Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY

(5th Ed)

Chapter 9

Memory

James A. McCubbin, PhDClemson University

Worth Publishers

Memory

Memory persistence of learning over time

via the storage and retrieval of information

Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an

emotionally significant moment or event

MemoryMemory as Information Processing

similar to a computer write to filesave to diskread from disk

Encoding the processing of information into the

memory system

Memory

Storage the retention of encoded

information over timeRetrieval

process of getting information out of memory

Memory

Short term memory activated memory that holds a few items

briefly look up a phone number, then quickly

dial before the information is forgotten

Long term memory the relatively permanent and limitless

storehouse of the memory system

Encoding

Encoding

Effortful Automatic

EncodingAutomatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental informationspacetimefrequency

well-learned informationword meanings

we can learn automatic processingreading backwards

Encoding

Effortful Processing requires attention and conscious

effort

Rehearsal conscious repetition of information

to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding

Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the

fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2

Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long

term retention than massed practice

Encoding

20

15

10

5

08 16 24 32 42 53 64

Time in minutestaken to relearnlist on day 2

Number of repetitions of list on day 1

Encoding

Serial Position Effect tendency to recall best the last and

first items in a list

Encoding

12

Percentage of

words recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

What do we Encode?

Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words

Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words

Visual Encoding encoding of picture images

EncodingImagery

mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,

especially when combined with semantic encoding

Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid

imagery and organizational devices

EncodingChunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable unitslike horizontal organization-

1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms

HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding

Hierarchies complex information broken down into

broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Encoding

Encoding(automatic or effortful)

Imagery(visualEncoding)

Meaning(semanticEncoding)

Organization

Chunks Hierarchies

EncodingForgetting as encoding failureInformation never enters the memory

systemAttention is selective

we cannot attend to everything in our environment

William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

EncodingForgetting as encoding failure

Externalevents

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Encoding failureleads to forgetting

Encoding

Forgetting as encoding failure

Which penny is the real thing?

Storage-Retaining InformationSensory Memory

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic Memory a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no

more that a few tenths of a second Registration of exact representation of a scene

Echoic Memory momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Storage-Short Term Memory

Short Term Memory limited in duration and capacity “magical” number 7+/-2

Storage-Short Term Memory

0102030405060708090

3 6 9 12 15 18

Time in seconds between presentationof contestants and recall request

(no rehearsal allowed)

Percentagewho recalledconsonants

Storage-Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

virtually limitless capacity we don't have to discard old items to

remember new itemsEbbinghaus- forgetting curve over

30 days initially rapid, then levels off with time

Storage-Long Term Memory

12345 10 15 20 25 30

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Time in days since learning list

Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning

Storage-Long Term MemoryHow does storage work?

Karl Lashley (1950)rats learn mazelesion cortex test memory

Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation

increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and

retention

Storage-Long Term MemoryAmnesia- the loss of memoryExplicit Memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Implicit Memory retention without conscious recollection motor and cognitive skills dispositions- conditioning

Storage-Long Term Memory

MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)

Hippocampus

Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems

Types oflong-termmemories

Explicit(declarative)

With consciousrecall

Implicit(nondeclarative)

Without conscious recall

Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)

Personally experienced

events(“episodic memory”)

Skills-motorand cognitive

Dispositions-classical and

operant conditioning

effects

RetrievalRecall

the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test

Recognition the ability to identify previously

learned items-like on a multiple choice test

RetrievalRelearning

amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information

Priming activation, often unconsciously,

of particular associations in memory

Retrieval CuesReminders of information we could not

otherwise recallGuides to where to look for info

Context Effectsmemory works better in the context of

original learning

Retrieval Cues

0

10

20

30

40

Water/land

Land/water

Land/water

Different contexts for hearing and recall

Same contexts for hearing and recall

Land/land

Percentage ofwords recalled

Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen

cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

"I've experienced this before" Mood Congruent Memory

tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues

State Dependent Memorywhat is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk

or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

Retrieval Cues

After learning to move a mobile by kicking, infants had their learning reactivated most strongly when retested in the same rather than a different context (Butler & Rovee-Collier, 1989).

RetrievalForgetting can result from failure to

retrieve information from long-term memory

Externalevents

Attention

Encoding

Encoding

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

Retrieval

Sensorymemory

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Forgetting-Interference

Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information Proactive(forward acting) Interference

disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information

Retroactive (backwards acting) Interferencedisruptive effect of new learning on recall

of old information

Forgetting-InterferenceMotivated Forgetting

people unknowingly revise historyRepression

defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Positive Transfer sometimes old information facilitates our

learning of new information knowledge of Latin may help us to learn

French

Forgetting

Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting

Sensory memory - the senses momentarily register amazing detail

Short term memory - a few items are both noticed and encoded

Long-term storage - Some itemsare altered or lost

Retrieval from long-term memory - depending on interference, retrieval cuesmoods and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t

Memory ConstructionWe filter information and fill in

missing piecesMisinformation Effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an

event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory ConstructionPeople fill in memory gaps with

plausible guesses and assumptionsImagining events can create false

memoriesChildren's eyewitness recall

Child sexual abuse does occur Some innocent people suffer false

accusations Some guilty cast doubt on true

testimony

Memory ConstructionMemories of Abuse

Repressed or Constructed?Child sexual abuse does occurSome adults do actually forget such episodes

False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and

relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience

sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory ConstructionMost people can agree on the following:

Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or

drugs are unreliable Memories of things happening before age

3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are

upsetting

Improve Your MemoryStudy repeatedly to boost recallSpend more time rehearsing or

actively pondering materialMake material personally

meaningfulUse mnemonic devices

associate with peg words- something already stored

make up story chunk-acronyms

Improve Your Memory

Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood

Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference

Minimize interference Test your own knowledge

rehearse determine what you do not yet

know