Women in Computing

n in Computing: Historical Roles, erpetual Glass Ceiling, and

portunities AMITA GOYAL

Over the course of history, women have slowly begun to hold influential roles in the computing industry, Although progress has been made, the pre- cipitous journey is not yet complete. This paper presents a historical analysis of the entrance and role of women in the computing industry, a discussion on the existence and impact of the glass ceiling, and a detailed and informa- tive collection of programs and opportunities established to abet women in succeeding in the industry. The information compiled in this work will prove useful not only to the women already employed in the industry but also to women contemplating entrance.

105X-6180/96/$5.00 0 1996 IEEE

36 * IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996

Introduction

0 ver the course of history, the demographics of the work- force have changed drastically. Women have slowly

emerged as able participants in the workforce and have even progressed to hold influential roles and positions. Women have accounted for 60% of the total labor force growth between 1982 and 1992, experiencing their highest labor force partici- pation rate of 57.8% in 1992. At this time, of the 100 million women 16 years and older in the United States, 58 million are active in the labor force [26]. Women are projected to account for nearly three-fifths of the labor force entrants between 1990 and 2005, comprising 47% of the labor force by the year 2005 [26]. Approximately half (44%) of the current female partici- pation in the labor force, however, is characterized by low- paying clerical and administrative positions [26]. Representa- tion of women in high-paying management-level positions is still scarce. Nevertheless, in spite of their low numbers and positions when compared to men in the workplace, women have begun to carve a significant niche and establish a potent presence in the workplace.

Whereas the workforce in all disciplines has been enriched with the presence of women workers, the computer technology industry in particular has held many promises for women for equity between the genders in professional access, opportunity, and eventually salary. Many women prefer to enter computing rather than other disciplines because computing is a relatively young field and, therefore, has had less time and opportunity to develop strong and hardened stereotypes and discrimination than other disciplines. Surveys confirm that sexual barriers are far fewer in the computer field than in other industries [22]. Additionally, computing is probably the most open of all pro- fessions because of its focus on technical skills, which are gen- der-blind. Since most women in information systems (IS) are typically college-educated [5], they can compete technically with their male counterparts.

In order to achieve true gender equality, however, many

more women must be recruited ,into the high-tech workforce and be provided ample opportunities to strive to their full po- tential and demonstrate their individual abilities. Fortunately, many corporate and user organizations as well as institutions of higher education have instituted special programs to specifi- cally encourage and abet women both in technology and other disciplines [14]. While the journey to gender equality in the workplace is a long and arduous one, some women have made such significant contributions that they have become pioneers in technology and now serve as role models for the new breed of women entering the industry. Although these pioneering women are ambitious and want to capitalize on opportunities for advancement, they are few in numbers. Most women are only mildly optimistic that their career will ever include the executive level of management. A recent survey of IS profes- sionals revealed that women make up only 18% of the IS work- force and that only seven out of 100 of the nation’s top IS ex- ecutives are women [5]. The low number of women in industry, when compared with the number of men, is still a cause for concern, and an arbitrary gap in the salaries between the gen- ders still exists. Therefore, upon hitting the “glass ceiling,” most women resign themselves to a career of inequality and settle for lesser positions and salaries or leave the computing technology field entirely.

In this work, I provide a historical account and analysis of the entrance and role of women in the computing indus- try. First, I discuss the accomplishments of the female pio- neers. Then I examine the contributions of the subsequent entourage of women in computing. Following this historical discussion, I investigate the glass ceiling, a prominent problem presently plaguing many women struggling to suc- ceed in the highly competitive technology industry. Finally, I furnish copious information on the multitude of programs and opportunities that have been established specifically to assist women in succeeding in the industry. I hope the in- formation compiled in this work will prove useful not only

to the women already employed in the industry but also to women contemplating entrance.

Historical Roles Women were the prominent early users of computers. Some even say that the first computer user was a woman! During World War II, most men were in the armed forces, affording women the op- portunity to be the early pioneers. In those days, calculators or computers was the term given to people, primarily women, who were doing hand calculations using desk calculators. As women moved into programming, they usually became application pro- grammers, programming scientific problems in math and physics and working on applying numerical methods to computers. Women were often stereotyped as being good candidates for pro- gramming: “Programming requires lots of patience, persistence and a capacity for detail and those are traits that many girls have” [16].

Few men worked in applications, most of them worked as system programmers. Since then, women have been involved in pioneering computer science by participating in all stages of computing, including funding projects, teaching at colleges and universities, designing and programming machines, and devel- oping the early programming languages [ 161.

Because of their significant contributions, a number of women have emerged as major pioneers in computing while others have played critical roles in the advancement of the technology disciplines as well as in the advancement of women in technology. These women broke through the societal stereo- types and chauvinism to strive in the technology field, competing alongside predominantly male coworkers. We would be remiss if we did not discuss the contributions of some of these women.

Augusta Ada Byron Love/ace Augusta Ada Byron Lovelace (Fig. I), born in 1815 and pos- sessing sound mathematical skills, was drawn into computing for its potential as a tool for solving complex mathematical problems. Having met Charles Babbage at the age of 17, Lovelace is best known for her translation from French to Eng- lish of Menabrea’s report on Babbage’s Turin lecture. The ad- dition of her own insights in the form of copious notes, includ- ing a table describing the operations necessary for solving mathematical problems, earned her recognition as the first con- ceptual programmer for Babbage’s Analytical Engine. Lovelace is also credited with developing the programming concepts of subroutines and looping. The programming language Ada, pri- marily used by the Department of Defense, was named in honor of Lovelace’s remarkable contributions and pioneering efforts.

Admiral Grace Brewster Murray Hopper Admiral Grace Brewster Murray Hopper (Fig. 2), born in 1906, was educated at Vassar College and Yale University, where in 1934 she became the first woman from the university to be awarded a PhD in mathematics. Hopper is predominantly rec- ognized for her technical vision and expertise. In addition to being one of the first programmers on the Navy’s Mark I com- puter, Hopper is recognized for her contributions to program- ming concepts, including subroutines, translation of formula, relative addressing, linking loaders, code optimization, and symbolic manipulation. Hopper did much of the background work that resulted in the development of Cobol (Common

Business Oriented Language). Cobol was the first implemented business data processing language. She foresaw, very early on, that, “It is the current aim to replace, as far as possible, the human brain by an electronic digital computer” 191.

Fig. 1. Ada, Countess of Lovelace.

In 1985, the Naval Computer and Telecommunication Sta- tion in San Diego broke ground on a 135,577-square..foot data processing facility, the Grace Murray Hopper Service Center [9]. There is also a Grace Murray Hopper Center for Computer Learning at Brewster Academy in New Hampshire. More re- cently, Admiral Hopper has been honored by the industry by an international conference named in her honor, The Grace Hop- per Celebration of Women in Computing Conference. The first meeting of the conference was held in Washington, D.C., in June 1994. In January 1996, the U.S. Navy commissioned the missile destroyer USS Hopper [36].

Sister Mary Kenneth Keller Sister Mary Kenneth Keller is believed to be one of the first, if not the first woman to receive a doctoral degree in computer science in the United States. She was awarded the PhD degree in 1965 from the University of Wisconsin. Sister Keller was instrumental in establishing graduate programs in cismputing for women. She founded the Computer Science Department at Clarke College in Dubuque, Iowa, and established a master’s degree program for computer applications in education.

More Recently Between 1970 and 1980 there was a 44% increase in the num- ber of women in computing [22]. Judy Clapp and Inez Hazel served as programmers on the Whirlwind machine, working together long hours developing the Cape Cod System, the fore- runner of the Sage system. Developed at MIT, the Whirlwind was the first real-time computer and the first to use time- sharing. Kathleen McNulty served as one of the first program- mers of the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Corn puter), while Mildred Koss was one of the first programmers of the UNIVAC I. Portia Isaacson became a pioneer of personal computing by opening one of the first microcomputer stores in the nation in 1976. She also founded one of the first, and at one

IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996 l 37

Women in Computing

Women and minorities continue to be underrepresented in technology. Survey results show that women and minorities represent only 10% to 14% of graduates of computer science doctoral programs [27]. Women comprise only 7.8% of the computer s&&e faculty in the United States and only about 2.8% of those have been awarded tenure [27], [15]. Many reasons contribute to the Un- der-representation of women in technology and in high-ranked positions in the industry. In addition to the archaic societal respon- sibilities and pressures of homemaking and motherhood, women suffer from a lack of positive reinforcement and from a severe’ lack of successful role models. To rectify this problem, several executive mentoring programs have been established. A number‘&

es geared to helping women and organizations interested in helping women in computing succeed are available. Many cor- ns have also established groups to abet women [lo]. Women interested in pursuing graduate studies should take advantage,

1 of the numerous graduate fellowship programs established specifically for women [3]. In addition to those listed in [14], programs, id organizations specifically oriented toward assisting and furthering the advancement of women in

resourc poratio

opportunities, ai elude: ,,’ I more informa- ting Research Association’s Committee on the Status of Women in Computer Science and Engineering. FOI compu

Qon ^_^ r-l, ^. _.__^ :1 I<^._..

Women and

Women ship wkiri@eng.utah.edu.

The Ada Projec information.

;es, universities, , xx LL. L 1 01 tmau may at into Computing (WiC) aims to promote interest and increase the number of women in computing in colleg industry. For more information, see [I] or email Frances Grundy at frances@cs.keele.ac.uk. Undergrads in Computer Science. URL: http:llwww.science.unimelb.edu.auiciellelwomenlwucs.html. Inter

16 conferences,. organizations, resources, mailing lists, etc. The web page is maintained by ,nships, scholar- Kiri Wagstaff,

t (TAP) uses the Web as a clearinghouse for information and resources relating to women in camp uting. For more , see [12] or open URL: http://www.cs.yale.edulhtmliyale/cslhyplans/tap/tap.html.

The National Consortium for Graduate Degrees for Minorities in Engineering and Science, Inc. established to increase the number ninority students at the graduate level. See [7] or contact the Central Office, P.O. Box 537, Notre Dame, I of n

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an Association of University Women (AAUW) is a national organization of 135,000 college graduates focus: equity and education for women and girls. AAUW consists of 1,800 chapter and/or state affiliates. For more infor, e to AAUW’, 1111 16th St. NW, Washington, DC 20036 or call (202) 785-7700 or fax (202) 872-1425. an Bar Association. For more information, write to 750 N. Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, IL 60611 or call (312) ’ terican College of Nurse-Midwives. Write to 1522 K St. NW; Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20005 or call {ZO: sociation for Women in Computing is a national, nonprofit, professional organization dedicated to the ; nen in the computing fields in business, industry, science, education, and government. For more informat

iite 100, San Francisco, CA 94104 or call (415) 905-4663 or email AWC@ACM.org. zerican Medical Women’s Association (AMWA) is an association of women physicians and medical students, ion, write to 801 N. Fairfax St., Alexandria, VA 22314 or call (703) 8380500 or fax (703) 549-3864.

The Associationfor Women in Mathematics (AWM) holds meetings in conjunction with the national AMS-MAA meetings. AWM publishes a bimonthly newsletter on professional opportunities and news of women in mathematical sciences. For more infor- mation, write to 4114 Computer and Space Sciences Building, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 or email awm@math.umd.edu. ‘,‘,

American Nurses Association. ANA advances the nursing professional by fostering high standards of nursing practice, promoting the economic and general welfare of nurses in the workplace, projecting a positive and realistic view of nursing, and working with the U.S. Congress and regulatory agencies on issues affecting nurses and the public. ANA currently has 200,000 members, For more information, write to 600 Maryland Ave. SW, Suite 100 West, Washington, DC 20024 or call (202) 554-4444”or fax (202)554-2262.

FOT more infor-

American Women in Radio and Television currently has 50 chapter and/or state affiliates consisting of 2,400 members. For more infor- mation, write to 1101 Connecticut Ave. NW, Suite 100, Washington, DC 20036 or call (202) 429-5102 or fax (202) 223-4579.

ztion for Women in Science focuses on women interested in biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and cox nputer sciences. For more information, write to 1522 K St. NW, Suite awis@access.digex.net.

The Association of .funior L,eagues is a volunteer organization fective action and leadership of trained volunteers. It curren tion

The ??a

820, Washington, DC 20005 or call (202) 408-0742 or,, e&l

of women committed to improving the community through the ef- tly consists of 277 chapter and/or state affiliates. Formore informa-

I proi

, write to 660 First Ave., New York, NY 100163241 or call (212) 683-1515 or fax (212) 481-7196. :tional Federation of Business and Professional Women (BPWNSA) is the bipartisan voice of working WOI notes full participation, equity, and economic self-sufficiency for women. The organization monitors legisls king women and teaches members how to become involved in public policy development at all levels incl war _ _. uding the ‘work-

search on issues affecting women in the workplace and provides‘fi-1 te 2012 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20036, call (2p2)

place. BPW’s foundation collects, conducts, and analyzes re nancial assistance for women to further their education. Wri 2931100, or fax (202) 861-0298.

nen. ‘BPWIIJSA &ion that affects

38 l IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996

IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996 l 39

Women in Computing

time the largest, microcomputer-related market research firm in the country, Future Computing, Inc. [35]. Thelma E&-in, a PhD in electrical engineering, has been very active in the role of women in computer science. She presented a workshop titled Cultural Issues of Gender in Computer Science at the Grace Hopper Celebration Conference. Jean Sammet worked on Co- bol and developed Format. She also wrote a definitive book on programming languages.

Fig. 2. Grace Murray Hopper.

Achievements Following the legacy of these predecessors, many women working in computing today have emerged as prominent lead- ers. These women are not only highly educated but have demon- strated their pioneering spirit with their remarkable accomplish- ments as they have persevered despite societal stereotypes. What follows is a small sample of these remarkable women and their accomplishments. More detailed biographies on some of these women can be found in the book by Fryer and Roderick [ 131.

Anita Borg, who received her PhD in 1981 from New York University for her work on synchronization efficiency, created and maintains System, an electronic mailing list for technical women in computing. Systers currently has over 1,700 mem- bers spanning 18 countries. Borg also served as general chair for the first Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing Conference, while Telle Whitney served as program chair [6]. Whitney received her PhD from Caltech in 1985 and has ac- tively been involved in the design and development of software used to create chip families at Actel Corporation. Nancy Leveson, a 1980 UCLA PhD, originated the research area of

software safety, which addresses the problems of building software for real-time control systems in which errors can re- sult in loss of life or property. She also completed a two-year term as editor-in-chief of the IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering in December 1995. Anita Jones, a 1973 PhD graduate of Carnegie-Mellon University, has served as chair of the Department of Computer Science at the University of Vir- ginia and as vice president and founder of Tartan Laboratories. Mary Jane Irwin, a 1977 PhD from the University of Illinois, has published over 100 technical papers on computer architec- ture, the design of application-specific and massively parallel VLSI processors, high-speed computer arithmetic, and elec- tronic computer-aided design tools. Dorothy Denning has been actively researching the field of information security for over 20 years. In addition to her doctoral dissertation in 1975, she has published numerous papers and a book and has been a re- viewer of the government’s new escrowed encryption technol- ogy. Denning is currently chair of computer science at Georgetown University. Irene Greif is credited with inventing the Version Manager that is a part of Lotus l-2-3 spreadsheets. Greif is also regarded as the founder of the field of computer- supported cooperative work. Barbara Grosz, a professor of computer science at Harvard University, is widely regarded as having established the research field of computational modeling of discourse.

The above list clearly demonstrates an industry shifting from being largely male-dominated to one with significant participa- tion and contributions by women professionals. However, tech- nology disciplines are still predominantly male by a large ratio. Therefore, in spite of their increasing presence in technology, women continue to struggle in an uphill battle to abolish the perpetual glass ceiling, attempting to obtain professional equality.

The Glass Ceiling Even with today’s progressive attitudes, many women are plagued with invisible barriers that prevent them from advanc- ing into top-level positions within organizations. This glass ceiling, the existence of which has been confirmed in several studies 151, [24], has resulted in women being paid less than men in comparable positions, with the disparity gap [35], [33] broadening with increased position levels [18], [20], [23], [29], [4]. Because computing is a relatively young discipline, a few women may be able to progress into higher positions; however, they will experience unequal difficulties when trying to get to the very top positions and will most likely earn salaries signifi- cantly lower than their male counterparts. The results of a re- cent survey indicate that many women in IS reported earnings of 20-21s lower than those of their male counterparts [33].

Surveys on IS worker demographics, salaries, and job satis- faction reveal that, on average, women in IS are college- educated, politically liberal, and in their late 30s [S]. The re- search points out many similarities between men and women in IS. For example, both genders believe IS offers an excellent career track. Drexel University’s study of members of the As- sociation for Computing Machinery found that both men and women feel they have the opportunity to work on significant and challenging projects with competent colleagues, build a professional reputation, and be respected by peers and man- agement. However, the glass ceiling keeps women in the

40 l IEEE Annals of the History qf Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996

midlevel jobs in IS departments while men are permitted to advance into higher level positions, Women are beginning to close the gap. A 1993 poll showed unmistakably that females are moving into more responsible, higher paying IS jobs in far greater numbers. For example, in 1993, women held 42.9% of local area network manager positions, compared with 31% in 1992. Although two-thirds of those polled were men-a fair representation of the computing population at large-the trend toward more gender-balanced departments is undeniable.

In addition to simple old-fashioned discrimination and the old-boy network, there are a number of reasons that may con- tribute to the salary inequities and the low number of women in top management positions. For example, women did not enter the IS field in large numbers until the early 1980s. Many mod- ern women become victims of the balance between their per- sonal and professional lives. Some fall prey to the mommy track. Due to their primary responsibilities of rearing their chil- dren, these women have to become less aggressive and less competitive at work and simply settle for low-paying jobs having fixed hours and limited responsibilities. Most women generally have low self-esteem and set low professional goals. Some women view their work as of secondary importance, with their husband’s work having primary importance. Therefore, these women are unwilling to relocate or accept positions re- quiring long or irregular hours. Determined to succeed, a few women sacrifice having children and a family life in order to compete professionally.

The problem of the glass ceiling is not simply a problem existing in the workplace that, with time, can be resolved at the workplace. The glass ceiling is a corporate culture issue and is largely responsible for the large number of women that have left their jobs in large corporations. Society must also share the blame for the existence of the glass ceiling. In rearing girls, society conditions them to have certain behavioral characteris- tics, likes, and dislikes, etc. Empirical data indicate the media depict males as the experts and users of computers [32], that boys are more likely than girls to attend computer camps [ 191, and that families with male children are more likely to own a computer [ 1 I]. The cumulative effects of these societal gender role messages are indicated in the finding that males and fe- males view computers and computer tasks as masculine in na- ture 181, [17], [34]. Males, compared to females, have been found to have more positive attitudes toward computers and have more confidence in their ability to program computers 1261. Gender role socialization may negatively impact females’ interest in and expectations for success with computers. Broad- ening gender roles may enable women to more easily become more active participants in the computer industry. The glass ceiling is a social problem plaguing society and can be resolved only when society as a whole abandons the archaic views of women that it has held for centuries. Society as a whole will have to recognize that women are capable not only of making contributions in the home but also of making intellectual and significant contributions in society and in the workplace.

Despite salary inequities between the genders and the slim opportunities of women being promoted into top management positions, growing ranks of women are eagerly exploring growth paths in IS. And, more women (78%) are expressing satisfaction with their IS careers than their male (75%) coun-

terparts [S]. This success is due, in part, to the numerous pro- grams and opportunities that have been established by schools, universities, businesses, and societal organizations to specifi- cally help women enter into and succeed in the workforce. For a list of these resources, please see the Programs and Opportu- nities for Involvement sidebar.

Conclusions Studies have shown that there is a difference between male and female computer users. Women tend to be very serious and methodical about technology. They tend to view computers simply as tools to make them more productive. Mlzn tend to think of computers more as toys. They are hackers at heart, viewing computing as a hobby [2]. Women tend to be more tender and nurturing while men tend to be more abrasive users. Hence, many women in technology migrate toward teaching and training positions while many men migrate toward pro- gramming, management, and technical positions.

Surveys on IS worker demographics, salaries, and job satisfaction reveal

that, on average, women in IS ‘are college-educated, politically liberal,

and in their late 30s.

Research studies include evidence indicating that existing gender bias and discrimination at every educational level are affecting women’s ability to advance along career paths and could quietly be directing females away from the technological industry [28]. The lack of women as academic role models also propagates an absence of women in academia. As a result, more and more people in the industry have begun to be s’ensitive to the issues of attracting women to computing, keeping women employed in the technology disciplines, and affording women the opportunity to contribute and flourish in the workplace. Software vendors are concentrating on producing computer software that is not geared just toward men, but software that is geared specifically to women, as well as software that is uni- sexual [25]. This may help in keeping young women from be- ing inhibited by computing and from viewing technology as a male discipline. Additionally, an increasing number of women are being promoted to mid-level management positions [33]. Mentoring programs continue to be established to recruit and help junior women. The acknowledgment of the existence of the glass ceiling, the admission and recognition of the existing gender discrimination, and the steps being taken by society and corporations to end the perpetuation of any arbitrary barriers as well as the continued perseverance of women are helping to eliminate gender inequalities in society and in the workplace.

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[3] S.J. Baylor, “Graduate Fellowship Programs,” Comm. ACM, vol. 38, no. I, pp. 37-42, 1995.

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Women in Computing

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Amita Goyal is an assistant professor in the Information Systems Department at Virginia Commonwealth University. She received her BS in computer science and MS and PhD in information systems, all from the University of Maryland at Col- lege Park. Her research interests include distributed database systems, women in technology, and information systems curricula. In June 1995, Dr. Goyal served

as program chair for EDSIG’s Worldwide Conference on In- formation Systems Education (WISE 1995). Dr. Goyal is a member of the Association of NeXTSTEP Developers, Inc. (ANDI), the International Association for Mathematical and Computer Modelling (IAMCM), and the Information Re- sources Management Association (IRMA).

The author can be contacted at Department of Information Systems Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, VA 23284.4000 e-mail: amita@saturn.vcu.edu http://isy 1 .isy.vcu.edu/isydept/faculty/amitafgoyal.h~ml (804)828-7131

42 * IEEEAnnals of the History of Computing, Vol. 18, No. 3, 1996

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