Music-Picture: One Form of Synthetic Art Education

Okada, Masashi.

The Journal of Aesthetic Education, Volume 37, Number 4, Winter2003, pp. 73-84 (Article)

Published by University of Illinois PressDOI: 10.1353/jae.2003.0042

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Aesthetic Education in Japan Today 73

18. Parsons states, “The painting exists not between the two individual poles of theartist and the viewer but in the midst of an indefinite group of persons who arecontinually reconstructing it — a community of viewers.” Parsons, How WeUnderstand Art, 84-85.

19. Efland, Freedman, and Stuhr, Postmodern Art Education, 115-38.20. This is an example from a class of Seminar for Integrated Study in the Faculty of

Education at Utsunomiya University, Japan, April-July 2001.21. See “Art Project Kemiga Soushinjo 2000 [Kemigawa Transmitting Station

2000],” available online at: <http://kemipro.e.chiba-u.ac.jp/2000/index.html>

Music-Picture: One Form of Synthetic Art Education

“Music-picture (a picture drawn through musical perception)” has beenwidely accepted by art educators in Japan. The purpose of this essay is topropose the making of music-pictures as art education and to put it on afirm theoretical base. I first investigate three gestalt rules: adjacency, continu-ance, and resemblance, all of which are applicable to the senses of both see-ing and hearing. Next I present research on color hearing as one version ofsynaesthesia, which is the comprehensive faculty that binds the five senses invarious ways. The well-organized music-picture program by Kaoru Sasaki1

is introduced as an example.2 The synthetic art-educational value of music-picture will become clearer through these examinations.

The Interrelations between Visual Arts and Music

It is exciting that the visual arts meet music in an art class, even if these sub-jects are entirely different in regard to media, expressive form, the categoryof perception, and mastery of techniques. Put simply, Picasso’s works arevisible, whereas Stravinsky’s pieces are invisible. Nevertheless, both pow-erfully convey imaginative and often narrative messages. Relying on intuitionalone, I firmly believe both are interchangeable.

My research on common methods of organizing both recorded musicand painting was my first observation of the mutual relationship betweenmusic and visual arts.3 But what I considered then would not be applied toart class directly because the research was based on my practical experi-ence. It did not have any educational goals. Now I recognize that instruc-tive approaches are necessary to lay the foundation for art classes dealingwith interaction between two distinct modalities.

In Japan, the Ministry of Education and Science provides the governmentcurriculum guidelines nearly every ten years. It contains descriptions ontwo subjects: The visual arts and music taught in these classes are at anelementary school level and a junior high school level, both located within acompulsory education system. The new version has been in force sinceApril 2002 (the new school term starts in April in Japan). Objectives in thetwo educational fields are similar and ideas of what art and music educa-tion ought to be are almost the same. The aim common to both in the gov-ernment curriculum guidelines: “Through expression and appreciation, we

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cultivate students’ sentiments” invites the linking of music and the visualarts across the curriculum.

Many art educators in Japan are interested in this sort of idea and haveactually put it into practice.4 They are engaged in interrelating or even uni-fying music and the visual arts. Additionally I know other teachers whohave designed and proposed many ideas toward this crossover. Listed be-low are general ideas that seek to combine visual arts with music in an artclass.1) Music-picture: to make a pictorial description of impressions received

from music.2) Sound map: to make a map of sounds heard at a given location. Each

sound is visualized by simple marks like - - -, <<<, ~~~, ooo, and xxx.3) Graphic notation: to write a score which directs the details, whole

form, and progression of music by graphics instead of staff notation.Using onomatopoeias or instructions by words are common. It can beimprovised, based on intuitively translating visual impacts into sounds.

4) Sound toy: to make an original musical instrument of familiar easil ob-tained materials. For instance, a corrugated cardboard ukulele whosestrings are rubber bands, a pair of maracas made of empty cans andsoybeans, and so forth.

5) Sound sculpture: to make sculpture producing interesting sounds (some-times noises like creak or clatter). Extensive genres: wood sculpture,metal construction, assemblage (junk arts), kinetic arts, and so on.

6) Sound installation: to make a place where participants experience soundsgenerated by objects or equipment.

7) Multimedia: in the broad sense, to mix visuals with music; noises likejingle, tap, and bang! in daily life, or natural environmental sounds likea pit-a-pat of falling rain, a whisper of leaves, or a murmur of a stream.In the narrow sense, to join computer graphics to digital music.

8) Performance: to synthesize talks, songs, musical performances, acting,dancing, costumes, stage decorations, lighting, and so forth.

Item 3 is related to 4. It is a pleasant experience for students to playtunes composed graphically by themselves on their handmade sound toys.Naoki Mizushima classifies principal ways to make sounds as follows:to flick, to blow, to beat, to rub, to shake.5 Voices also have immeasurablepotential to create varied tones.

This rest of this essay focuses only on the “music-picture.” This genre,supposedly the most popular in Japan, has been widely studied.6

Symbolism of Sounds and Lines

Feelings or emotions tie music with visual imagery. For example, solemnBaroque music reminds us of awe-inspiring Renaissance temperas and fres-coes, where angels play musical instruments like lute, viol, harp, psaltery,

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trumpet, and bombard. Millet’s landscapes communicate a gloomy atmo-sphere to viewers; phrases, harmonies, and even changed keys in Chopin’snocturnes are melancholic. Furthermore, Delacroix thought of his works inmusical terms.7 There are many similarities between Monet’s painting andDebussy’s music, both showing capabilities for awakening deep memories.8

In other words, painting as well as music takes root in common sensuousground.

Shinji Matsuda introduced a notable case of NHK’s television program,“Hello, my senior!: an extracurricular lesson.”9 In this program, AtsukoTenma (a violinist) held a music class at the school she graduated from. Sheasked students to express different emotions with only an “Ah” sound.Most of the students did well by controlling strength, volume, pitch, tone,length, inflection, and subtle changes of their voices. They learned of thevoice’s symbolic function through their own trials.

On the other hand, Betty Edwards devises “analogs” to express mentalconditions and invisible concepts.10 Learners must follow a rule that ana-logs consist of only touches and strokes of pencil, without using any recog-nizable motif. She says, “Use only the language of line: fast lines, slow lines,light, dark, smooth, rough, broken, or flowing — whatever feels right for whatyou are trying to express.”11 What is formed in this way is categorized as:anger, joy, serenity, depression, human energy, femininity, illness, and anyother emotions. Results look like nonfigurative drawings and are full ofmeaning.

Both Tenma’s approach and Edwards’s method are based on feelings be-yond words, abstract ideas and imagery of something inexplicable. Soundsand lines can be bound together and music can interrelate with pictures at anonverbal level. Philippe Herreweghe, who conducts Collegium Vocale,says about J.S. Bach’s three religious pieces, “St. Matthew Passion is light inRembrandt’s painting, St. John Passion is shades in Dürer’s engraving andMass in B minor is sunlight in Italy.”12

Underlying Premises of Music-Picture 1: Gestalt Rules

In this section, I will show the cognitive bases of music-picture from theperspective of gestalt psychology. Psychologists proposed stimulating theoryon the interrelation between visual sensation and auditory sense. There arethree gestalt rules: adjacency, continuance, and resemblance.13 These areessential characteristics common to two kinds of senses.

When we see several dots close to each other, we distinguish a line. Andwhen we hear someone knocking on the door at short intervals, we receivesounds as a set. In both cases, it is almost impossible to perceive each indi-vidual dot or sound. They are tightly unified gestalt. This is the fundamen-tal principle of relating sounds/auditory to dots/visual. Three quarter notes

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in simple triple measure can be transformed to “dango (three skewereddumplings eaten in Japan)” or an equilateral triangle.

The extensive case of “adjacency” is “continuance.” Imagine peas juxta-posed in a regular fashion. We see a wavy, spiral, or organically curvedform in this arrangement. One tends to pay attention to the whole continu-ous form, not each pea. Related to this, a quarter note is perceived as a dotand the sequence of musical notes in a sheet of music as rosary-like runningdots. Though the progression of notes is like going up and down the stairs,we can recognize smoothly curved melody lines. Erunst Toch wrote, “Theinternal substance of melody composition is wavelike movement in a broadsense, to put it simply, a billow.”14 It is empirically true that melody is re-lated to wave or billow. Observe rhythmic lines of Hokusai’s “Great Waveoff Kanagawa” from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji of 1823-29. Over-lapping curves may remind viewers of an elaborate polyphony consistingof multiple melodies in Baroque music. Similar imagery is often found inJ.S. Bach’s handwritten score in particular. Beautifully intertwined melo-dies by two flutes symbolize tears flowing on cheeks in “Qui tollis peccatamundi” of Mass in B minor. Pierre Boulez said, “The auditory, but equallyvisual disposition of notes is often found in even Bach’s score.”15

The succession of points forms a line that has a variety of shapes.“Straight” and “curve” are part of the central vocabulary that can be ob-served in both music and painting. Actually every line has its own peculiar-ity and identity. Listen to two distinctive contrapuntal melodies that start atthe forty-ninth measure allegro in No.1 Requiem of Mozart’s Requiem. Thebass dramatically starts to sing a rising-and-falling-at-steep-slope type ofmelody. On the heels of it, the alto’s delicate waving melody overlaps onthe bass’. One can receive an image of a complexly interlaced flow of a zigzag-ging thick rope and a wavy fine thread. Connected with this, WassilyKandinsky showed a unique illustration, where zigzag and curly lines en-tangle, with the following commentary, “the contrastive juxtaposition ofbent line and a curve. Both characters acquire one reinforced sound.”16

“Kurth regarded musical space as the field where sounds move.”17 Inmusic criticism, to describe by words related to spatial movement is com-mon. Hidekazu Yoshida, one of Japanese leading music critics, describesMaurizio Pollini’s piano performance as serene tones running up quicklyfrom the bottom, turning round and round at the same place, streamingslowly, jumping about jauntily in swarms.18

Going back to the third rule: “resemblance,” we can easily distinguishred or blue corrections done on a paper printed with black letters. In such acase, red or blue elements combine as gestalt. Elements of similar size orshape also tend to be unified. These facts correspond to what occurs in mu-sic. The contrast of contrapuntal passages in Mozart’s Requiem is a good ex-ample. We can differentiate two parts clearly because the rule of resemblance

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functions at the level of pitch, voice tone, and phrase pattern. But if twoparts are played by two pianos at near pitch, we find much difficulty in lis-tening to two phrases separately. However, if the same passage is played byoboe and flute as a duet, differences become more distinct. Resemblanceoperates so intricately in such works as Botticelli’s La Primavera of ca. 1482or J. S. Bach’s Die Brandenburgischen Konzerte. A great variety of structures ofboth pictorial and musical pieces are organized by the three rules. For thisreason I assume there is a high potential for developing young childrenthrough interaction between painting and music.

Underlying Premises of Music-Picture 2: Synaesthesia

Synaesthesia is the cross-relating of cognitive ability over different sensa-tions. For example, a brilliant chorus reminds my eleven-year-old daugh-ter of the seven colors of the rainbow. Conversely, its plaintive tone re-minds her of a dull color made by mixing different paints. Most feel brasssounds like a metallically shining color such as gold or silver, because of thebody colors and textures of the brass instruments. Strictly speaking, synaes-thesia is pure recognition without this sort of association fostered by learn-ing. However, from the educational viewpoint, it is accepted that associa-tion is a part of this special ability. Young children’s synaesthesia in the broadsense gains wide recognition. Visual experience stimulated by other sensualperception is called “photism,” our next topic.

The properties of musical tones are often described by visual, spatial, oreven tactual terms. Once my chorus teacher, Hiromi Suehiro (a bass singer)asked sopranos to sing sotto voce like “silk” in No. 6 Confutatis of Mozart’sRequiem. A lively or a high-pitched phrase gives listeners the impression ofbrightness and lightness. The reverse is also true. Once on a radio programabout classical music, I heard an episode about a conversation betweenStravinsky and his mentor, Rimski Korsakov. A commentator said, “Hear-ing it, others recognized that the two were talking about arts, because lotsof graphical terms are used.” In reference to this, the following items formedin the binomial confrontation were chosen in the experiment on photismby T.F. Karwoski, H.S. Odbert, and C.E. Osgood: big-small, near-far, thick-thin, dark-bright, distinct-blurred, moving-stationary, squarish-round, up-down.19 We know that other items like hard-soft, heavy-light, rough-smooth,high-low, dense-sparse are also often used at a tactile or spatial level in ourtalks on music and visual arts.

“Color hearing” and “Tönesehen“ [tone seeing] are two representativesof photism.20 In the visual-auditory-crossing area, the former is more popu-lar. It is the ability (vivid for some, vague for others) to receive color itself orcolorful impressions, from what is heard. The latter is also broadly ob-served. It is the ability to hear music directly or to recall sounds or phrasesin mind by what is seen. Here are conceivable examples.

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1. When you see an elegant figure, you catch Mozart’s music.2. When you see colors like rose, lavender, or grass green, you become

surrounded by melodies.3. When you see a pastoral scene, you are reminded of some specific music.4. When you see a triangle, square, or circle, you hear sounds suggested by

these shapes.When you improvise by a graphic score, Tönesehen becomes a key.

Erhard Karkoschka introduced Roman Haubenstock-Ramati’s statementthat Kandinsky’s diagrams were playable in principle.21 Matsudaira wrotethat an even smudge on a glass window was playable for David Tudor,which may seem extreme.22 By the way, in both color hearing and Tönesehen,reactions vary widely among individuals.

Regarding color hearing, Kandinsky is one of prominent figures who re-searched new pictorial possibilities in this area. According to his analysis oftimbres, trumpet is yellow and tuba is vermilion. Flute is light blue, oboe isviolet, and bassoon is gloomy purple.23 These correspondences bear refer-ence to the results of K. Zietz’s experiment on interaction between pitch andcolor.24 When subjects saw yellow cards in low-pitched frequency for a sec-ond, they felt yellowish brown. In the case of blue, they felt bluish violet.On the whole, hues turn lighter in high-pitched frequency and turn deeperin the opposite case. In Kandinsky’s opinion, the low register of violin isgreen, to the contrary, its high register is red. His conclusions of course de-pend on his personal, therefore subjective judgment, but make sense to usto some degree. His abstract visions might be located in the descent of col-orful orchestration by Russian composers such as Tchaikovsky, Skryabin,and Stravinsky.

Color hearing is not only the ability to link ears to eyes, but a form ofimagination. It has creative and art-educational value. I investigate thisability among university students who attend my lectures. First I blow a toybugle to make a long tone that gradually fades out at the end. Its street-vendor’s-flute-like timbre is a little comical. Students must close their eyeswhile concentrating on hearing it. After this, they fill out a worksheet whichasks: Did you see color? What color? If you saw or felt color by hearingtone, describe its name and what happened. Describe your experience: 1. Isaw real color; 2. I strongly felt color; 3. I somehow felt color: or 4. I didn’tfeel any color.

The results showed that most most checked numbers 2 or 3. Students be-long to a generation communing with the synchronism of pictures and pho-netic sounds in rapidly growing audiovisual media like screen, video in-cluding DVD, television, TV games, computer, internet, a cellular phonewith a built-in camera, or even pop music (especially rock) concerts withhigh-tech visuals. Young children’s sensibility is also affected by these everyday in Japan. Here are two comments by Kazumi Nikaidou who checked 3and Manami Nishi who checked 2:

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Nikaidou: Brownish Yellow. I felt a bit of metallic gloss like brass.Some parts were reddish. Transparency and polish. A sweet taste likea caramel. Stickiness like honey.Nishi: Yellow. Silvery color of iron or lead was moving toward mewith vigor. What I saw first is yellow, which was vivid as eruptingmagma. I felt as if I was pierced by its keen speed.

Nikaidou’s response is beyond vision. It extends to the sense of taste andtouch. Nishi perceived not only color but moving figurative images fromwhat she heard. In this research, most of responses were marked by strongindividuality and some reached the unconscious layer of perception. Di-verse images inspired by sound become the fertile imaginative sources forartworks of visualizing deep, mostly inexplicable messages.

From Sound-Picture to Music-Picture

The next subject in the worksheet is “sound-picture.” The following sentenceis shown to my students: “Let’s draw a picture of what you hear.”

I pick up a toy accordion that has no musical scale. A pair of bellowsmakes a funny baa-boo sound. For the purpose of cutting off any visual in-fluence, they must close their eyes and carefully listen to it. Varied resultsare observed. Abstract styles symbolizing repetitious sounds by dots, lines,or geometric marks appear more often than representational ones like am-bulances blowing a siren. All are different, but common points exist. Thenoteworthy fact to me was that they gave full scope to their creativity intheir works.

This sort of trail to visualize tonal experience makes “music-picture”possible. In fact, music has historically been the source of inspiration inevery art genre.25 Next I focus on music-picture at various ages.

Yuriko Ishikawa reported on music-picture at a kindergarten attachedto the Education Faculty of Kumamoto University.26 Assisted by her, I be-gan directing its kindergarten workshop in 1988. The children really enjoyedmaking pictures or collage-like works using crayon and other materials tomusic, Children’s Morning, Afternoon, and Evening which I had made in col-laboration with my younger brother by multi-track-recording. But musicseemed not to be directly translated into their works but to serve as a pleas-ant background in which their creativity was comfortably stimulated. Theirpictorial responses to musical stimuli are generally illustrations which areidentical with what they draw every day. After this, all of them started todance to my composition.

Sasaki also practiced music-picture for second-grade pupils at Setagayaelementary school attached to Tokyogakugei University. Main materialswere crayon and colored paper, which was cut and pasted on a sheet of car-tridge paper. Pupils’ reactions to music, which was the same as a piece usedat Kumamoto, were narrative. Fanciful story-telling-types of pictures in repre-sentational style appeared. They enjoyed this subject. Making good use of

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its experience, she practiced music-picture again for the first grade at Koganeijunior high school attached to Tokyogakugei University. Students madeimaginative works like the scene of rotating coffee cups at an amusementpark, based on memories awakened by music. Accordingly, she formed an-other program to let her students recognize the expressive potential of a va-riety of touches, strokes, and what was called modern techniques in Japansuch as dripping, spattering (made by brushing mesh with a toothbrushand paint), stamping, décalcomanie, and so forth.27 The program’s goalwas:1. To show students several types of samples of dots and lines as primary

formal elements to transform music into pictures.2. To listen to musical pieces: Erik Satie’s Gymnopédies, the third movement

of Beethoven’s Piano Sonata no. 14 in C sharp minor, op. 27 no. 2 “Moon-light,” “Badinerie” from J.S. Bach’s Suite für Orchester Nr. 2 h-moll BWV1067, Mozart’s Divertimento no. 17 and “Die Walküre” from RichardWagner’s Der Ring des Nibelungen.

3. To select the design which best matches the music among the samples.4. To respond graphically using only black dots, lines, or planes to the fol-

lowing sounds: cymbals, a triangle, a wood block, a big drum, turning apotter’s wheel, and scratching an LP record with a fingernail.

5. To draw pictures from the mixed sound of students’ playing all instru-ments together at the final stage.

6. To learn various techniques as visual languages to help tell about musicalfeelings.

7. To make music-pictures in abstract style, listening to four pieces: “Clairde Lune” from Debussy’s Suite Bergamasque no. 3, Stravinsky’s Le Sacredu Printemps, Moussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition and my above-mentioned piece.

8. To hold a time for appreciating students’ work and friendly commentingon one another.Each student created a beautiful music-picture. According to Sasaki, an-

swers to questionnaires indicated, “I like art class.”28 Junior high school stu-dents are at so-called “realism” stage where an appraisal standard strictlyworks. Many feel disappointed with their limitations in making art. But amusic-picture was enthusiastically welcomed, maybe because this subjectwas exempt from rules on how to represent objects. It can set students boundby prejudice and discouragement free and improves self-confidence.

Students understood also abstract approaches, which were convention-ally judged as too difficult. Music-picture gives them good opportunities toprepare for artworks by Kandinsky and Klee, François Kupka, James AbottMcNeil Whistler, Gustav Klimt, Raoul Dufy, and so forth. Through its manypossibilities in this subject, they will learn the importance and even the his-torical survey of abstract or quasi-abstract art, which was greatly indebtedto music.

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The Proposal of Synthetic Art Education

The expansion of students’ creative lives must be considered from syntheticart-educational viewpoints. Music-picture gave me this thought. Althoughthey enjoy their lives sensuously or physically in the pop culture, filled withartificial audio-visual stimuli, building an essentially rich life by means ofart and music ought to be significant. One precedent which actualized thistheme was the European tradition of Christian arts and music. The root ofboth is of course what is described in the Bible. Many artists and musicianswere inspired by its marvelous stories and their own faith.

Our own life is full of the free gifts of colors, shapes, textures, smells,tastes, and sounds. To let students see this cognitive richness in a new lightbecomes the kernel of synthetic art education proposed here.

In Japan, people used to appreciate natural phenomena through all sea-sons. In spring, they enjoy seeing the cherry blossoms at parties filled withsongs and dances. In summer, they grow colorful morning bells and hearthe refreshing jingle of wind-bells. In fall, they find delight in hills deco-rated by tinted leaves or insects’ singing in the evening. Then in winter,they celebrate the New Year with colorful ornaments and sacred music ordance. These customs still exist. Ukiyoe (a color print of everyday life in theEdo period) by Katsushika Hokusai, Utagawa Hiroshige, and others describesabove-mentioned traditions in detail. Similarly, when you see Pieter Bruegelthe Elder’s impressive pictures, you may say the same. You can find the ex-cellent combinations of varied types of sensations, some of which are trulymusic-pictures.

“Sesame Street” is my favorite television program for infants. Very youngaudiences can learn many things with media-literacy through a great vari-ety of music and images. In addition, though careful choice is necessary pro-motional music videos also can be attractive examples integrating both effec-tively. Still I fear the homogenization and numbness of young children’ssensibility in too many sensual diversions under the strong influence of high-tech. So art educators must foster their creativity to make their lives rich inthe true sense. Integrated subjects such as music-picture must play a role inbalancing all sorts of sensations. Synthetic art education, where visual artsencounter music, can be one effective measure for developing personalitiesand overcoming the current cultural disorder.29

Masashi OkadaShinshu University

NOTES

1. See Kaoru Sasaki, “Ongakukanshouga no nakade ikiru kodomotachi” [YoungChildren Living in Music-Picture], Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education],November 1989, 36-40.

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2. See Masashi Okada, “Ongakukansouga no kousatsu: Kaiga to ongaku ryouh-yougen no soukan” [Making Painting, Listening to Music: A Study on the Mu-tual Relation between Painting and Music] Bijutsu Kyouikugaku [The Journal forthe Society of Art Education] 11 (1990): 249-61 and “Oto no keitaika nokisoriron” [A Basic Theory of Forming Sounds into Visual Images], BijutsuKyouikugaku [The Journal for the Society of Art Education] 12 (1991): 77-94.

3. Masashi Okada, “What I Consider through my Experience of Both MakingPainting and Making Music,” M.F.A. diss., Brooklyn: Pratt Institute, 1985.

4. See Naoki Mizushima, “Shokankaku no tougou o mezashita zoukeikyouiku nikansuru kousatsu (2): Fukugouteki-hyougenkatsudou o megutte” [A Study onArt Education for the Integration of Senses (2): Activities in Multimedia Expres-sions]; Bijutsu Kyouikugaku [The Journal for the Society of Art Education] 9(1987): 379-87 and “Kodomo no zoukeihyougen to karikyuramu” [Children’sArt Productions and a Curriculum], Ato Edyukashon [Art Education] 19 (1993):22-27. Masashi Okada, “Ongaku to kaiga” [Music and Painting], in Oto to ningen[A Sound and a Human Being], ed. Manabu Watanabe (Kumamoto, Japan:Kumamoto University, 1988), 127-45; “Ongaku to kaiga no sougokouryu nikansuru shiron: Ongakukanshouga o chushin ni” [An Essay on an Interchangebetween Music and Painting: Music-Picture as a Central Issue], Biiku Bunka[Magazine for Art Education] (November 1989): 18-23; “Collage-kaiga to rokuon-ongaku no ryousakuhinkouzou no hikakukentou” [A Comparative and Ana-lytical Study on the Structure of Both Collage-Painting and Recorded Music],Bijutsu Kyouikugaku [The Journal for the Society of Art Education] 10 (1989): 263-76 and “Bijutsukyouiku no katsudou-han-i no kakuchou” [The Expansion of theRange of Activities in Art Education], Daigaku Bijutsu Kyouiku Gakkaishi [TheJournal for Society of Art Education in University] 34 (1994): 89-99. TaninakaSuguru, “Sousaku-ongu ni tsuite no saikou” [Reconsideration on HandmadeSound Toys], Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (November 1989): 32-35and “Souzousei o hagukumu zoukei no sekai: Shikaku to choukaku no hazamade” [Nursing Creativity in the Art World: Between Seeing and Hearing], BiikuBunka [Magazine for Art Education] (September 2001): 26-31. Yoshio Hoshino,Tsukutte hyougensuru ongakugakushu: Oto no kankyoukyouiku no shiten kara [Cre-ation-Expression-Based Music Learning: From the Point of View of Sound-Envi-ronmental Education] (Tokyo: Ongaku-no-tomosha, 1993). Takeshi Ishikawa,“Geijutsukyouiku: Sougou-kyouka toshite no geijutsu no kanousei ni tsuite”[Art Education: The Potentialities of Art as a Synthetic Subject], Ato Edyukashon[Art Education] 20 (1993): 4-12. Fumishige Yamamoto, “Hyougenka kousou noseika to mondai: Monbushou-kenkyu-kaihatsu-gakkou, Kinkashou model nokentou o tosite” [Results and Problems in the Expression Class Plan: ThroughExamining the Model of Kinka Elementary School, One of the Research andDevelopment Schools Appointed by the Ministry of Education], Ato Edyukashon[Art Education] 20 (1993): 13-20. Keiko Torigoe, “Oto no fukei o asobu” [Playingwith soundscape], Biiku-Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (September 2001):13-17. Yukio Tamura, “Oto o tsukuri, oto to asobu: Kodomotachi ni tsukuruyorokobi o” [Making Sounds and Having Fun with Them: Delivering MuchPleasure in Creation to Children], Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education](September 2001): 32-35. Morihiro Ikehara, “Oto to eizou de arawasu Okinawa:Ongaku” (sakkyoku) to shashin o kumiawase hyougenshita promotion-video-fusakuhin [Expressing Okinawa by Sounds and Images: Promotion-Video-LikeWorks Made by Mixing Composed Music and Photographs], Biiku Bunka [Maga-zine for Art Education] (September 2001): 40-43.

5. Naoki Mizushima, “Zoukeikyouiku ni okeru oto o megutte [On Sounds in ArtEducation],” Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (November 1989): 12-17.

6. See: Izumi Akiyama and Masashi Okada, “Kaigakyouiku ni kansuru kousatsuto teigen: Syotouka-zugakousaku, Kaiga A no jugyounaiyou o chushin ni”[Some Opinions and Suggestions of Fundamental Painting Education: PaintingA in an Elementary Course], Yamaguhi Daigaku Kyoikugakubu Kiyo [Bulletin of

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the Faculty of Education in Yamaguchi University] 38 (1988): 133-46. ShinjiMatsuda, “Ongaku o moto ni egaku kokoromi” [An Attempt to Draw underMusic], Daigaku Bijutsu Kyouiku Gakkaishi [The Journal for Society of Art Edu-cation in University] 26 (1994): 271-80 and “Bijutsu to ongaku no yugouteki-sougoutekina gakushu” [Harmonic and Synthetic Learning of Art and Music],Kyouiku Bijutsu [Art in Education] (August 1997): 79-92. Motohiro Umeda,“Ongaku ni motozuku shikisaihyougen no kousatsu” [A Study on Color Ex-pression Based on Music], Daigaku Bijutsu Kyouiku Gakkaishi [The Journal for Soci-ety of Art Education in University] 33 (2000): 69-76. Shouji Asawa, “Chugakkouni okeru oto o tanoshimu bijutsu no jugyou to sono tenkai: Sound design” [TheProgress of Art Class Where Junior High School Students Enjoy Sounds: SoundDesign], Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (September 2001): 36-39.

7. Edward Lockspeiser, Kaiga to ongaku: Turner kara Schöenberg ni itaru kaiga toongaku no hikakubigaku [Music and Painting: A Study in Comparative Ideas fromTurner to Schöenberg], trans. Masaaki Nakamura (Tokyo: Hakusuisha, 1986),70-92.

8. Takao Nakajima and Masashi Okada, “Inshouhaki ni okeru ongaku to kaiga nosoukan (1): Debussy to Monet no gensetsu ni motozuku kousatsu” [The Interre-lation between Music and Painting in the Impressionism Era (1): A ComparativeStudy Based on Analyses of Statements by Claude Debussy and Claude Monet],Shinshu Daigaku Kyoikugakubu Kiyo [Journal of the Faculty of Education, ShinshuUniversity] 105 (2002): 29-40.

9. Shinji Matsuda, “Oto, ongaku o egaku: Itsutsu no jissen” [Drawing Sound andMusic: Five Practices], Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (August 2001):44-49.

10. Betty Edwards, Drawing on the Artist Within: An Inspirational and Practical Guideto Increasing Your Creative Powers (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 66-95.

11. Ibid., 67.12. Philippe Herreweghe, “Genten wa sakkyokuka eno sonkei” [The Starting Point

is My Respect for a Composer], The Asahi Shinbun [Asahi News], 1 June 2000.13. See Diana Deutsch, ed., Ongaku no shinrigaku [The Psychology of Music], trans.

Tatetoshi Teranishi, Kengo Ogushi, and Ken-ichi Miyazaki (Niigata, Japan:Nishimura Shoten, 1987) and Kurt Koffka, Gestalt shinrigaku no genri [Principlesof Gestalt Psychology], trans. Masaya Suzuki et al. (Tokyo: Fukumura Shuppan,1988).

14. Erunst Toch, Senritsugaku [Melodiology], trans. Hiromi Takekawa (Tokyo:Ongaku-no-tomosha, 1953), 24.

15. Pierre Boulez, Klee no e to ongaku [Le pays fertile Paul Klee], trans. Eiko Kasaba(Tokyo: Chikuma Shobou, 1994), 70.

16. Wassily Kandinsky, Ten, sen, men: chushougeijutsu no kiso [Point and Line toPlane], trans. Hideho Nishida (Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1979), 103.

17. Quoted in Mamoru Watanabe, Ongakubi no kouzou [The Structure of MusicalBeauty] (Tokyo: Ongaku-no-tomosha, 1969), 102.

18. Hidekazu Yoshida, “Ongaku Tenbou” [Views on Music], The Asahi Shinbun[Asahi News], 20 June 1989.

19. A list was quoted in Takao Umemoto, Ongaku Shinrigaku [Music Psychology](Tokyo: Seishin Shobou, 1966), 185.

20. Umemoto, Ongaku Shinrigaku, 170-88. Also see Masashi Okada, “Oto to iro nosoukan ni kansuru kisotekikousatsu” [A Basic Study on the Relation betweenSound and Color], Geijutsu Kyouikugaku [Bulletin of the Study on Art and De-sign Education] 3 (1990): 27-35.

21. Erhard Karkoschka, Gendai ongaku no kifu [Notation of New Music], trans.Yoshiro Irino (Tokyo: Zen-ongakufu Shuppansha, 1978), 4.

22. Yoriaki Matsudaira, Ongaku: Shindousuru kenchiku [Music: Vibrating Architec-ture] (Tokyo: Seidosha, 1982), 357.

23. Wassily Kandinsky, Chushou Geijutsuron: Geijutsu ni okeru seishintekina mono[Über das Geistige in der Kunst: Insbesondere in der Malerei], trans. HidehoNishida (Tokyo: Bijutsu Shuppansha, 1979), 65-121.

84 Symposium

24. Introduced in Jun-ichi Nomura, Shikisai kouyouron: Gaia no iro [The Theory ofColor Utilities: Colors of Gaia] (Tokyo: Jutaku Shimpousha, 1988), 80.

25. See Lockspeiser, Kaiga to ongaku, 15-69, Susumu Kashima, E to ongaku no taiwa:Meiga ni miru gakki [A Conversation between Painting and Music: MusicalInstruments in Old Master Paintings] (Tokyo: Geijutsu Gendaisha, 1977); HajimeShinoda and Makoto Moroi, Seikimatsu-geijutsu to ongaku [Arts at the End of aCentury and Music] (Tokyo: Ongaku-no-tomosha, 1983); and Reiko Harada,Manierisme geijutsu to ongaku [Mannerism Art and Music] (Tokyo: Ongaku-no-tomosha, 1992)

26. Yuriko Ishikawa, “Ongaku to zoukei o yugousaseta hyougen katsudou [Expres-sion to unite music to arts],” Biiku Bunka [Magazine for Art Education] (Novem-ber 1989): 24-27.

27. Sasaki, “Ongakukanshouga no nakade ikiru kodomotachi,” 37.28. Ibid., 40.29. This essay is part of the following study: Masashi Okada and Takao Nakajima,

“To Develop New Teaching Materials to Connect Music and Painting and toPrepare a Basic Theory for It”: Houga Kenkyu [Germinating Study] 14658065 inthe Heisei 14 [2002] fiscal year in a grant-in-aid of the Ministry of Education andScience for scientific research.

Arthur Wesley Dow’s Address in Kyoto, Japan (1903)

Researchers concerned with the historical development of American art edu-cation cannot help but acknowledge Arthur Wesley Dow’s significant con-tribution to the field. Although many writers have recognized him as one ofgreatest figures in art education,1 it was not until the end of the twentiethcentury that art historians discovered his impact on the early developmentof modernist American art.

Several exhibitions of Dow’s work have been shown recently, mostnotably: “Arthur Wesley Dow and American Art and Crafts,” in Stanford,Chicago, and Fort Dodge, Iowa (1999 and 2000) and “Harmony of ReflectedLight: The Photographs of Arthur Wesley Dow,” at the New Mexico Mu-seum of Fine Arts (2001).2 In addition, two galleries in New York showedexhibitions of Dow’s work in 1999 and 2000, respectively. These exhibitionsindicate a rediscovery of Dow’s work and his role, as well as a wider interestin the integral aspects of modernism in American artworks.

Joseph Masheck recognized Dow’s post-impressionistic aesthetic of flatsurface design as influential on modernism in painting and the graphic arts.3

Nancy Green sees Dow as “one of the first Western artists who did not sim-ply imitate Japanese art, but who actually used the traditional Japanesewoodcut techniques to create modernist prints.”4 Leah Ollman writes, “Thosewho credit Dow as a conduit to American modernism see his traces every-where” because “Dow is revealed at the end of the rainbow, as the commonancestor” who spread his theory and practice of art and art education.5 JamesEnyeart states that Dow can now receive appropriate critical assessment ofhis work as a photographer and his impact on pictorial and modernistphotography.6