FA 202 2016 BEHİN AKSOY MYCENAEANS, HELLENESAND HELLENIC COLONIZATION

I. Mycenaeans: from about 1600 BC to 1200 BCA. Indo-European Hellenic speaking peopleB. Myc. geography

1. Peloponnesus: esp. Argolidos-cities: Mycenae Tiryns the South Argos2. Attica  : the East3. Euboea : the East4. Epirus  : the North and North-west

C. Myc. Art and Architecture (type site Mycenae)1. fortified citadel2. one main gate: two rampant lions above, reminiscent of Phrygian lions on

rock monuments such as Aslantaş, Afyon (common ancestors in the Balkans)

3. gravesa. grave circles

1) A: I-VI shaft graves/inside the fortress, 13th century BC2) B: outside the fortress, also 13th cent.

b. tholos tombs: such as the so called “Treasury of Atreus” / 13th cent. BC, decorated parts now missing

1) round tomb chamber2) dromos: long corridor before the entrance to the tomb chamber

4. typical Myc. objectsa. the treasures

1) gold plated box w. embossed decoration (hexagonal): geometric and naturalistic motifs2) round gold pieces as ornamentation for clothing (embossed motifs)3) silver and gold cups: decoration techniques

a) embossingb) inlay: silver and gold, also niello (metallic alloy of sulphur w. silver, lead, copper, etc.)

4) gold funerary masks5) gold funerary diadems

b. figurines: esp. female/mostly draped in pleated clothingc. life size sculpture: not many retrieved/one example stucco female head with painted decoration on cheeks and chind. pottery

1) many shapes, but the stirrup jar is the most typical2) decoration: esp. fr. 13th cent. on Minoan influence, therefore naturalistic sea life represented the most

a) fish b) octopuses c) shelled molluscs

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D. Myc. seamanship and first attempts of colonization in Anatolia (1400-1200 BC)1. through legend a. Argonauts and Jason 1) group of heroes in the boat Argo

2) they sailed to Colchis 3) in search of the golden fleece (in actual fact: in search of real gold) b. Iliad: 8th cent. epic poem of the blind poet, Homer of Smyrna (fall of Troy is ca. 1250 – if it ever happened at all – so the poet is telling of a tale which is in a setting of about 500 years ago) 1) siege of Troy by Achaeans (Mycenaeans) 2) fall of Troy (the wooden horse, etc.)2. boat paintings, esp. on pottery, point out to concentrated sea-faring esp. in the Aegean (from island to island, also coastal navigation)3. archaeological data: Myc. pottery found in 2nd millennium levels of some Western Anatolian sites a. Troy b. Çandarlı c. Miletus d. Müskebi4. written sources: Hittite tablet/Hittite king granting protection to the Trojan king against Myc. attacks

II. Dorian invasion of Greece (about 1200 BC) and aftermathA. Dark Ages of Greece: 1200 – 1050 BC (about 150 years)B. After the Dark Ages

1. Greek city states in the Myc. area2. attempts at colonization of Western Anatolia, coastal areas a. Proto-geometric pottery (arch. data) in early 1st mill. levels of Western Anatolian sites 1) naturalistic decoration totally absent 2) geometric decoration only a) panels: concentric circles, lozenges, etc. within them b) bands and lines b. Geometric pottery in slightly later levels of the same sites 1) naturalistic scenes reappearing a) floral, faunal, human and other

b) highly stylized c) in restricted panels

2) geometric decoration mostlyIII. Intensive Hellenic colonization of Western Anatolia: 750-550 BC

A. important Hellenic colonies of this early period1. islands

a. Chiosb. Samos

2. cities of Anatoliaa. Phocaeab. Clazomenaec. Erythrae

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d. Teose. Lebedosf. Colophong. Ephesus (Apasa of the Hittites)h. Prienei. Myusj. Miletus (Millawanda of the Hittites)k. Smyrna (founded somewhat later than these) 1) first founded as a meagre mudbrick village offshore on an island 2) then the island is annexed to the shore (Bayraklı suburb of Smyrna today) 3) the archaic temple of Athena was important: of Aeolic order a) Greek closed temples were first built in the colonies (influence of Lydian wooden temples, now lost, but depicted on rock monuments) - the earliest in Samos (Heraion) - then in Anatolia proper - then in Greece b) ground plan: megaron (basic Western Anatolian and island house plan from Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age on)

B. Basic periods of art in the Hellenic World1. Orientalizing Period: end of 8th, beginning of 7th centuries, esp. East Greek.

a. influence of Oriental cultures, esp. Anatolian, on Greek Art. b. Cybele, the Mother Goddess of the Lydians, draws special attention c. mixed creatures also draw special attention: esp. reminiscent of Lydian decoration on pottery 1) sphinxes (body: lion, head: human) 2) griffons (body: lion, head: bird)d. counterpart of Orientalizing pottery of East Greeks in the West is Proto-Corinthian pottery: shift now more to the naturalistic w. less geometric decoration.

2. Archaic Period: Late 7th and 6th centuries BCa. life size statues in the round increase, esp. in Greece (much under Egyptian influence) 1) rigid postures 2) very little movement 3) interest in the naked human body already present, esp. male a) young boy: kouros, mostly naked b) young girl: kore, mostly dressed 4) “archaic smile”: corners of the mouth upturnedb. pottery 1) in Greece a) Corinthian: plain background, drawings in dark brown (purplish) on all the available surface

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b) Attic/black figure “firnis” (had a natural glazed effect after firing because of the chemical composition of the black paint) - mostly black painted overall or wide bands - black figures in light preserved background - preferred a lot in all the Hellenic world of the Mediterranean 2) Anatolia: local pottery production continuing, but there is a distinct preference for the Attic black figure

3. Classical Period: 5th cent. BCa. sculpture in the round and in relief 1) much tendancy, esp. in Greece, toward sculpture 2) sculptors mostly from mainland Greece a) Myron b) Phidias (responsible for the sculpture of the temple of Athena Parthenos in the Acropolis, Athens) c) Polycleitus d) Cresilas 3) sculpture in Anatolia is also mostly by mainland Greek sculptorsb. pottery: black and mostly red figure Attic vases predominant

IV. Greek “polis” (city-state): basic architectural features A. the plan: regular grid plan w. insulae

1. influence of the earlier Anatolian cities2. finally developed by Hippodamos of Miletos (therefore known as “Hippodamian plan”)3. appearance of plan

a. regular streets cutting each other at 90o

b. regular insulae: square or rectangularc. usually two main streets cutting each other at a certain pointd. major buildings usually at the junction point of the main streets

B. major architectural features1. bouleuterion: city council building (boule: city council)2. agora: market place a. open square b. stoa: gallery of columns (usually around the square) c. shops behind the stoa3. gymnasion: school and place for exercise (palaestra) for young boys and the youth4. stadion a. U shaped area w. seats around b. not all cities necessarily have it c. for athletics and races5. temple: one always dedicated to the patron god or goddess of the city6. odeion: a. for music and poetry contests b. small enough to be closed by a roof without having a forest of columns c. amphitheater form d. not all cities have an odeion

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7. theatre a. cavea: amphitheatre built on a hill slope b. diazoma: walks of the cavea in line with the orchestra c. loge: seats of honour near the orchestra d. skene: stage building 1) acting is done on the skene 2) earlier theatres do not have permanent skenes e. proskene: front part of the skene f. orchestra 1) complete circle form: the early ones

2) semicircular form: later ones, esp. from Hellenistic Per. on 3) where the chorus sings and dances

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LYDIANS AND THE GRECO-PERSIAN PERIOD

I. Persians: replace the Medians as ruling power in IranA. extent of the Empire

1. before the battle with Croesus, the Lydian King, in 546 BC a. Halys in Central Anatolia: West b. River Oxus in Central Asia: East2. after the battle in Sardis (546 BC) a. Western Anatolian coastal area: West b. Central Asia: East, including 1) Syria (Near East) 2) Mesopotamia (Near East)3. Egypt

B. Persian capitals1. Ecbatana a. in Hamedan, Iran b. it was the capital of the Medians as well2. Pazargadae: original capital of the Persians3. Susa a. capital after the conquest of Babylonia b. the beginning of the renowned “royal road” which ended in Sardis, the capital of the Lydian Kingdom in the West4. Persepolis: the last capital, perhaps summer residence of the Persian kings, because Susa always remains the official capital

C. religion: Zoroastrianism1. Zoroaster (Zerdüşt): the teacher of the religion2. Zendavesta: the book compiling Zoroaster’s teachings3. Ahuramazda: the symbol of the religion w. wings a. Ahriman: evil b. Ormazd: goodness4. fire temples: where a symbolic fire always burns (symbolizing both evil and goodness at the same time)

D. art and architecture1. architecture

a. fire temples: high tower-like buildingsb. palaces: quite large with many hallsc. apadana: large throne hall for audience 1) many columns to support the roof of the large hall

2) also seen in other parts of the Near East: eg.Urartu in the Iron Age2. architectural decoration a. reliefs depicting royalty mostly b. friezes also outside buildings 1) like the lines of soldiers in Persepolis 2) for those, who are not allowed to go in, to see and admire from the outside, something similar to the ceremonies inside

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c. relief tile decorations esp. in Susa 1) influence of Assyria and Babylonia 2) Persian novelty: figures in relief d. foreign influences 1) Mesopotamian: tile decoration 2) Anatolian a) Ionian type columns but without fluting (esp. in Pazargadae) b) pyramidal tomb in Pazargadae: reminiscent of the one in Sardis (both may be Egyptian influence in turn) e. column capitals 1) quite different from the Anatolian of the period 2) protomes of animals (two) back to back f. basic style 1) formality in positions and postures: in that respect compares better w. Eastern Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Egypt 2) contrast w. esp. 5th cent. Greek tendencies a) laxness and freedom in position (even the deities in the Parthenon frieze) b) tendency to show esp. male human body naked c) clothes also in free falling draperies3. not much sculpture in the round (one eg. head of a young prince or a queen)4. tombs a. tomb chamber built of stone (like the pyramidal tomb in Pazargadae) b. usually carved as tomb chambers in rocks: eg. Nakş-i Rüstem, the royal necropolis of the Persians5. not much pottery known6. royal treasures: eg. Oxus Treasure a. omphalos bowl: compares well w. contemporary Lydian work b. gold vessels: usually embossed like their counterparts in the West c. head of man: compares well w. even the later Roman portrait tradition

II. Western Anatolia in brief at the time of the Persian conquestA. Lydians

1. capital: Sardis a. most of the ruins restored today are Hellenistic and Roman b. Lydian levels excavated 1) House of Bronzes area: w. the hasty burial of a young girl after the Cimmerian attack 2) part of the Lydian fortification wall: reinforced after the Cimmerian attack 3) Lydian Market 4) some Lydian shops and houses (Pactolus North) a) house decoration: painted terracotta plaque friezes b) lamp shop w. early style oil lamps

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5) gold refinery area a) work areas for - cupellation: refinement of gold or silver - cementation: separating gold and silver from the natural alloy electrum b) kilns c) possibily shops of private jewellers d) shrine: for Cybele - altar w. lions only - poss. compares with a tomb painting in Tarquinia, Italy, probably painted by a Lydian artist who had fled to Italy after the Persian conquest - figure of the goddess was not found e) minting of coins - coins: invention of Lydians - denominations: Stater and Hekte (1/6 of a Stater) - decorations as legend: lion and bull (hand pressing results in irregular shapes) - state controlled and guaranteed 6) acropolis: fortification walls of the Lydian Period partly excavated, well worked stones2. cemeteries a. simple inhumation graves around Sardis: with small burials gifts 1) Şeytanderesi

2) İntepe b. pyramidal tomb: influence of Egypt? c. Bintepeler: royal cemetery of the Lydians 1) between the Gygean Lake and Sardis 2) many tumuli (tumulus: artificial grave mound covering a tomb chamber) a) crepis wall: wall surrounding the chamber

b) tomb chamber c) earth piled on the chamber

3. pottery: more of the Orienatalizing style, which was influenced by Lydian pottery4. treasures a. Lydian kings extremely rich, the richest was Croesus, the last king of the last dynasty, the Mermnadae b. the aristocracy also quite rich, the so called “Treasures of Croesus” from Uşak actually come from tombs of the rich (recently returned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art)5. Lydian inscription a. different from the Greek alphabet b. proper names deciphered c. not many examples

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B. Greek colonies1. all along the coastal areas of Anatolia a. Western Anatolia b. Mediterranean / spreading North and South because Lydians c. Black Sea / do not allow them to spread inland2. tax paying to the Lydians (first to the Phrygians in the 8th cent. BC), they pay taxes to the Persians after the Persian conquest

III. Greco-Persian period in Anatolia: 546 – 334 BCA. Persian administration

1. provinces (satrapies) and appointed governors (satraps): a number of them in Anatolia2. military troops stationed at strategic points (army also includes Greek mercenaries)3. network of roads a. for trade (caravans) b. moving of troops c. messengers (on horseback) 1) changing at stations at regular intervals

2) covering the whole span of the empire within a week4. organization of spies, called the “ears of the King”

B. Art and Architecture of the period: a synthesis which can be called “Greco-Persian”1. Greek and Persian in detail2. mostly Persian in concept a. monumental tombs 1) Monument of the Nereids: now in the British Museum, orig. fr. Xanthus 2) Mausoleum of Halicarnassus: also in the Brit. Mus. a) built for Mausalos, the Satrap of Caria b) by his wife Artemisia b. mixed creatures: basically oriental concept

IV. Anabasis of Xenophon/ The Return of the Ten ThousandA. group of Greek mercenaries returning from Babylon

1. they cross the whole of Eastern Anatolia after many adventures2. finally they reach the sea near Trebizond

B. important event which put into the Greek mind that the East could be penetrated

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MACEDONIANS ANDALEXANDER THE GREAT

I. Macedonia in Philip II’s timeA. extent of the kingdom: 336 BC

1. Macedon proper: including Therma (Thessalonica) and Chalcidice2. Thrace : Northeast3. Epirus : West4. Euboea : Southeast5. Attica : “ 6. part of Peloponnesus: South7. Greek colonies of Western Asia (certain amount of control over them): East

B. Capitals1. Aegae: West of Thessalonica, modern Vergina2. Pella : to the Northeast of Aegae

C. the frontiers formally established after the Battle of Chaeronea: 338 BC (Alexander as Crown Prince takes part in the battle)

II. Philip II’s tomb in VerginaA. the tomb chambers excavated in the great burial mound

1. the tomb destroyed in ancient times2. looted tomb a. burial gifts all looted b. wall paintings 1) important a) because almost all original 4th cent. Greek painting has been destroyed in time b) known mostly through descriptions of ancient writers or Roman copies 2) nature of the paintings a) Hades in a chariot abducting Persephone (daughter of Demeter) to the underworld b) heavily draped sitting woman of middle age - the actual woman buried? - or Demeter symbolizing her3. Philip’s tomb a. front façade 1) boar hunting scene on the frieze a) indicates that it is a man’s tomb b) season: autumn (bare trees) right time for hunting 2) triglyph alternating w. undecorated metope (below the frieze) 3) pilasters (piers treated as columns)

4) heavy stone doors b. chambers 1) main chamber (entered fr. the vaulted roof by the archaeologists) a) sarcophagus: opposite the door to the antechamber, containing a gold casket - Macedonian sunburst symbol on the lid - contents: Hellenistic style diadem w. oak leaves and acorns (gold), purple fabric, burnt bones (washed w. wine)

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b) burial gifts - bronzes in one corner: greaves, vessels, shield cover, iron tripods, Mac. diadem of kings, lantern, sponge in good condition. - silver and bronze vessels in the other corner - body armour (corselet) made of iron plates covered with cloth and leather, lion’s head adornments (gold): at the center of the room 2) antechamber a) sarcophagus - on top of it ostrich feathers (queen’s trappings) - gold casket inside: smaller than the other, simpler in decoration, but has the sunburst symbol, contains burnt bones, purple fabric threaded w. gold wrapped around the bones - Cleopatra’s (last wife of Philip II) sarcophagus? b) burial gifts - on the doorstep of the door leading to the main chamber - beautifully decorated gold quiver - two bronze greaves - one is shorter than the other - Philip was lame - other things around (pottery, etc.) c. the data pointing to the fact that this is Philip II’s tomb 1) one of the greaves is shorter than the other (Philip was lame) 2) small ivory portraits: recalling the five statues of Philipeion in Olympia a) one resembling the known portraits of Philip II b) young man resembling the known portraits of Alexander 3) Macedonian diadem of ruling king 4) Philip being the only Mac. king who died in the years the tomb is dated to

III. Alexander the Great’s conquests and journeysA. Anatolia

1. visiting of Troy and Achilles’tomb2. Battle of Granicus: 334 BC a. Mac. warfare 1) renowned Macedonian phalanx 2) tactic of attacking slantwise (echeloned) 3) Alexander leading w. his immediate companions as shock brigade 4) about 30.000 men altogether b. Persian warfare 1) long established formal tactics 2) lack of rapid movement 3) about 100.000 men altogether3. visiting of Sardis (where only the Hellenistic temple of Artemis remains from that period)4. visiting of Ephesus

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a. the cult center of Artemis of Ephesos 1) following the cult of Cybele (Cybebe) of Lydia and Phrygia a) Kupaba of the Neo-Hittites b) Hepat of the Hittites c) female figurines of the prehistoric periods (Early Bronze Age, Chalcolithic, Neolithic) 2) archaic Artemision: burnt the year Alexander was born, 356 BC 3) Alexander offers to pay for the new one (some sources say Ephesians did not accept this offer b. he is not much welcomed by Ephesians5. visiting of Miletus: Milesians did not readily accept Alexander6. visiting of Didymaion: Hellenistic temple of Apollo in Didyma7. visiting of Halicarnassus: Alexander gives the throne to the rightful heir, the old Princess Ada, the sister of Artemisia and Mausalos, the former Satrap of Caria a. 4th cent. Mausoleum 1) one of the seven wonders of the world at the time 2) the word mausoleum is derived from the proper name of Mausolos in allusion to his monumental tomb b. the rest of the 4th cent. remains almost totally missing these days8. travels in Lycia: the area best known for its interesting shaped sarcophagi a. Trysa b. Phaselis9. travels in Pamphylia a. Perge : monumental Hellenistic gate b. Aspendus : nothing of the Hellenistic Period c. Side : part of the city wall still Hellenistic10. inland towards the mountains a. Termessus b. Sagalassos in Pisidia (Lake District)11. visiting Gordion: former capital of Phrygia (legend of the knot cut by Alexander w. one blow of his sword)12. Central Anatolian plateau on the way to Ancyra (Ankara)13. Cappadocia14. Cilician Gates and Cilicia a. Alexander suffers from his first severe attack of illness b. cured by his own doctor from childhood 15. Battle of Issus: 333 BC/critical moment when Alexander the Gr. (III) and Darius III come eye to eye

B. EgyptC. BabyloniaD. Persia: Battle of Gaugamela near Arbela in 331 BC/ final victory of

Macedonians over the PersiansE. Central Asia as far as Oxus River (Kingdom of Bactria founded after the

Macedonians leave Central Asia)IV. Death of Alexander: 323 in Babylon

A. second severe attack of illness: high fever of the plainsB. death

1. either caused by the actual high fever

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2. or poisoned through medicaments HELLENISTIC KINGDOMS

I. The division of the loose Hellenistic Empire of Alex. the Gr. after his death among his immediate successors/the diadochoi (sing. diadochos)A. General Ptolemy: Egypt; Caria, Lycia, and Pamphylia in SW AnatoliaB. General Seleucus: all the Eastern provinces and kingdoms of the Empire incl.

East Anatoliaan example from E. Anat.: Kingdom of Commagene (Kummuhu of Late Hittite Period)1. nothing much remains of the cities2. two extremely important monuments: Nimrud Tumuli, Adıyaman, Kâhta a. Karakuş Tumulus (the bridge on the way is later Roman) 1) the tumulus of a queen 2) there are four columns on four sides of the tumulus w. figures on them b. actual Mount Nimrud Tumulus: grave monument for King Antiochus I 1) the tumulus itself: mound of pebbles, the chamber not found 2) two terraces a) West - reliefs on stelae showing the ancestors of the king - other reliefs (dexiosis scenes: king shaking hands w. deities) - colossal heads (fallen fr. the original enthroned positions) - head of eagle (no. of them) - lion - head of Helios (sun-god) - head of Commagene (goddess of the country) - head of Heracles (deified hero) - head of Zeus (main god) b) East - reliefs - colossal heads - head of eagle (no. of them) - lion (no of them) - head of Herecles - head of Antiochus - altar

C. General Lysimachos1. Pergamon and Western Anatolia2. Alexander’s treasure, guarded by General Philetairos, whose descendants also seize the throne (the Attalid Dynasty)3. a survey of the Hellenistic remains of the Acropolis of the city of Pergamon, the capital of the Attalid Kingdom a. Upper Acropolis 1) city walls enlarged in time of different kings 2) from North to South the Hell. buildings

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a) arsenal buildings (five of them) - close spaced foundation walls: indication of heavy weight stored above - hundreds of different calibre shots were found (now stored in the lower agora) - no remains of the wooden catapults b) water supply system - water brought by pipes from Mount Madara to the North, passing from the higher ridges of mountains (pipes still remain in certain parts) - cisterns: both private and public c) palaces: five of them (I-V) - the Roman Trajaneum has taken up most of the space of the palace gardens to the west - plan is usually peristyle (courtyard, gallery of columns around and rooms behind) - beautiful floor mosaics: that of P.V are in very good condition -signed Hephaistos -motif: var. basic geometric motifs, naturalistic patterns as well (garlands), realistic depictions d) Athena Sanctuary - an Ionic temple dedicated to Athena - temenos area beautifully enclosed on three sides w. stoas - the stoa in the north has two rows of columns and there is access to the library from the second floor of this stoa - second floor parapets of the stoa have beautiful reliefs depicting symbols of Athena

- behind SE corner of the sanctuary there is an entrance to the upper acropolis from the city wall

e) Heroon: monument dedicated to the heroes - east end is the actual part for the heroes - there is a place reserved for feasts in front of the part dedicated to the heroes f) Altar of Zeus: built in commemoration of the final victory of the Pergamenes over the Gauls (190 BC)

- now in Pergamon Museum in Berlin- temenos enclosed by stoas all around - entrance fr. behind the altar (east) - visitors have to go round S or N to come to the front of the altar- reliefs on the altar frieze - East side: Athena and Zeus group (Gigantomachi/battle w. the giants, symbolic of the battle w. Gauls) - South side: Helios group (assoc. w. day and light) - North side: figures assoc. w. darkness and the underworld - West side: figures assoc. w. night and darkness

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g) theatre - seating about 10.000 spectators - stage building: not permenant, set up when there is a performance - cavea divided into three parts by diazomas (walks) - building for the changing of actors south of orchestra - Temple of Dionysos at the end of the promenade b. Lower Acropolis 1) residential area between the upper acropolis and the major buildings of the lower acropolis 2) important features a) Heraion - temple dedicated to Hera - exedra on the west side of it - stoa on the other side (west) b) gymnasion - upper: much changed in the Roman Period reserved for the young men - middle: remains mostly Hellenistic, reserved for the youth - lower: Hellenistic, reserved for boys c) Demeter Sanctuary - for special rituals assoc. w. women - was originally outside the city walls - seats for the elderly on the east half of the north side - stoa all around the sacred area - altars in front of the temple

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HELLENISTIC ART

I. City planningA. Hippodamian plan: influenced by former developed cities of Anatolia

1. finally developed by Hippodamos of Miletos2. regular plan a. square or rectangular insulae b. streets cutting each other at 90o

c. two main streets cutting each other at a certain pointB. Priene: a model Hellenistic city

1. acropolis2. upper city a. bouleuterion: city council building 1) square shaped amphitheatre (three sides) 2) small enough to be closed by a roof without having a forrest of columns b. theatre 1) round amphitheatre/cavea 2) one diazoma (walk) at the top of the cavea 3) orchestra: semicircle 4) stage building a) skene b) proskene: front of the skene 5) two entrances on either side of the cavea c. agora 1) rectangular square: stelae of decrees 2) stoas on three sides, street on the north and another stoa 3) shops behind the stoas d. Temple of Zeus: adjacent to the agora on the narrow east side 1) temenos (sacred area) closed by regular stoas 2) plan of the temple: small prostyle (prostylos) e. Temple of Athena Polias (temple dedicated to the patron goddess of the city) 1) peripteros (one row of columns around) 2) high terrace (temenos area) 3) altar (rectangular, to the front of the temple) 4) propylon (monumental entrance to the temenos area) f. houses 1) basic plan: peristyle w. andron (rooms reserved for men in the front part of the house) 2) the other Greek house plan: house w. a pastas (forecourt) g. streets 1) paved w. regular worked stone 2) drainage canals in the middle of the street 3) street leading to the lower city paved with cobbles

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h. gymnasion: school and exercise grounds 1) square palaestra: the open square area for exercise 2) classrooms (graffiti on the walls made by the students) i. city walls: built w. regular worked square stones (ashlar masonry)

C. Hellenistic temple architecture1. mostly of Ionic order in Anatolia a. capital 1) volutes / 2) listel / 3) bolster /// abacus on top 4) anthemion / 5) necking / b. shaft: the actual column made with drums and fluted c. base 1) upper torus / 2) Scotia / 3) lower torus /// there are variations 4) plinth / 5) stylobate (the actual terrace ground on which the temple stands)2. basic plans a. templum in antis b. peripteros (one row of columns) c. dipteros (two rows of columns) d. pseudo-dipteros (second row of columns half columns on the wall of the cella) e. polipteros (more than two rows)3. façade above the columns in the front and the back a. architrave b. frieze 1) trighlyph 2) metope c. cornice d. pediment: triangular in shape and there are statues placed in it4. decorative elements a. motifs 1) palmettes 2) acanthus leaves 3) meander 4) guilloche 5) chimation 6) egg and dart 7) bead 8) floral (vine and ivy esp. loved) b. reliefs: on the metopes and cella frieze c. sculpture: in the pediments, actual image of the deity inside the cella opposite the front entrance

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5. three important Hellenistic temples a. Didymaion: Temple of Apollo in Didyma 1) cella never meant to be closed a) below the naos and pronaos: stairs b) templum in antis opp. the naos in cella (a separate building) 2) Ionic order and the bases mostly beautifully decorated b. Artemision in Ephesus: Ionic order 1) was one of the seven wonders of the world 2) now only one column remaining 3) 36 columns in the pronaos w. relief decorations at the bottom a) one in the British Museum (showing Hermes) b) the decorated columns of the original archaic temple were presents of Croesus, the last king of Lydia 4) the original Artemis of Ephesus cult statue is lost, but there are Roman copies a) in shape she is Cybele, the Mother Goddess of Lydians and Phrygians b) in name she is Artemis c. Artemision of Sardis: three different phases 1) the last phase in relatively good shape 2) Ionic order6. Hellenistic walls a. sometimes built with irregularly worked stones b. usually of regularly worked stones/ashlar masonry

II. Hellenistic ArtA. Sculpture

1. relief: mostly high/altar of Zeus in Pergamon the best example2. round a. Pathetic School of Sculpture in Pergamon 1) far away nostalgic look 2) slightly opened mouth 3) contorted muscles 4) sad faces (sad subjects) b. material used: mostly bronze, also stone (marble) (Roman copies are marble) c. some examples 1) Alexander head from Pergamon 2) Alexander statue by Menas found in Magnesia 3) nymph (sea fairy) from Tralles (Aydın) 4) running athelete (bronze) from the sea near Nicomedia 5) satyr (bronze): goat’s legs have disappeared in Hellenistic Period d. terra cotta figurines 1) decorate the houses of the aristocrats and the rich 2) painted 3) variety of subjects: ordinary people, deities, etc.

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4) Myrina figurines are quite famous 5) one important example: Aphrodite found in Dardanos, Çanakkale a) shown naked b) preparing for her bath c) she is still wearing her jewellery (painted with gold)

B. Hellenistic sarcophagi: a good variety found at the royal necropolis of the Kingdom of Sidon1. Alexander sarcophagus: depicting hunting scenes and battle scenes of Alexander a. Alexander himself is shown as the first figure on one of the long sides, central fig. his friend Hephaistion, who died in the battle of Gaugamela (331 BC) in Persia b. original paint still remaining on 1) blue 2) yellow 3) red c. the lid made as temple roof w. all the acrotheria and the lions’ heads2. the sarcophagus of the mourning women a. the sarcophagus representing an Ionic temple b. women shown in between the columns c. each woman has a different position and different way of showing her grief3. Lycian tomb a. shape typical Lycian, only lacking the fake wooden beams b. on narrow sides: centaurs fighting (Kentauromachi) c. on long sides: hunting

C. Hellenistic wall paintings and mosaics1. not much original wall painting remaining: 4th cent. paintings in the looted tomb and Philip II’s tomb in Aegae, give us an idea, also Roman copies 2. mosaics a. floor mosaics of the palaces of Pergamon: best examples b. there are some examples from the Kingdom of Kommagene as well c. we get an idea from Roman mosaics much influenced by Hellenistic mosaics

D. Pottery1. tradition of relief decorated and painted pottery from 4th cent.2. real glazed pottery in Late Hellenistic Period3. Pergamene pottery: beginnings of terra sigillata 4. black glazed (firnis) w. white painted ivy leaves, usually fluted

E. jewellery: some actually found in tombs, etc. w. distinct style, seen also on figurines, etc.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF ROME

I. Foundation legendA. Aeneas: a Trojan

1. son of Anchises2. flees from Troy after it falls to Achaeans, about 1250 BC3. wanders about until he reaches Italy a. marries Lavinia, princess of Latium b. Askanius/Julius: Aeneas’ son from earlier marriage (Julius – line of Julians – also Julias Ceaser, 100-44 BC) 1) becomes king after his father 2) from the same line Numitor is dethroned by his brother Amulius 3) Numitor’s daughter Rhea Sylvia has twins by the god Mars in the Vesta Temple, where she was put by his uncle a) Romulus /a she wolf takes care of them, b) Remus / they are finally saved by the shepherd Faustulus and his wife Laurentia near Palatina

B. Rome founded1. April 21st, 753 BC2. by Romulus3. on Palatine Hill/”Roma quadrata” the core of the eternal city Rome4. special protectors of the city: the DIOSCURI (gemini: twins) w. pointed caps a. Castor : mortal / statues on the b. Pollux : immortal / Capitoline Hill, Rome

II. Rome becomes an EmpireA. Augustus Period: Sept. 2nd, 31 BC, the Sea Battle of ActiumB. Trajan Period: largest frontiers, 98 – 117 AD

III. What is characteristically Roman in ArtA. regular city planning: Roman garrison city

1. decumanus maximus: main street in East-West direction2. cardo: main street in North-South direction

B. Architecture1. features a. the wall 1) stone: opus quadratum /eg. Augustus Temple, Ancyra (Ankara) 2) brick: fired bricks and mortar/Roman novelty a) opus latericum: eg. Serapeion, Pergamon b) usually covered with marble plaques, often alternating colours 3) brick a. stone: opus listatum or mixtum, eg. East Gymnasion, Ephesos

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b. the arch 1) used as gates, eg. Hierapolis, Denizli 2) used as triumphal arches a) eg. Arch of Titus: South of Forum Romanum, Rome - commemorating victory over Jews - 70 AD b) eg. Arch of Constantine: near the Colosseum, Rome

c. the vault and its variations 1) barrel vault: eg. Supporting Temple of Zeus, Aizanoi (Çavdarhisar, Kütahya) Hadrian Period: 117-138 AD 2) groined vault: buttressing each other eg. Trajan Market Halls, Rome d. the dome: eg. Pantheon, Rome temple to all gods of Rome, Hadrian Period, 117 – 138 AD e. Corinthian order: in Anatolia used together w. the Ionic order f. triumphal column: eg. Trajan’s Column, Rome

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2. forms a. Forum (plural Fora) 1) monumental town centres for political and official gatherings 2) in Anatolia they are called “State Agora” 3) egs. Forum Romanum, Forum Trajanum, etc. in Rome b. temples: edifices which could be entered by the public (differing from the Greek temple) 1) recantangular: eg. Temple of Saturn, Forum Romanum 2) round: eg. Vesta Temple, Rome c. waterworks and forms associated w. them 1) bath (thermae) a) making use of the most of the novel architectural features b) hypocaust: important novelty/heating through air channels in the basement 2) fountains: elaborate fountain houses, egs. Nympheum in Corinth and Nimes 3) aqueduct: arches used to bring water to cities eg. Pont du Gard, Nimes, France 4) bridge: some Roman bridges are still in use eg. Cendere, Kâhta, Adıyaman d. theatres 1) regular theatres a) built on arches and vaults if necessary b) skaene frons: tall façade of the stage - cutting the theatre from the outside world - screening the noises from the street 2) amphitheatres: esp. for gladiatorial games and games w. wild animals (typical Roman) a) built on arches and vaults b) most important example Colosseum/Amphitheatrum Flavium, Flavian Dynasty Period, 80 AD e. Roman house 1) basic types a) Roman villa: mansion in the country b) House w. an Atrium: courtyard around which the busts of the ancestors of the family are displayed 2) decorative elements a) strictly architectural pieces used also as decoration (column capitals, etc.)

b) strictly decorative elements - mosaics/floor and wall/tessera (square piece), plural: tesserae - opus settile/piece work/geometrical shaped marble pieces - wall paintings: esp. in Pompeii and Herculaneum, also Ephesos, Turkey - sculpture/statues, busts, statuettes and figurines f. basilica: rectangular roofed hall

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1) meeting place a) social b) commercial g. tombs 1) monumental round tombs a) eg. Tomb of Augustus, Rome b) eg. Tomb of Hadrian, Castel Sant’Angelo, Rome 2) house shaped tombs, eg. Hierapolis, Denizli 3) sarcophagi

BASIC ROMAN CHRONOLOGYAND ART, ESP. SCULPTURE

I. Basic Roman Chronology of events and monuments (Please consult the photocopied page fr. Picard, G., Living Architecture: Roman)

II. Roman Sculpture: emphasis on portraitA. life size or larger sculpture :

1. whole body or just bust2. material used

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a. marble b. bronze

B. statuettes and figurines1. usually whole body2. material used a. marble b. bronze c. ivory d. terra cotta

C. general classification1. deities a. some are copies of original Greek sculpture b. some are original Roman work c. some basic statues and statuettes that fall under this category 1) gods a) Zeus (Jupiter): elderly man w. an eagle b) Apollo - god of music and also of the rising sun - young man w. long hair and often w. a lyre c) Hermes (Mercury) - messenger of gods, protector of travellers - young man w. traveller’s hat w. wings, sandals w. wings, money pouch d) Dionysus (Bacchus): an inebriate w. wine, grapes and vine leaves e) Asclepius - god of healing - elderly man, upper body usually naked, w. a long walking stick f) Dioscouros: young man w. pointed scull cap g) foreign gods - Horus: Egyptian, fertility, w. cornucopia - Attis: Phrygian - Mithras: Persian - Men: Anat., moon god 2) goddesses a) Athena (Minerva) -goddess of intellect and intelligence -young woman w. aegis a. helmet, shield a. sword

b) Aphrodite (Venus) - goddess of beauty and love - esp. upper part of body shown naked, w. mirror, w. Eros, sometimes w. shield because of husband Hephaistos (Vulcan), god of blacksmiths and lover Mars (Ares), god of war

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c) Artemis (Diana) - goddess of wild nature, associated w. the moon, twin of Apollo - young woman shown as huntress w. quiver, arrows, sometimes w. deer and dogs - of Ephesus - w. high polos on head - fertility symbols - lions (attribute animals of Cybele) - deer (huntress Artemis) - lots of necklaces, etc. d) Hygeia - goddess of health - daughter of Asclepius, god of healing - shown w. snake e) Nemesis - goddess of retributive justice - w. griffon f) three graces (Charites): three maiden together - Aglaia (Brilliance) - Euphrosyne (Joy) - Thalia (Bloom) g) foreign - Isis - Egyptian goddess of motherhood - w. cornucopia (fertility) a. knot across her breast - usually shown enthroned2. mythological figures a. Marsyas: Phrygian Silenus w. Horsetail b. Meleagros : hunter c. Heracles: hero/lion’s skin and club, 12 labours3. individuals a. official people 1) emperors : in various form a) cuirass : wearing military outfit (esp. Trajan and Hadrian) b) priest : Roman emperors are chief priests and they are deified after death 2) empresses 3) priests (wearing priestly outfit and crown w. busts) 4) priestesses (draped in mantles, w. long necklaces) 5) nobility (eg. Plancia Magna, fr. Perge) 6) individuals unidentified (no name inscribed and features unknown, but still the real features shown)

III. Roman reliefsA. as part of architectural decoration

1. doorways2. windows

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3. in frieze form around enclosed areasB. sarcophagi

ROMAN ART ANDARCHITECTURE INANATOLIA

I. Pergamon A. the Acropolis

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1. Romanized slightly (esp. the gymnasion), mostly remains Hellenistic2. Trajanaeum/Temple of Trajan a. on a high podium b. Corinthian order c. now restored

B. lower city1. theatre2. Serapeion/Temple of Serapis

C. outside the lower city1. tumuli: artificial burial mounds2. Asclepion a. named after Asclepius, god of healing b. healing place using some therapeutic methods c. general plan and architectural features 1) Via Tecta: colonnaded street fr. Pergamon leading to Asclepion (Roman Imperial Period) 2) propylon (monumental entrance) a) rectangular courtyard b) commissioned by Claudius Charax, in the reign of Emp. Antoninus Pius (138-161 AD) c) niches on either side for worship 3) the Emperor’s room: to the north of the propylon a) rectangular b) also used as a library c) there are inscriptions about the library 4) Temple of Asclepius a) round building b) small replica of Pantheon c) erected by Consul L. Cuspius Pactumeius Rufinus d) about 150 AD e) south of the propylon 5) building for medical treatment a) round b) south of the Temple of Asclepius c) two storeyed d) w. six apses inside 6) colonnades on north, west and south

7) theatre a) built on a slope in the Greek style b) seating 3500 people c) west end of North Stoa 8) tunnel a) leading to treatment room b) going diagonally, starting somewhere at the centre of the square

II. Sardis

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A. gymnasion1. large square palaestra2. monumental façade at the end of the palaestra restored (west end)3. pool behind the façade4. dedication a. Empress Julia Domna (wife of Septimus Severus) b. to their sons 1) Caracalla 2) Geta: in 211-212 AD his name is erased, because he was murdered (Publius, part of his name still remains)

B. synagogue: the largest in the ancient world1. south side of the palaestra2. a long basilical edifice3. entrance hall at the back4. long hall a. altar opposite the entrance b. floors: decorated w. mosaics c. walls: decorated w. opus settile (piece work, done by different shaped geometric pieces)

III. Ephesus: general plan and important buildingsA. along the cardo

1. Vedius gymnasion2. stadion3. harbour gymnasion and baths4. theatre gymnasion5. theatre6. Temple of Serapis8. Celsus Library a. erected 110 AD b. by Consul Gaius Julius Aquila c. as a Heroon d. for his father Gaius Julius Celsus Polemaenus Aquila (buried in a lead casket within a marble sarcophagus in a niche) e. architectural aspects 1) monumental façade restored (was in relatively good shape after the reading room burned in antiquity) 2) second storey as a balcony in the reading room 3) books and scrolls kept in niches

4) wall on either side of the entrance: cuts the noise from the busy street 5) a pool made in front of the library, after the destruction of the reading room (about) 400 AD) (beautiful façade would reflect in the pool)

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B. along the Decumanus maximus1. Scholastica baths2. Hadrian’s Temple a. Corinthian order b. Hadrian Period: 117-138 AD3. a rich house known as “the House on the Slope” a. built on five terraces b. each terrace a storey c. used for many generations4. Trajan’s fountain (Trajan Period 98-117 AD) a. originally a colossal statue of Trajan stood in the middle of the façade b. now only the base, the feet and a globe remains5. Prythaneion: the town hall of autonomous Ephesos 6. State Agora7. Odeion8. private baths9. East Gymnasion10.Magnesian Gate

IV. Miletus: original name Millawanda (in Hittite times, 2nd millennium BC), home town of Hippodamos, the architect who finally perfected the regular city building in grill planA. main harbour area

1. Roman baths to the east of the harbour2. to opotropaic lions protecting the harbour entrance3. Harbour Monuments a. large Harbour Monument 1) three stepped round base 2) inscription: prob. erected in honour of Augustus on the occasion of the victory of Actium, 31 BC 3) some reliefs of tritons (minor sea gods) still lying around 4) concave triangular base 5) ship form 6) trophy at the top b. small Harbour Monument 1) portion of the base remains 2) concave, three sided monument 3) second half of 1st century AD (Flavian Dyn.) 4) modelled after the large one4. synagogue a. behind the harbour monuments, southwest of harbour b. basilical form (central nave and two aisles on either side)

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5. Harbour Stoa: south of the harbour6. small market place a. enlarged in Hellenistic and Roman times b. surrounded by shops c. behind the Harbour Stoa7. North Agora a. behind the Harbour Stoa b. enlarged in Hellenistic and Roman times8. Harbour Gateway: southeast of harbour9. Delphinion: southeast of harbour10. Processional Road11. Capito baths and gymnasion12. Temple of Asclepius (?) and sanctuary of imperial cult (?)13. Bouleuterion: erected 175-164 BC (Hellenistic) a. propylon b. colonnaded courtyard c. roofed auditorium (seating up to 1500)14. Nymphaion a. opposite the Bouleuterion b. 2nd century AD c. monumental three storeyed building d. rich architectural decoration15. North Gate16. South Agora a. enormous courtyard b. erected in Hellenistic times, enlarged in Roman times17. storage building: to the west of the South Agora18. Heroon19. Serapis Temple20. Faustina Baths a. erected by Faustina II; wife of Emp. Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) b. well preserved/mainly Corinthian order c. does not conform to the Hippodamian plan d. statues of muses in niches (now in the Museum) e. statues of river god and lion in their original positions in the three-roomed frigidarium

B. Area around the second harbour1. theatre: to the northeast a. Hellenistic (four phases) b. enlarged in Roman times (seating cap. 15.000)2. stadion: south of harbour a. 150 BC (Hellenistic) b. altered in Roman times c. gates in east and west3. West Agora4. Temple of Athena

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V. Aspendus: ancient name Estwediya (derived fr. the name of King Asitawada/Late Hittite, 8th cent. BC)A. remains of the city: all Roman, no trace of earlier remains found so farB. theatre

1. the building a. entirely built on barrel-vaulted substructures b. also rests partly on a hillside (conforming to old Greek tradition) c. paradoi (side entrances) 1) not diagonal but parallel to the auditorium in the Roman fashion 2) roofed, also a Roman aspect d. one horizontal diazoma at the cavea e. colonnaded arcade at the top of the cavea, Roman aspect f. stage building 1) scaenae frons (façade) a) in very good condition b) cutting the theatre completely from the outside world c) five doors giving entrance to the proscenium 2) proscenium: platform in front of the façade where the performance takes place 2. designed by architect Zeno, son of Theodorus a. inscription giving the information b. during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD) c. dedicated by two brothers (Greek and Latin inscr.) 1) Curtius Crispinus / “to the gods of the country and to 2) Curtius Auspicatus / the imperial house”

VI. SideA. important architectural features of the city

1. outer city a. main gate: the East Wall b. city fountain/Nymphaion 1) outside the main gate 2) Antonine Period (138-192 AD) 3) large basin and three tiered façade behind it a) lower tier w. three niches and spouts in good condition b) statues and reliefs found now in the museum c. colonnaded street d. baths near the agora (now a museum) e. Agora: 2nd cent. AD 1) monumental entrance 2) large square area 3) surrounded by colonnades and shops 4) now only the foundation walls remaining 5) round temple remains at the centre (Tyche: (Fortuna) the city goddess) 6) public lavatory in the northwest corner

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f. theatre: mid 2nd cent. AD 1) built on barrel vaulted substructures (Roman) 2) cavea and orchestra exceeding a semicircle (in the Greek tradition) 3) arcades outside: two-tiered, superimposed 4) stage building a) skene: three-tiered w. niches, columns, statues and reliefs b) proscenium: above the level of the orchestra g. monumental gate: between the theatre and the baths 1) arched 2) giving access to the inner city2. inner city a. Dionysus Temple: next to the theatre b. colonnaded street continuing fr. the monumental gate until the harbour c. harbour baths / d. Temple of Apollo / all near e. Temple of Athena / the harbour f. Temple of Men (the Anatolian Moon God) /

B. waterworks1. water supply comes mostly fr. the mountains2. conveyance of water a. outside the city 1) natural beds and canals carved into rocks on mountains 2) in the plains a) tunnels b) open canals c) aqueducts d) bridges on naturally flowing rivers (Nadas Bridge: in its Seljuk and Ottoman form, still in use) b. within the city 1) hole in the city wall for the entrance of the pipe: east wall, to the north 2) aqueduct a) running somewhat parallel to the north wall b) restored by a wealthy citizen: 3rd cent. AD - Lollianos Bryonianos - Quirinia Patra (wife)

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