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ACADEMIC PAPER

Consumer responses toincomplete information in print

apparel advertisingJane Lu Hsu and Roxy Hsien-Chen Mo

Department of Marketing, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan

Abstract

Purpose This paper aims to examine how consumers perceive incomplete information in printapparel advertisements in magazines and whether incomplete information influences decisions.

Design/methodology/approach A total of 239 examples of print apparel advertisements infashion magazines were collected in 2006. Content analysis was utilised to code the types ofinformation in print apparel advertisements prior to the design of the questionnaire in the consumersurvey. In the questionnaire, attitudes toward incomplete information in print apparel advertisements,information search, involvement, purchasing intentions, and demographics were included. Aconsumer survey was administered in Taiwan using stratified sampling. The total number ofcompleted, usable questionnaires returned was 304.

Findings Consumers who thought missing information in print apparel advertising to be importanttended to find missing information from other sources like media, word-of-mouth, salespersons, and instores. Information search behaviour positively influenced purchasing intentions. Consumers withhigher levels of involvement tended to pay more attention to missing information and were more likelyto search information.

Research limitations/implications Print apparel advertisements are presented not only in

magazines, but on outdoor billboards, in catalogues, on the internet, in newspapers, and in buses. Therestrictions of readers of fashion magazines as respondents in the study could limit the applicability ofresearch findings of the study to attitudes toward incomplete information in print appareladvertisements of fashion magazine readers.

Practical implications Print apparel advertisements are not a major source for consumers toobtain comprehensive fashion information. Simplified but clear design of print apparel advertising isacceptable for consumers who are prone to ignore missing information. Those who tend to noticemissing information in print apparel advertisements would investigate other sources to obtaininformation for purchase decisions. Print apparel advertisements showing fashion clothing and brandnames only are easy for browsing. The attractiveness of print apparel advertising design seems to bemore important than detailed information included in advertisements.

Originality/value The contribution of the study is to reveal attitudes toward incompleteinformation in print apparel advertising. The results of the study could be beneficial for apparel

advertisers and could be valuable for marketers to realise the types of information consumers preferwhile searching though the medium of fashion magazines.

Keywords Fashion, Clothing, Advertising, Individual perception, Decision making

Paper type Research paper

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/1361-2026.htm

This research was supported by Grant (NSC 95-2416-H-005-018) from National Science Council inTaiwan.

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Received September 2007Revised January 2008Accepted May 2008

Journal of Fashion Marketing and

Management

Vol. 13 No. 1, 2009

pp. 66-78

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited

1361-2026

DOI 10.1108/13612020910939888

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IntroductionInformation in print advertising cannot be successfully disseminated to reach targetcustomers if not being viewed. Potential benefits of advertising information tomarketers and consumers can be accrued under a condition that consumers notice,

process, and comprehend advertising information (Franke et al., 2004). Theattractiveness of print advertising is essential to draw attention from readers.Hence, the design of print advertising is bound to illustrate key features of the productsor services. Wells et al .. (2006) reported that readers found reading printadvertisements more flexible than watching television or listening to the radio dueto the fact that readers could stop and reread, read sections out of order, or movethrough print advertisements at their own speed as well as focusing on particular printadvertisements. Print apparel advertisements in magazines emphasise apparel designrather than describing product details, and are often incomplete. If the purpose of printapparel advertising is to distribute information of stylish fashion clothes, how aremarketers or advertisers sure the readers of print apparel advertising have obtained

enough information from the advertisements? If readers of print appareladvertisements need further information, are they able to obtain from other sources?Mitra et al. (1999) stated information search behaviour was a common methodimplemented to reduce the perceived risk of consumers. Due to time or budgetconstraint, consumers cannot possibly obtain comprehensive information prior topurchases. Missing information has certain impact on decision, but how do consumers

judge relative importance of missing information? Would consumers infer missinginformation based on personal experiences or search missing information from varioussources? Is there certain information indispensable when making decisions?

Information in advertising is fragmented due to limited space or timeadvertisements can be presented. Consumers attitudes toward incompleteinformation and how incomplete information affects purchasing intentions has not

been discussed exclusively in the literature on the subject of print apparel advertising.Oh (2005) described various affective reactions to print apparel advertisements, but didnot state whether certain items of information would be necessary for readers. Doconsumers need more information than that provided in print apparel advertisementswhen making their decisions? Hence, the objectives of this study were to examine howconsumers perceive missing information of print apparel advertisements in fashionmagazines and further to reveal how missing information affects these decisions.

Literature review Effect of incomplete informationEstelami (2003) pointed out price communication strategies could be used in display to

reduce consumer perceived cost and to increase perceived value as well as willingnessto buy. However, Romani (2006) found that when price information is communicatedusing misleading figures, such as exaggerated external reference prices, untruthful orunclear selling prices, or incomplete fragmented prices, consumers would distrust thesource of information.

Riquelme and Kegeng (2004) stated the presence of information bias in the onlineenvironment influenced how consumers interpreted information and ultimatelydecisions. Smith and Bush (2002) aimed at the incomplete information of service

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consumption, including information availability and difficulty of interpretation, todevelop an effective communication guideline in various purchasing situations forservice providers. Implications for marketers were that information needed to becarefully considered to be or not to be included in labelling or advertising in strategic

marketing.Meyer (1981) indicated that a missing value could be a source of risk, because the

actual value might be unattractive. Accordingly, consumers with higher need forcognition were less vulnerable to influences of missing information upon consideringattribute importance prior to decisions (Kivetz and Simonson, 2000).

Information searchAn information search is an essential phase in the process of decision-making. Pastresearch had stressed two ways consumers reacted when they confronted missingattributes, either by inferring the value of a missing attribute or searching the missinginformation (Meyer, 1982). Meyer (1981) proposed missing information as a source of

uncertainty and consumers always tended to increase certainty through informationhandling as a most common risk reduction strategy (Cox, 1967). Hence, risk could bereduced when information was less incomplete. Based on the findings in the literature,this study was undertaken to examine whether consumers attitudes towardincomplete information influence the information search behaviour. The hypothesis isstated as follows:

H1. Attitudes toward incomplete information positively influence informationsearch behaviour.

Internal or external search is utilised to seek relevant information from varioussources. An internal search refers to obtaining information stored in memory, andexternal search indicates seeking information elsewhere, for example in-store displays,sales personnel, advertisements, peers, and family members (Bettman, 1979; Blackwellet al., 2001). Mitra et al. (1999) stated that different information needs would begenerated for varying degrees of future purchase intentions. Based on the findings inthe literature, this study proposed that information search behaviour positivelyinfluences consumers purchasing intentions in the following hypothesis.

H2. Information search positively influences purchasing intentions.

Consumer involvementInvolvement was defined by Zaichkowsky (1985) as a persons perceived relevance ofthe object based on inherent needs, values, and interests (p.342). Certain information

could be relevant for one consumer but irrelevant for another, as individuals differed inhow they processed information and what information they processed (Sternthal andCraig, 1982; Rowley, 2000). Beatty and Smith (1987) found involvement motivatedconsumers in information search activities, which was positively associated with totalsearch efforts across product categories. Based on the relevant literature of informationsearch and involvement, the hypothesis is stated as follows:

H3. Consumers involvement positively influences the degree of informationsearch.

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Celsi and Olson (1988) found that when involvement was increased, consumers paidattention to advertisements related to the products as well as relevant information.Involvement could be considered as an interest in products, and involvement affectedconsumer behaviour on an enduring basis and varied across individuals (Bloch, 1981),

influencing both attitudes and behaviours (Slama and Tashchian, 1985). Based on thefindings in the literature, this study proposed that involvement positive influencesattitudes toward incomplete information in the following hypothesis.

H4. Consumers involvement positively influences attitude toward incompleteinformation.

This study was undertaken to reveal how consumers attitudes toward incompleteinformation affecting information search and further influencing purchasingintentions. Involvement was considered in the study to examine the influences onconsumers attitudes toward incomplete information and on information search. Theconceptual framework of the study includes dimensions of attitudes toward

incomplete information, information search, involvement, and purchasing intentions(Figure 1).

MethodologyThe researchers collected more than 200 real print apparel advertisements from mensand womens magazines, including five different fashion magazines for men andanother five for women, from January to December 2006. A total of 115 advertisementswere selected from mens fashion magazines, including GQ, Bang, Esquire, Mens Uno,and Man Style. Another 130 advertisements were chosen from womens fashionmagazines, including ef, Ray, Sugar, Bazaar, and Cosmopolitan. Repeatedadvertisements were eliminated from the data set of collected advertisements.

Content analysis was applied to code collected advertisements, measuring relativefrequencies of appearance for certain categorised information. Content analysis is aprocedure for classifying qualitative information into numerical data amenable toquantitative manipulation. In this study, coding was used for the purpose ofquantifying information types. The procedure is a multi-step process that requiresdeveloping categories for coding thematic content, training coders, coding thecategorical data, and statistically analysing the coded data (Kassarjian 1977; Pollay,1983; Schneider et al. 1992).

Two trained bilingual coders coded at the same time. For each attribute, a zero/onecoding procedure was used. Zero indicated the advertisements had not shown suchattributes, and one meant the attributes were included in advertisements. In casesdisagreement occurred between coders in coding a print apparel advertisement, further

Figure Conceptual framewor

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discussions with professionals were taken to help categorise the information containedin advertisements into appropriate category. Ten major types of information wereclassified using collected print apparel advertisements, including brand, price, retaillocations, presentation of products, materials, country-of-origin, endorsers, promotion,

product style, and brand history. In the questionnaire, these ten major types ofinformation were listed for respondents to identify the types of information theypreferred to see in print apparel advertising and to evaluate the importance of eachtype of information when making decisions.

Data collectionThe researchers used personal interviews to conduct survey in Taipei, Taiwan, in

January 2007. Stratified sampling was applied following the age distributions of thepopulation between the ages of 16 to 35, as published in the latest census. Qualifiedrespondents were those who had read fashion magazines at least once in the last sixmonths and purchased clothing by themselves prior to the survey. The total number of

valid responses was 304.

Findings Attitudes toward incomplete information and information searchScores generated from ten statements in the questionnaire related to attitudes towardincomplete information were factorised into two dimensions, missing information anddesigned information (Table I). Two factors were considered to be appropriate to

Items Missing information Designed information

I think the information in print apparel advertising is

incomplete 0.7265I think some information is hidden in print appareladvertising 0.6466I think the information in print apparel advertising isinsufficient to represent the product line 0.5795I think the information in print apparel advertising isover-simplified 0.5536I think the information in print apparel advertisingcannot fulfil my need for apparel-related information 0.5170I think the information in print apparel advertisingcould be ignored easily 0.3802I think the information in print apparel advertisingoffers visual stimulation 0.8014I think the information in print apparel advertising

presents selected few clothes of a brand 0.5825I think the information in print apparel advertising isdesigned deliberately 0.5196I think the information in print apparel advertisingconveys ideologies 0.3811Variance explained 0.38 0.35Cronbachs a 0.77 0.70

Note: Cumulative variance explained is 73%

Table I.Factors of attitudestoward incompleteinformation

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explain respondents attitudes toward incomplete information based on the results ofscree plots and eigenvalues. Maximum likelihood method with varimax rotation was

applied in the factor analysis. None of the original statements developed in thequestionnaire was deleted in factorising attitudes toward incomplete information. The

reliability coefficient, Cronbachs alpha, was utilised to measure the internalconsistency of the dimensions. The value of Cronbachs alpha coefficient of each

dimension was above 0.7, indicating acceptable reliability on dimensions of attitudes

toward incomplete information in this study.A total of 25 statements of information search for apparel products were listed in the

questionnaire. Factor analysis was used to extract underlying dimensions ofinformation search behaviour using maximum likelihood method with varimax

rotation. Items with loadings less than 0.3 were excluded from the analysis, and the

remaining statements were re-analysed to generate factors. Apparel-relatedinformation search behaviour could be expressed in dimensions of media,

word-of-mouth, salespersons, and in stores (Table II). Cronbachs alpha coefficients

were above 0.7, except for the dimension of in-store information. Results of the factoranalysis for information search behaviour reflected the reality that consumers seekproduct information prior to decisions from various channels.

In information search factors, sources like media accounted the most varianceexplained, followed by word-of-mouth and salespersons. Although differences of

variance explained in first three factors were not large, the first factor, media, could beconsidered as one of major sources for clothing purchases. Furthermore, in the factor of

media, the first item is related to clothing information in newspapers/magazines,indicating print apparel advertisements are presented in a medium commonly used by

consumers to obtain apparel-related information.

Different attitudes toward incomplete informationCluster analysis was utilised in this study to segment respondents into find missinginformation cluster and ignore missing information cluster in order to examine how

dimensions of attitudes toward incomplete information, information searchbehaviour, and consumers involvement influenced purchasing intentions. Factors

of attitudes toward incomplete information (missing information, and designed

information) and information search (media, WOM, salespersons, and in stores) wereused in clustering procedure. The Cubic Clustering Criteria (CCC) of the two-cluster

solution was 11.79. Since CCC was higher than recommended level of 3 and thepercentage of correct clustering using cross-validation of discriminant analysis was

96.61 per cent, the two-cluster solution was considered suitable for grouping

respondents.The mean values of attitudes toward incomplete information and of information

search are supplied in Table III. Hypothesis H1 was tested using MANOVA F. TheWilks lambda of 0.8 was statistically significant at 1 percent significance level,indicating positive linkages between attitudes toward incomplete information and

information search. Results of ANOVA F indicated that those who valued missing

information highly tended to search from various sources in order to fulfil theneed for information, and those who tended to ignore missing information were

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not likely to get engaged in advanced information search behaviour (Wilks

lambda 0:45, p-value 0:0001). The hypothesis H1 of this study was supported.

Influences of various types of information on decisions for respondents of differentclusters are listed in Table IV. Ten information types were categorised using content

analysis of collected print apparel advertisements. Respondents in general would be

more influenced by clothing prices in decisions, especially for those in the cluster of

ignoring incomplete information. Endorsers and brand histories in print apparel

advertisements had less influences on decisions, irrespective of whether respondents

tended to find missing information or to ignore missing information. Slightly higher

percentages of respondents in the cluster of finding incomplete information were

Items Media WOM Salespersons In stores

I read newspapers or magazines for apparelinformation 0.7034

I surf online to get apparel-related information 0.6971Searching apparel information online is a habit ofmine 0.6214I watch TV programs introducing fashion apparelinformation 0.5920I seek apparel information on billboards or dowindow shopping 0.5764I seek for apparel-related information in stores 0.3373I ask friends or family members opinions prior todecisions 0.7782My clothing purchases are influenced by friends orfamily members suggestions 0.7209When I purchase clothes, I like to have companions 0.5724

I discuss apparel-related information with friends orfamily members 0.4781I ask trendy friends about apparel-relatedinformation 0.4148I ask salespersons to help me choose clothes 0.7923I ask salespersons to provide assistance prior topurchases 0.6900I ask salespersons to answer my questions related toclothes 0.6318I browse displayed clothing products in stores priorto purchases 0.6391I purchase clothes based on prior experiences 0.5664I choose clothes based on my understanding ofclothes 0.4749

I check prices of clothes prior to purchases 0.4317I compare different clothing products prior topurchases 0.3368Variance explained 0.24 0.23 0.20 0.13Cronbachs a 0.78 0.76 0.76 0.64

Note: Cumulative variance explained is 80%

Table II.Factors of informationsearch behaviour

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inclined to be influenced by information in print apparel advertisements when making

decisions. The hypothesis H2 of this study was supported.

Pearson correlation coefficients supplied in Table V reveal that respondents withhigh involvement in print apparel advertising would be more likely to search for

missing information from media and WOM. Respondents who liked to discuss andcompare information in print apparel advertisements used all four channels, media,WOM, salespersons, and in stores in their information search. Consequently, H3 waspartially supported in this study. In general, involvement was found to be positivelyrelated to information search behaviours, especially in the case of media and WOM

information.

Influences of different types ofFind missing

information clusterIgnore missing

information clusterinformation in apparel ad on ( n 116) ( n 178) Chi-squaredecisions (%) (%) test p-value

Influenced by brand 60.73 54.16 4170.5120 , .0001 *

Influenced by price 71.65 78.77 6586.3427 , .0001 *

Influenced by retail locations 32.84 18.50 26682.9150 , .0001 *

Influenced by presentation 48.98 37.97 11795.2829 , .0001 *Influenced by materials 54.93 39.00 24332.1039 , .0001 *

Influenced by country of origin 21.02 19.34 416.8898 , .0001 *

Influenced by endorsers 8.30 12.10 3615.5252 , .0001 *

Influenced by promotion 39.84 38.33 225.8952 , .0001 *

Influenced by product style 59.27 48.57 10899.0440 , .0001 *

Influenced by brand history 16.09 7.13 20036.9083 , .0001 *

Note: *Indicates significance at 0.01 level

Table IVPurchasing intentions respondents in differe

cluste

Find missinginformation cluster

(n 116)

Ignore missinginformation cluster

(n 178)Cluster means ANOVA F p-value

Factors of attitudes toward incomplete informationMissing information 0.3737 20.2435 29.34 ,0.0001 *

Designed information 0.5270 20.3434 64.80 ,0.0001 *

Wilks Lambda 0:8005,F 036:27, p-value ,0.0001

Factors of information search behaviorMedia 0.5605 20.3653 75.50 ,0.0001 *

WOM 0.6767 20.4410 124.79 ,0.0001 *

Salespersons 0.3143 20.2048 20.17 ,0.0001 *

In stores 0.7539 20.4913 172.71 ,0.0001 *

Wilks Lambda 0:4464,F 089:59, p-value ,0.0001

Note: *Indicates significance at 0.01 level

Table IIDifferent attitudtoward incomple

information aninformation searc

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The mean values of involvement for respondents in different clusters are supplied in

Table VI. Those who were more likely to find incomplete information in print apparel

advertisements tended to have higher levels of involvement. Test results (ANOVA F)

indicated that those believed missing information would be important tended to be

highly involved in print apparel advertising, and those who ignored missing

information tended to have lower levels of involvement. The hypothesis H4 of this

study was therefore supported.

Information search factorsInvolvement variables Media WOM Salespersons In stores

I am interested in print apparel advertising 0.2755 0.1531 0.0944 0.0383,0.0001 * * * 0.0086 * * * 0.1061 0.5128

I pay attention to print apparel advertising 0.3044 0.1463 0.0856 0.0556,0.0001 * * * 0.0120 * * 0.1432 0.3424

I discuss print apparel advertising withothers 0.3364 0.2463 0.2304 0.1095

,0.0001 * * * ,0.0001 * * * ,0.0001 * * * 0.0612 *

I am attracted by print apparel advertising 0.2726 0.2205 0.1483 0.0816,0.0001 * * * 0.0001 * * * 0.0109 * * 0.1630

I read print apparel advertising innewspapers and magazines 0.3933 0.2077 0.1613 0.1654

,0.0001 * * * 0.0003 * * * 0.0056 * * * 0.0045 * * *

I compare different print appareladvertising 0.2915 0.1379 0.1342 0.1844

,

0.0001* * *

0.0180* *

0.0214*

0.0015* * *

Notes: *Indicates significance at 0.1 level; * *indicates significance at 0.05 level; * * *indicatessignificance at 0.01 level

Table V.Pearson correlationcoefficients of

information searchfactors and involvementvariables

Find missinginformation cluster

(n 116)

Ignore missinginformation cluster

(n 178)ANOVA

F p-value

I am interested in printapparel advertising 2.8707 2.6910 6.55 0.0110 *

I pay attention to printapparel advertising 2.8621 2.6742 7.32 0.0072 * *

I discuss print appareladvertising with others 3.0086 2.7119 14.56 0.0002 * *

I am attracted by printapparel advertising 2.8879 2.6854 8.77 0.0033 * *

I read print appareladvertising in newspapersand magazines 3.2241 2.9326 23.13 ,0.0001 * *

I compare different printapparel advertising 3.0345 2.7191 14.80 0.0001 * *

Notes: *Indicates significance at 0.05 level; * *indicates significance at 0.01 level

Table VI.Involvement in printapparel advertising byclusters

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Demographical differencesThe demographics of respondents in clusters of finding and ignoring incompleteinformation are listed in Table VII. Test results indicated that respondents in these twoclusters were not statistically different in demographical variables including gender,

marital status, educational level, and occupation. Respondents who tended to ignoremissing information in print apparel advertisements were slightly older with highermonthly personal income. The implications are that consumers who tend to find or toignore incomplete information in print apparel advertising are not statisticallydifferent in demographics, but in attitudes toward incomplete information,involvement in print apparel advertising and purchasing intentions.

ConclusionsAdvertising is applied in media with information carefully selected and designed toattract audiences. Owing to limited space for print advertising to present the productsor services, information is far from complete in magazine advertisements. The

objectives of this study were to examine how consumers perceived missinginformation of print apparel advertisements in fashion magazines and further to revealhow missing information affected decisions.

Based on the results of this study, respondents who believed missing information inprint apparel advertising to be important tended to find missing information from

Find missinginformation cluster

(n 116)

Ignore missinginformation cluster

(n 178) Test p-value

Average age (years) 23.74 25.20 22.43a 0.0163 *

Monthly personal income (NTD) 22,758.62 29,774.01 23.08a 0.0025 * *

Monthly household income(NTD) 98,363.64 100,650.89 20.33

a 0.7425Monthly personal clothingexpenditures (NTD) 3,405.22 3,508.14 20.25

a0.8022

Gender (% of male) 47.41 50.00 0.19 b 0.6646Marriage (% of single) 89.66 88.76 0.06

b0.8105

Educational level (%) 5.36 b 0.1473 Junior high school 0.00 0.56Senior high school 25.86 15.73College 61.21 66.86Graduate school 12.93 16.85Occupation (%) 7.38

b0.2873

Public/military/education 5.36 6.94

Industry 4.46 5.20Business 3.57 5.20Services 21.43 24.86Housewife 2.68 1.15Students 52.68 39.31Others 9.82 17.34

Notes: *Indicates significance at 0.05 level; * *indicates significance at 0.01 level; a t-test statistics;bChi-square statistics

Table VIDemographics b

cluste

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other sources including media, word-of-mouth, salespersons, and in stores. Informationsearch behaviour positively influenced purchasing intentions. In general, consumerswho had higher levels of involvement tended to pay more attention to missinginformation and were more likely to search information. Consumers who had lower

levels of involvement tended to ignore missing information. Missing information couldbe inferred by prior experiences for decisions.

Marketing implicationsThe findings in this study provide new insights into information marketing and can bevery valuable to marketers of apparel advertising. Marketing strategies based on theresults of this study are suggested in the following:

. For a certain segment of consumers, incomplete information in print appareladvertisements does not seem to be of major concern. The involvement levels ofthese consumers in print apparel advertisements are low. However, personal

clothing expenditures of these consumers are not statistically lower then those ofconsumers who believe missing information in print apparel advertisements isimportant and would go further to find missing information from other sources.Marketing implications are that print apparel advertising seems to be fine at thecurrent way in presenting apparel products. Consumers who ignore missinginformation do not necessarily spend less on clothing. Consumers who tend tofind missing information always have sources to obtain information to supportdecisions.

. Consumers who have higher levels of involvement in print appareladvertisements are the ones who enjoy reading fashion magazines and wouldbe willing to discuss the fashion apparel information with others. Informationsources for these types of consumers are various. Fashion marketing managersmay need to disseminate apparel information utilising different channels soconsumers who notice missing information in print apparel advertisementswould obtain information easily.

. Findings in this study indicate consumers can be segmented into clusters ofthose who care more about missing information and those who care less. Sinceconsumers who are inclined to find missing information from other sources arethe ones who like to discuss topics in print apparel advertising, marketingmanagers could create ideas in print apparel advertising which could be recalledeasily and might become topics is conversations. Consumers may not need muchinformation in print apparel advertising, but the design of advertisements needsto be attractive to increase awareness of the products.

The limitation of this study was that the respondents were those who read fashionmagazines in the previous six months prior to the survey. Hence, findings of this studyare applicable only to readers of fashion magazines, not to all consumers makingdecisions about clothing purchases. Consequently, how to make other consumers whodo not read fashion magazines to become readers of fashion magazine could be thechallenge for marketers. Additionally, print apparel advertisements are not onlypresented in magazines, but offered on billboards, in catalogues, on internet, in

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newspapers and in buses. The limitation of readers of fashion magazines could berestrictive in studying attitudes toward incomplete information in print appareladvertisements.

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Corresponding authorJane Lu Hsu can be contacted at: jlu@dragon.nchu.edu.tw

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