also be balanced if there are more predators than preys.

62. Diagram how energy flows in an ecosystem. (Producer, Consumer, etc….)

a. Energy flows from the producer primary consumer secondary consumer tertiary consumer

Answer the following questions based on the food chain below:

Blue/Green Algae Zooplankton small Fish Large Fish

63. Which organism will be the found in the fewest number? WHY?

a. Large fish – they are the top of the food chain and a predator

i. Predators are normally bigger so they need more food

ii. Each predator has to kill many prey animals a year to survive and the prey animals have to be

numerous enough to reproduce and survive.

1. Too few prey animals and the predators starve to death.

iii. In the food web the producers are always more numerous than the primary consumers who are

more numerous than the secondary consumers.

64. Which organism will be found in the largest number? WHY?

a. Blue/Green algae – they are the producer for the food chain

i. See above for more information

65. Describe a limiting factor and give two examples of limiting factors.

a. A limiting factor (also known as a "constraining" factor) limits the growth or development of an organism, population, or process.

b. In biological or ecological terms, a limiting factor causes a population to decrease in size. A few limiting

factors are food, shelter, water, space

66. Think about how ecosystems can be damaged. What are some of the major ways that ecosystems can be

destroyed?

a. Humans damage them in multiple ways, dame through travel, hiking, clear-cutting, fires, pollution, etc.

Name:

Helpful Hints & Common Mistakes

The following are helpful hints as well as common mistakes that students make on their district final. PLEASE READ

these carefully and commit them to memory. Knowledge of these key components may be of GREAT benefit to you

know the final exam. Good luck!

1. Difficulty distinguishing between closely related terms such as prokaryote/eukaryote, mitosis/meiosis, immigration/emigration, translation/transcription, abiotic/biotic, etc

2. Graphing – identifying independent and dependent variables, recognizing relationships using language prescribed by the state (negative, positive and no relationship), selecting the appropriate type of graph for a given data set

3. Evolution – data indicates that many students still believe that an individual adapts, confusion around species and speciation

4. Cell – misconception that respiration only occurs in animal cells, prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic and virus, passive vs. active transport

5. Nature of Science –correct use of the term theory 6. Organization of life from cell through ecosystems