The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

Music is a form of humancommunication asancient as languageitself. Like written lan-

guage, the need for a morereliable system of musiccommunication was feltvery early in history.Until very recently, thevast majority of musicbelongs to some form oforal tradition. It waspassed from one per-former to another by rep -etition and memory.Having no manner ofvisual notation, pieces ofmusic changed theircharacter through theages. Systems of signsand symbols for writingmusic developed along-side written language asthe need to pass alongconsistent informationpresented itself.

Very little is knownabout the ancient musicworld, and notation sys-tems are virtuallyunknown to us. It islikely that the ancientSumerians andEgyptians devised sym-bols to accompany thesystem of hand signsthey used to indicate

the pitch, tone, and shape of themelody. The Chinese had aquite sophisticated system ofnotation as early as the 3rd cen-tury BC. These early systemsconsisted of either symbols torepresent separate vocal sylla-bles - a form of solmization; orsigns and instructions for play-ing specific instruments - a formof tablature.

The use of letters of the alpha-bet to name notes of the scaledates back to ancient Greeceand possibly earlier. This sys-tem was well established by 500BC. Soon after, letter nameswere given to whole tones of thediatonic scale, and inflections ofa semitone or even a quarter-tone could be expressed by rota-tion of the letter symbols. Twodifferent systems of letters wereused to write down the instru-mental and the vocal music ofancient Greece. In his five text-books on music theory, Boethiusapplied the first 15 letters of thealphabet to the notes in use atthe end of the Roman period.Also, their system was capableof indicating rhythmic value, acomplexity that did not reappearuntil well into the middle ages.

We have no written music afterclassical antiquity until the ninth

Greek musical notation on a funeral column. Thenotation begins above the sixth line of theinscription. Manuscript from St. Gall 359, ninth century. This is an example of early

neumes, the major form of notation for medieval europe.

century. By the Middle ages,Christianity was the drivingforce behind any social or artis-tic advances. In sixth and sev-enth century Ireland, monasti-cism flourished, contributing tothe history of art and designwith manuscripts like the Bookof Kells and the LindisfarneGospels. It was also responsi-ble for the founding of themonastery of St. Gall in centralEurope, where a large numberof early manuscripts of notatedmusic were produced.

A form of notation using signscalled neumes had developed asa means of writing down plain-song. These graphic signsshowed the rise and fall of thenotes of a melody, but did notgive a precise idea of pitch orrhythm. These neumes indicatedonly the grouping of sounds in agiven melody, evidently toremind a singer the approximateshape of a melody alreadylearned by ear. Neumes devel-oped into a complex system inwhich an individual neumecould represent a single note oras many as four notes in a par-ticular sequence. While this sys-tem widely varied throughoutthe different parts of europe, butthe fundamental characteristicsremained the same.

When Charlemagne wascrowned emperor in 800, hemade it his duty to unify all ofhis realm. Part of this was tostabilize the liturgies of thechurch. As religious practicesgreatly varied from region toregion, he sought to create astandard that would be consis -tent throughout his Holy RomanEmpire. Chant was an impor-tant piece of any Christian wor-ship service. and the communi-cation of a stable repertoirethroughout the vast territory ofthe empire required a standard-ized system of musical notation.He standardized the neume sys-tem, which was still only intend-ed to remind singers of relativemelodies that they had alreadybeen taught.

Heighted neumes, neumeswhose pitch relationship is rep-resented on the page appeared inthe tenth century. This variationin notation made the intervals ofa melody more discernible, butwas still not designed to informpeople of melodies that they hadnever heard before. The neu-matic system gave a very graph-ic indication of the shape of amelody, but the addition of ahorizontal line removed its maindrawback by fixing an absolute

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

PitchThe position of a tone in the musi-cal scale, today designated by a let -ter name and determined by the fre -quency of vibration of the source ofthe tone. An international confer-ence held in 1939 set a standard forA above middle C of 440 cyclesper second.

ToneA tone is distinguished from noiseby its definite pitch, caused by theregularity of the vibrations that pro-duce it. Any tone possesses theattributes of pitch, intensity, andquality. Pitch is determined by thefrequency of the vibration, meas-ured by cycles per second.Intensity, or loudness, is deter-mined by the amplitude, measuredin decibels. Quality is determinedby the overtones (subsidiary tones),the distinctive timbre of any instru -ment being the result of the numberand relative prominence of the overtones it produces.

Solmization, SolfegeSystems of vocal exercises employ-ing a series of syllables originallydevised by the Benedictine monkGuido d'Arezzo (c.990-1080) forthe purpose of vocalization and forpractice in sightsinging. Thesesolmization syllables are now com-monly known in the form do, re,mi, fa, sol, la, si (or ti), do.

TablatureNon-note based systems of musicalnotation using letters, numbers, orsymbols to indicate pitch and dura -tion of tone. Tablatures are usedtoday to notate music for guitar andukulele. These have vertical linesrepresenting strings of the instru-ment, horizontal lines for the frets,and dots to show the position of thefingers.

ScaleAny series of tones arranged in astep-by-step rising or falling of

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Manuscript from Loan 239, tenth century, an example of heightened neumes.

pitch as a point of reference.

Soon after the use of a singleline to represent an absolutepitch came about, two lineswere adopted. The lines repre-sented the pitches of C and Fand were often drawn in differ -ent colors. These two pitcheswere most important becausethey represented the beginningand middle of an eight notescale. Below the F and C linesthere were sometimes writtenthe letters E and A to indicaterespectively, the placement ofthose two unruled pitches.

Guido of Arezzo furtherimproved the system of notatingplainsong in the first half of the11th century. As well as invent-ing his own version of solmiza-tion, he also suggested the useof a stave of four horizontallines, which would not only pro-vide a pitch reference, butwould also graphically representrelative pitch by the verticalplacing of notes on its lines andspaces. He is also placed the let-ters C or F in their appropriateplaces at the beginning of eachline, further refining the accura-cy of the system. The lettersevolved into the clef signs usedtoday.

Guido's innovations were, how-ever, all concerned with notatingpitch, and it was not until the13th century that any systematicreform of rhythmic notation wasachieved. The first to tackle thiswas Franco of Cologne, whocodified and rationalized theexisting system, and establishedthe relationships between differ-ent note values.

A system similar to present-dayrhythmic notation had evolvedfrom this by the middle of the15th century, but based on triplerather than duple divisions. Atfirst, certain patternings ofneumes were used to representthe various rhythmic modes;later, in his Ars cantus mensura -bilis (c.1280), Franco ofCologne created a clear indica-tion for each note of its exactrhythmic length and selectedcertain neumes to representtones of long and short duration.In his system, the long valuewas in principle equal to threeof the short values. Theserefined versions of neumes werecalled ligatures, because of theirappearance as individual notesthat had been tied together.

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

pitch. The scale most used inWestern musical composition untilthe end of the 19th cent. was thediatonic scale, a series of seventones. (The addition of a final topnote, with a frequency twice thatof the lowest note, defines thissequence as an octave.) The inter-vals of the diatonic scale weredefined by Pythagoras in the 6thcent. B.C. as five whole tones andtwo semitone. By the time of J.S.Bach, the chromatic scale of 12equal semitones (as in the whiteand black keys of a keyboardscale) had become established, andthe scales beginning on thesenotes, the basis of Western tonality.The pentatonic scale of five wholetones is prevalent in Asian music.

Whole ToneThe interval of a major second, asin moving from one white key tothe adjoining white key on thepiano.

SemitoneThe interval of a minor second, asin moving from a white key to theadjoining black key on the piano.

Quarter ToneAn interval less than a minor sec -ond. Generally not found in west -ern music.

Boethius(Anicius Manlius SeverinusBoethius), c.475-525, Romanphilosopher and statesman. A con-sul (510) in Rome, he became min -ister under Emperor Theodoric, butwas falsely accused of treason,imprisoned, and sentenced todeath. His treatise on ancientmusic was for many centuries theunquestioned authority on Westernmusic.

PlainsongAll early unharmonized melody infree rhythm, but usually synony -mous with Gregorian chant, the

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The very beginning of pitch delineation is evident in this manuscript from Paris,latin 10508, twelfth century.

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

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This manuscript from Passau, ca 1489 with diamond shaped notation, rich in ligature,with a four line staff, characterizes gothic notation. The C clef is seen throughout.

This missal for Rome use c.1476, is one of the earliest examples of music printing. Itcharacterizes roman notation with square notes, sparse ligature, and a five line staff. Thesquare C clef is used throughout. Any color used in the book (red, blue, and yellow) wasadded by hand.

Mensural notation, in whicheach note has a specific timevalue, became a necessitywith the development ofpolyphony. In the 14th cent.Philippe de Vitry, author ofArs nova, which expands thesystem of Franco, codified theduple divisions of the longand short notes. At the variousrhythmic levels of a givenpiece, a rhythmic relationshipwas implied. This was showngraphically by different com-binations of a dot inside a cir-cle or half circle. Not coinci-dentally, the symbols forPerfect Tempus, or 9/4 timeand Imperfect Tempus, or 6/4time are the same alchemicalsymbols used at the time torepresent Gold and Silver, theperfect and near perfect met-als. Both 9/4 time and 6/4time were considered prefer-able in music. The modernsymbol for common time or4/4, may have also derivedfrom this form of rhythmicnotation, which was a half cir-cle with no dot in the center.In addition to these time sig-nature symbols, a system ofsigns and colored notes devel -oped for indicating whichrelationships were in use orwere being temporarilyaltered.

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

Printed manuscript from Venice, 1552. When compared to the first printed Italian missal, the evolution and standardization of theprinted symbols is evident.

These alchemy symbols for gold and silver are the same as those for Perfect Tempus and Imperfect Tempus, respectively. The cor-relations between the disciplines are not surprising. The Music of the Spheres was the term given to the harmonies or dissonancesof the planets in motion. All of the universe was theorized to operate on musical terms.

liturgical music of the RomanCatholic Church. Texts are takenfrom the mass, the bible, andhymns.

RhythmBasic element of music concernedwith the duration of tones and thestresses or accents placed uponthem. The formulation in the 12thcentury of basic rhythmic patterns(modes) led to the development ofmeter, the division of a composi-tion into units of equal time value.

Charlemagne(742-814) The first Christianemperor of the Roman Empire,Emperor of the West (800-814),and Carolingian King of the Franks(768-814).

ChantGeneral name for one-voiced,unaccompanied liturgical music,usually referring to melodies of theOrthodox, Roman Catholic, andAnglican branches of Christianity.Its melodies, unlike the RomanCatholic plainsong, are harmo-nized.

ClefA symbol prefixed to a five-linestave indicating the pitch range towhich the written notes apply. TheC clef is now comparatively rare,except for viola, cello, and bas -soon; for most other instrumentsthe G and F clefs are standard.

PolyphonyMusic which contains more thanone composed part at a time. Earlychant, though sometimes sung bymany voices, contained only onepart.

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The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

This piece from Mikrokosmos by Bela Bartok shows basic modern notation as we know it today. As the printing process got more refined, so didthe symbols used in notation.

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In the 15th century, numberswith the appearance of frac-tions, indicated that one pro-portionality of rhythmic val-ues was temporarily beingsubstituted for another.Modern signatures evolvedfrom these numbers. Barlines, expression signs, andItalian terms to indicatetempo and dynamics cameinto use in the 17th century.With the adoption of equaltemperament and the majorand minor modes, signaturesindicating a major key or itsrelative minor became con-ventional.

By about 1700, the modernsystem of notation, using astave of five lines asopposed to the four used inplainsong, had become firm-ly established. A stave offive lines for vocal musicwas adopted in France andone of six lines in Italy.Signs for chromatic alter-ation of tones appear almostfrom the beginning and hadassumed their presentshapes by the end of the17th century. The essentialproblems in pitch notation,the use of both lines andspaces to indicate successivescale degrees and the use of

extra symbols such as acciden-tals were solved comparativelyrapidly. Eventually the modernversion of music notation wasestablished with the help ofwidespread music printing prac-tices. Despite its drawbacks,particularly in notating non-dia-tonic pitches and complexrhythms, conventional modernnotation is also being used out-side of Western music. Music ofpreviously oral traditions isbeing transcribed, and even clas-sical traditions such as Chinesemusic now make use of Westernnotation.

The history of music notation isone of continual evolution, andthe 20th century is no exception.As composers have found newmeans of expression, they havedeveloped new means of writingthem down. Methods of indicat-ing microtones, intervals lessthan a semitone, were foundearly in the century, and sym-bols borrowed from mathemat-ics have been used to notatecomplex rhythmic relationships.Some composers, such as JohnCage and KarlheinzStockhausen, virtually aban-doned conventional notation infavor of graphic representationsor even passages of text; others,such as Pierre Boulez and

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

This piece from The Banshee by Henry Cowell shows more avante garde forms ofmodern notation. As new ways of playing instruments are experimented with, newways of notating must be found. The letters correspond to written directionals. Thelines tell the musician to pull their fingers across the strings of the open piano insteadof striking the keys.

DynamicsSymbols indicating relative loud-ness, changes in loudness such ascrescendo and diminuendo, orloudness in accentuation such asrinforzando.

AccidentalsSymbols used to raise or lower atone by a half step or more.Sharps, flats, double sharps, doubleflats, and naturals are accidentals.

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Luciano Berio, have attemptedto refine it and improve its accu-racy. There have even beenattempts, particularly in the firsthalf of the century, to inventcompletely new systems, butthese have not been enthusiasti -cally received.

Graphic representation ofsounds that began with medievalplainchant originally aimed atrecording the real inflection of asinging voice. In 1940 Villa-Lobos composed New YorkSkyline based on the outline ofa photograph projected ontograph paper and thence to musicmanuscript. Percy Grainger'sproposed Free Music Machine1948, applies optical sound prin-ciples on a larger scale, a tech-nique continued in digital syn-thesizers today. Development ofthe sound spectograph in 1944by engineers at Bell TelephoneLaboratories introduced a muchimproved projection of audioevents in pitch and time. Muchof modern day electronic musicis composed with graphic repre-sentations of sound on computerscreens.

Musical symbols, as with anyform of graphic communication,is ever-changing. With theadvent of global communication

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

Electronic MusicTerm applied to compositionswhose sounds are either producedor modified electronically. Theearly examples of electronic com-positions, called concrete music,were taped montages of electroni -cally altered sound obtained bymicrophone from nonelectronicsources, such as voices and streetnoise. In software synthesis acomputer mathematically repre-sents sounds, which are manipulat-ed by various techniques, includ-ing filtering (which affects loud-ness), time delay (which affectsreverberation), and frequencyshifting (which affects pitch).

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A computer generated visual interpretation of an audio file shows purely sound quality as it relates to frequency. This entirely newand different way of visualizing music may be the precursor to a new era in musical notation.

and technology, advances in nondiatonic music, and acceptanceof non western musical tradi -tions, the musical symbol willadapt to the needs of society, asit has done through the ages.

The History and Evolution of the Musical Symbol Gabriella F. Scelta

Karkoshka, Erdhard. Notation inNew Music: a critical guide tointerpretation and realisation.New York: Praeger Publishers,1972.

Read, Gardner. Music Notation:A Manual of Modern Practice.3rd ed. New York: TaplingerPublishing, 1972.

Ross, Ted. The Art of MusicEngraving and Processing.Miami Beach: Hansen Books,1970.

The Toledo Museum of Art.The Printed Note: 500 Years ofMusic Printing and Engraving.Toledo: The Toledo Museum ofArt, 1957.

Williams, C.F. Abdy. The Storyof Notation. New York: CharlesScribner's Sons, 1903.

Yudkin, Jeremy. Music inMedieval Europe. Upper SaddleRiver: Prentice Hall, 1989.

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SourcesApel, W. The Notation ofPolyphonic Music, 900-1600.Cambridge: Medieval Academyof America, 1953.

Atlas, Allen. RenaissanceMusic: Music in WesternEurope, 1400 - 1600. NewYork: W. W. Norton &Company, 1998.

Burkhart, Charles. Anthologyof Musical Analysis. 5th ed.Fort Worth: Harcourt BraceCollege Publishers, 1992.