Mussolini in Power: From PM to Dictator. Consensus, Oct. 1922- Jan. 1925 Dictatorship, Jan. 1925-...

Mussolini in Power: From PM to Dictator


November 1922: Problems Facing Mussolini

He was 1 of only 4 Fascists in the Cabinet

Only 35 Fascists in 535-member Chamber of Deputies

Fascists had won only 7% of vote—power came partly from violence & threat


November 1922: Problems Facing Mussolini

Mussolini had no detailed policies & little experience as a leader

Mussolini’s coalition faced same problem as earlier ones

Fascist supporters split between moderates & radicals


Mussolini, 1922-1924

Why had Mussolini become Prime Minister?

Fascist Revolution or Effective Government?

Radical Changes or Moderate Normalization?



Nov. 1922: Parliament passes vote of confidence in new govt.; grant Mussolini emergency powers, 1 yr.

Dec. 1922: Mussolini creates Grand Council, cabinet-like org. w/in Fascist Party—way to increase control

Jan. 1923: creates new militia paid by state—many from Fascist squadristi



Oct. 1922 – Jan. 1923:1. Strengthening power in Fascist Party2. Moving towards authoritarianism instead of

radical changes—passed policies favoring industrialists, agrarian landowners & few for Church

3. European econ0my improving



Feb. 1923: Nationalist Association joins Fascist Party—strengthens moderate elements of party

Mussolini knew support of elites more important than support from radical elements of party

Use the powers of the state to reduce & eliminate enemies



Despite early successes his position as PM still weak

1. King could dismiss him at any time2. Parliament likely to cooperate w/a successor

(small rep. of Fascist in parliament)3. Needed to control parliament4. Needed to change election laws to end

proportional representation



ACERBO LAW, July 1923

Chamber of Deputies meet to vote on Acerbo Bill—give 2/3 of seats to party w/ most votes in election & having at least 25% of vote

Chamber of Deputies—surrounded by blackshirts—passed the Acerbo Law, 303 - 40



Corfu Incident, Aug. 1923: foreign policy success demonstrating Italy’s growing strength

Fiume, Jan. 1924: Italy gains control of Fiume

Major foreign policy successes helped Mussolini’s reputation & support



April 1924 Election (Acerbo Law in effect)1. Govt. list of approved candidates, non-

Fascists2. Leftist opposition remained split3. Heavy govt. influence in election process4. Militia violence v. Socialists5. Opposition meetings disrupted & voters

intimidated6. Fascist voters often allowed more than 1 vote



April 1924 Election

A. Lyttleton, The Seizure of Power:“the use of violence, police repression and electoral

fraud was on such a large scale that the expression of popular will was radically falsified.”

Fascist won 66% of vote w/275 Deputies (100 others)



April 1924 Election

Fascist now have control & full power of State at their disposal

Official critics would be targeted; violence & intimidation by squadristi continues along w/ govt sanctioned violence; Socialist meetings, buildings, publications, members attacked


“Italy has never been so united as she is today… Fascismo has abolished the game of parliamentary chess; it has also simplified the taxation system and reduced the deficit to manageable proportions; it has vastly improved the public services, particularly the railways; it has reduced the superfluously large bureaucracy without any bad results in the way of hardships or unemployment; it has pursued a vigorous and fairly successful colonial policy. All this represents hard and useful work, but the chief boon upon Italy are national security and national self-respect…

Fascismo has had a great deal of courage, very considerable wisdom and immense luck… it has deserved the sincere birthday greetings of the world.”

—The Times, 31 October 1923



Murder of Giacomo Matteotti, June 1924

Leader of the Socialists

Member of the Chamber of Deputies

Leading opponent of Mussolini & Fascists



Matteotti to Chamber of Deputies, 30 May 1924:

“No one has been free because every citizen knew… that even had he dared with majority support to express his opposition the government had a force at its disposal that would have nullified his words… We are defending the sovereign freedom of the Italian people… by demanding the nullification of the elections.”

“Now you can prepare my funeral oration.”—to colleagues as he left the chamber



Mussolini in Il Popolo, 31 May 1924:

“Matteotti made a speech of an outrageously provocative nature which should deserve some more concrete reply than the label scoundrel.”



1o June 1924: Matteotti forced into a car

License plate number of the car (55 12169) belonged to a leading Fascist

Investigation led to leader (Dumini) of a secret hit squad called Cheka

“Nine Homicides” Dumini, was personal asst. to Cesare Rossi, Mussolini’s press secretary



Did Mussolini order the murder? Did he know about it? Was he involved in any way?

Widespread outrage in Italy: newspapers, demonstrations, torn up Fascist membership cards

Was Mussolini head of a terrorist regime? Was he the head of a strengthened form of

parliamentary govt. that operated w/in law?



June 1924: Aventine Secession

Most opposition deputies walked out of Parliament in protest to Mussolini’s govt.

Met elsewhere & declared themselves the true representatives of the Italian people

Expected the King to dismiss Mussolini



Mussolini’s Position June 1924-Dec.1924:o repression & concession—press censorship

increased; militia mobilized & integrated into army; loyalty oath to King; Rossi & chief of police fired; Mussolini steps down as Interior Minister

o Ras & radicals wanted Mussolini to seize power in dictatorship

o Dec. 1924 evidence implicated Mussolini in Matteotti’s assassination



Mussolini’s Position June 1924-Dec.1924:

o radicals in Fascist Party saw power slipping from them unless Mussolini acted

o 31 Dec. 1924: tense meeting of Fascist Partyo Mussolini vacillation ended



3 Jan. 1925: Mussolini addresses Chamber of Deputies

Mussolini takes responsibility for Fascism not for Matteotti’s murder Dictatorship to go into effect in 48 hours

Process of Dictatorship Began (completed May 1928)


How did Mussolini survive the Matteotti Crisis?

a. King Victor Emmanuel III unwilling to act—safer to keep Mussolini in office & had learned lesson

b. Elite not completely happy, but thought had done a good job—esp. given alternatives

c. Church—Mussolini had saved Italy from Socialismd. Army—would obey the Kinge. Moderate Deputies—saw Mussolini weakened &

thought could control himf. Opposition unable to cooperateg. Ras wanted dicatorship



“Mussolini panicked and would have resigned had the King required it. The King did not demonstrating the unwillingness of conservatives even now to abandon Mussolini, partly from fear of a left-wing revival and partly in the hope of exploiting Mussolini’s vulnerability to increase their influence over him.”—M. Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy



“The reluctant attitudes of the King and Pope summarized the problems in a nutshell: the Italian power structure was slow to admit that its creature, Fascism, was out of control, and without leadership from the power structure, the anti-Fascist opposition remained fragmented and embryonic.”—A. Cassels, Fascist Italy



“His victory, once again, owed much to the militant squads and to their power in the provinces; and, once again, it owed much to the King’s unwillingness to use the army against the Fascists. Yet once again, it was not inevitable. If the opposition parties had been present in the Chamber… or if the Rossi memorandum had not been published when it was [during holidays]… or if the militia ‘consuls’ had not put pressure on in late December, or if the elder statesmen… had shown more initiative, then Mussolini might have fallen… the King had decided, and Mussolini was safe.”—M. Clark, Modern Italy 1871-1982



Arrests of opponents

Increasingly repressive decrees & laws

Fascist Movement into a personal dictatorship—centralized control of party into a govt. ministry then fired the Ras leader in charge of the ministry



Jan. 1925: arrests & closing of hostile organizations

All Fascist Cabinet Dopolavoro, mass leisure org., established Oct. 1925: Battle for Grain—make Italy self-

sufficient (economic policy) Dec. 1925: greater press censorship Dec. 1925: Law on Powers of Head Government

—gives Mussolini great executive power—rule by decree



Feb. 1926: elected mayors replaced by appointed podestas

April 1926: strikes forbidden; youth organization, Balilla, created

July 1926: Ministry of Corporations established

Oct. 1926: opposition parties banned



Nov. 1926: Special Tribunal for the Defense of the State—wide admin powers including arrests w/o justification

Nov. 1926: OVRA established—secret police

Nov. 1926: all press freedom ended



Parliament: lost power to intiate laws; Mussolini responsible to King not parliament

Local Govt: judges, civil servants & teachers purged; elected councils eliminated; podestas

Judiciary: repressive administrative powers w/o need resort to former republican judicial system

Trade Unions: strikes & lockouts illegal, Fascist unions recognized as only legal unions

Fascists: Mussolini centralized Party under his leadership Opponents: all non-Fascist parties banned Electoral Laws: plebiscite system replaced individually

elected MPs

Mussolini in Power: From PM to Dictator. Consensus, Oct. 1922- Jan. 1925 Dictatorship, Jan. 1925-...

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