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Title: Music Notation and Terminology

Author: Karl W. Gehrkens

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MUSICNOTATION

ANDTERMINOLOGY

BY KARL W.GEHRKENS, A.M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOROF SCHOOL MUSIC

OBERLINCONSERVATORY OF

MUSIC

THE A. S. BARNES COMPANYNEW YORK 1914

COPYRIGHT, 1914, BYTHE A. S. BARNES COMPANY

PREFACEThe study of music notation andterminology by classes inconservatories and in music departmentsof colleges and normal schools is acomparative innovation, one reason forthe non-existence of such courses in thepast being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which might be found in relatedgroups clear and accurate definitions ofthe really essential terms. But with theconstantly increasing interest in musicstudy (both private and in the publicschools), and with the present persistentdemand that music teaching shall

become more systematic and thereforemore efficient in turning out a moreintelligent class of pupils, it has becomeincreasingly necessary to establishcourses in which the prospective teacherof music (after having had considerableexperience with music itself) mightacquire a concise and accurateknowledge of a fairly large number ofterms, most of which he has probablyalready encountered as a student, andmany of which he knows the generalmeaning of, but none of which heperhaps knows accurately enough toenable him to impart his knowledgeclearly and economically to others.

To meet the need of a text-book for thispurpose in his own classes the author

has been for several years gatheringmaterial from all available sources, andit is hoped that the arrangement of thismaterial in related groups as herepresented will serve to give the studentnot only some insight into the presentmeaning of a goodly number of terms,but will also enable him to see moreclearly why certain terms have themeaning which at present attaches tothem. To this latter end the derivations ofmany of the terms are given inconnection with their definition.

The aim has not been to present anexhaustive list, and the selection ofterms has of course been influencedlargely by the author's own individualexperience, hence many teachers will

probably feel that important terms havebeen omitted that should have beenincluded. For this state of affairs noapology is offered except that it wouldprobably be impossible to write a bookon this subject which would satisfyeveryone in either the selection or actualdefinition of terms.

In formulating the definitions themselvesan attempt has been made to use suchwords as note, tone, et cetera with atleast a fair degree of accuracy, andwhile the attitude of the author on thispoint may be criticized as being puristicand pedantic, it is nevertheless hisopinion that the next generation of musicstudents and teachers will be profited bya more accurate use of certain terms that

have been inaccurately used for so longthat the present generation has to a largeextent lost sight of the fact that the use isinaccurate. The author is well aware ofthe fact that reform is a matter of growthrather than of edict, but he is also of thebelief that before reform can actuallybegin to come, the need of reform mustbe felt by a fairly large number ofactively interested persons. It isprecisely because so few musiciansrealize the need of any change in musicterminology that the changesrecommended by committees who havegiven the matter careful thought are soslow in being adopted. It is hoped thatsome few points at which reform in theterminology of music is necessary may

be brought to the attention of a fewadditional musicians thru this volume,and that the cause may thus be helped insome slight degree.

It is suggested that in using the book forclass-room purposes the teacheremphasize not only the definition andderivation of all terms studied, but thespelling and pronunciation as well. Forthis latter purpose a pronouncing indexhas been appended.

It is impossible to give credit to allsources from which ideas have beendrawn, but especial mention should bemade of the eminently clear andbeautifully worded definitions compiledby Professor Waldo S. Pratt or the

Century Dictionary, and the exceedinglyvaluable articles on an almost all-inclusive range of topics found in thenew edition of Grove's Dictionary.Especial thanks for valuable suggestionsas to the arrangement of the material,etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H.Stetson, Professor of Psychology,Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox,Professor of Theory, OberlinConservatory of Music; and Charles I.Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester,Mass., as well as to various members ofthe Music Teachers' NationalAssociation who have offered valuableadvice along certain specific lines.

K.W.G.

OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC, June,1913

CONTENTSCHAPTER I.Some Principles of CorrectNotation 1

1. Note.2, 3. Rules for turning stems.4. Use of cross-stroke.5. Rest.6. G Clef.7. F Clef and C Clef.8. Sharp and double-sharp.9. Flat, double-flat and natural.

10. Tie.11. Dot after a note.

CHAPTER II.Symbols of Music Defined

512. Staff and Great Staff.13. Leger Lines.14. Staff degrees.15. Clef.16. Treble and bass Clefs.17. Movable C Clef.18. Sharp.19. Flat.20. Double-sharp and double-flat.

CHAPTER III.Symbols of Music Defined(continued) 8

21. Natural22, 23. Key-signature; how determine

whether a major or minor key.24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across

bar.

26. Rules concerning altered staffdegrees.

27. Enharmonic.28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.29. Rests.30. Lists of notes and rests.31. English names for.32. Less common forms.33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.34. Bar.35. Double-bar.

CHAPTER IV.Abbreviations, Signs, etc.13

36-40. Signs for repetition.41. Continuation.42. Rest.43. Pause.

44. Hold.45-47. Alteration of Pitch.48. Octave names.

CHAPTER V.Abbreviations, Signs, etc.(continued) 17

49-51. Dots after notes.52. Dots over or under notes.53. Dash over note.54. Tie.55. Slur.56. Slur or tie with dots.57. Dash over note.58. Dash and dot over note.59. Accent marks.60. m.d., m.g., etc.61. Arpeggio.62. Messa di voce.

63. Violin bow signs.

CHAPTER VI.Embellishments 2264. Definition and kinds.65. Trill.66-68. Mordent.69-72. Turn.73, 74. Appoggiatura.75. Acciaccatura.

CHAPTER VII.Scales 2776. Definition, and old forms.77. Origin.78. Key.79. Three general classes.80. Diatonic, defined.81. Major diatonic.82. Tetrachords.

83. The fifteen positions.

CHAPTER VIII.Scales (continued) 3384. Minor diatonic.85. Original form.86. Harmonic minor.87. Melodic minor.88. Eleven positions.89. Relative minor.90. Tonic minor.91. Diatonic scale names.92. Syllable-names.93. Chromatic scale.94. Nine positions.95. Whole-step scale.

CHAPTER IX.Auxiliary Words andEndings 42

CHAPTER X.Measure 4497. Definition.Two essential

characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.98. Syncopation.99. Simple and compound measures.

100. Commonest varieties.101. Other varieties.102. Rare varieties.

103. The signs, C and .

CHAPTER XI.Tempo 48104. Misuses of the word "time."105-107. How to correct these: by

substituting "rhythm," "measure,"and "tempo."

108. Three ways of finding the correcttempo.

109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.

CHAPTER XII.Tempo (continued) 52110-119. Tempo-terms.

CHAPTER XIII.Dynamics 56120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.

CHAPTER XIV.Terms Relating to Formsand Styles 62

132. Definition of form.133. Basis of form.134. Difference between form and

style.135. Introductory.136. Two styles.137. Monophonic music.

138. Polyphonic music.139. Counterpoint.140. Imitation.141. Canon.142. School round.143. Fugue.

CHAPTER XV.Terms Relating to Formsand Styles (continued) 67

144. Phrase-section.145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.146. Primary forms.147. Theme.148. Thematic development.149. Rondo.150. Suite.151. Dances in suite.152. Scherzo.

153. Sonata.154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.155. Concerto.156. Symphony.157. Sonata-form.158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.159. Program music.160. Symphonic or tone poem.

CHAPTER XVI.Terms Relating to VocalMusic 76161. Anthem.162. A capella.163. Motet.164. Choral.165. Mass.166. Cantata.167. Oratorio.

168. Opera.169. Libretto.170. Recitative.171. Aria.172. Lied.173. Ballad.174. Folk-song.175. Madrigal.176. Glee.177. Part-song.

CHAPTER XVII.Rhythm, Melody,Harmony and Intervals 82178. The four elements of music.179. Rhythm.180. Melody.181. Harmony.182. Timbre.

183. Intervalharmonic and melodic.184. Number name and specific name.185. Prime.186. Second.187. Third.188. Fourth.189. Fifth.190. Sixth.191. Seventh.192. Octave.193. Ninth.194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished

and augmented intervals.195. Inverted intervals.

CHAPTER XVIII.Chords, Cadences, etc.87196. Chord. Triad. Root.

197. Major, minor, diminished,augmented triads.198. The Common chords.199. Fundamental position. First

inversion. Second inversion.200. Figured bass.201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.202. Cadence.203. Authentic cadence.204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect

authentic.205. Plagal cadence.206. Half-cadence.207. Deceptive cadence.208. Sequence.209. Modulation, harmonic and

melodic: Dominant Seventh.210. Suspension.

211. Retardation.212. Anticipation.213. Pedal point.214. Close and open position.215. Transposition.

CHAPTER XIX.Miscellaneous Terms 95

CHAPTER XX.Miscellaneous Terms(continued) 98

APPENDIX A.The History of MusicNotation 101

APPENDIX B.Musical Instruments 1121. Two classes.2. Piano.3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.

5. Instruments used for ensembleplaying.

6. Band.7. Orchestra.8. The stringed instruments.9. Wood-wind.

10. Brass.11. Percussion.12. Proportion of instruments, in an

orchestra.13. Books recommended.14. Violin.15. Viola.16. Violoncello.17. Double-bass.18. Flute.19. Piccolo.20. Oboe family.

21. Clarinet and bass clarinet;saxophone.

22. French horn.23. Trumpet.24. Cornet.25. Trombone.26. Tuba.27. Kettle-drum.28. Harp.

APPENDIX C.Acoustics 1311. Definition.2. Sound, production of.3. Sound, transmission of.4. Rate of travel.5. Intensification of.6. Classification of.7. Tones, properties of.

8. Pitch.9. Intensity.

10. Quality.11. Overtones.12. Equal temperament.13. Standards of pitch.

APPENDIX D.Terminology Reform 139

APPENDIX E.Analysis of BeethovenSonata, Op. 31, No. 3 149

PRONOUNCING INDEX 159

CHAPTER I

SOME PRINCIPLES OFCORRECT NOTATION

1. The note (from notaLatina markor sign) consists of either one, two, orthree parts, ( ) these beingreferred to respectively as head, stem,and hook. The hook is often called tailor cross-stroke. The stem appears on theright side of the head when turned up,but on the left side when turned down.[1]

The hook is always on the rightside.[2]

In writing music with pen the head and

hook are best made with a heavypressure on the pen point, but in writingat the board they are most easily madeby using a piece of chalk about an inchlong, turned on its side.

2. When only one part (or voice) iswritten on the staff, the following rulesfor turning stems apply: (1) If the note-head is below the third line, the stemmust turn up. (2) If the note-head isabove the third line the stem must turndown. (3) If the note-head is on the thirdline the stem is turned either up or downwith due regard to the symmetricalappearance of the measure in which thenote occurs. The following exampleswill illustrate these points.

[Listen]

3. When two parts are written on thesame staff, the stems of the upper part allturn up, and those of the lower part turndown, in order that the parts may beclearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But inmusic for piano and other instruments onwhich complete chords can be soundedby one performer and also in simple,four-part vocal music in which allvoices have approximately the samerhythm, several notes often have one

stem in common as in Fig. 3.

[Listen]

[Listen]

4. Notes of small denomination (eighthsand smaller) are often written in groupsof two or more, all stems in the groupbeing then connected by one cross-stroke. In such a case all the stems mustof course be turned the same way, thedirection being determined by the

position of the majority of note-heads inthe group. Notes thus stroked may be ofthe same or of different denomination.See Fig. 4.

[Listen]

In vocal music notes are never thusstroked when a syllable is given to eachnote. (See p. 19, Sec. 55, C.)

5. Rests, like notes, are best made with a

heavy pen stroke or by using a piece ofchalk on its side. (See note under Sec.1.) The double-whole rest, whole rest,and half rest occupy the third spaceunless for the sake of clearness inwriting two parts on the same staff theyare written higher or lower. The rests ofsmaller denomination may be placed atany point on the staff, the hooks beingalways placed on the spaces. The hookof the eighth rest is usually placed on thethird space. Rests are sometimes dotted,but are never tied.

6. The G clef should be begun at thesecond line rather than below the staff.Experiments have shown clearly thatbeginners learn to make it most easily inthis way, and the process may be further

simplified by dividing it into two parts,

thus, . The descending strokecrosses the ascending curve at or nearthe fourth line. The circular part of thecurve occupies approximately the firstand second spaces.

7. The F clef is made either thus, , orthus, the dots being placed one oneither side of the fourth line of the staff,which is the particular point that the clefmarks. The C clef has also two forms,

and .

8. The sharp is made with two lightvertical strokes, and two heavy slantingones, the slant of the latter being upward

from left to right, . The sharp shouldnever be made thus, #.

The double sharp is made either thus or *, the first form being at present themore common.

9. The flat is best made by a downstroke retraced part way up, the curvebeing made without lifting pen frompaper. The double flat consists of twoflats,[3] . The natural or cancel ismade in two strokes, down-right andright-down, thus .

10. The tie usually connects the heads ofnotes, thus .

11. The dot after a note always appears

on a space, whether the note-head is on aline or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case ofa dot after a note on a line, the dotusually appears on the space above thatline if the next note is higher in positionand on the space below it if thefollowing note is lower.

[Listen]

Note.Correct notation must be made ahabit rather than a theory, and in order toform the habit of writing correctly, drill

is necessary. This may perhaps be bestsecured by asking students to write (atthe board or on ruled paper) from verbaldictation, thus: Teacher says,

"Key of B, three-quarter measure:First measure, DO a quarter note, RE aquarter, and MI a quarter. Secondmeasure, SOL a quarter, LA a quarter,and SOL a quarter. Third measure, LA,TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked inpairs. Fourth measure, high DO a dottedhalf." Pupils respond by writing theexercise dictated, after which mistakesin the turning of stems, etc., arecorrected. The pitch names may bedictated instead of the syllables ifdesired, and still further practice may beprovided by asking that the exercise be

transposed to other keys.

CHAPTER II

SYMBOLS OF MUSICDEFINED

12. A staff is a collection of parallellines, together with the spaces belongingto them. The modern staff has five linesand six spaces, these being ordinarilyreferred to as first line, second line,third line, fourth line, and fifth line(beginning with the lowest); and spacebelow (i.e., space below the first line),first space, second space, third space,fourth space, and space above.

The definition and discussion aboverefer more specifically to one of the

portions of the "great staff," the latterterm being often applied to thecombination of treble and bass staffs(with one leger line between) socommonly used in piano music, etc.

13. The extent of the staff may beincreased either above or below by theaddition of short lines called leger lines,[4] and notes may be written on eitherthese lines or on the spaces above andbelow them.

14. The lines and spaces constituting thestaff (including leger lines if any) areoften referred to as staff degrees, i.e.,each separate line and space isconsidered to be "a degree of the staff."The tones of a scale are also sometimes

referred to as "degrees of the scale."

15. A clef[5] is a sign placed on the staffto designate what pitches are to berepresented by its lines and spaces.Thus, e.g., the G clef shows us not onlythat the second line of the staffrepresents G, but that the first linerepresents E, the first space F, etc. The Fclef similarly shows us that the fifth lineof the bass staff represents the first Abelow middle C, the fourth line the firstF below middle C, etc.

The student should note that these clefsare merely modified forms of the lettersG and F, which (among others) wereused to designate the pitches representedby certain lines when staff notation was

first inaugurated. For a fuller discussionof this matter see Appendix A, p. 101.

16. When the G clef is used the staff isusually referred to as the treble staff,and when the F clef is used, as the bassstaff. Such expressions as "singing fromthe treble clef," or "singing in the trebleclef," and "singing in the bass clef" arestill frequently heard, but are preferablyreplaced by "singing from the treblestaff," and "singing from the bass staff."Fig. 6 shows the permanent names oflines and spaces when the G and F clefsare used.[6]

17. The movable C clef or ,formerly in very common use, is nowutilized for only two purposes, viz., (1)in music written for certain orchestralinstruments (cello, viola, etc.) ofextended range, in order to avoid havingto use too many leger lines; and (2) forindicating the tenor part in vocal music.This latter usage seems also to bedisappearing however, and the tenor partis commonly written on the treble staff,it being understood that the tones are to

be sung an octave lower than the noteswould indicate.

The C clef as used in its variouspositions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9. Itwill be noted that in each case the lineon which the clef is placed represents"middle C."

18. A sharp is a character which causesthe degree of the staff with which it isassociated to represent a pitch one half-

step higher than it otherwise would.

Thus in Fig. 10 (a) the fifth line and firstspace represent the pitch F, but in Fig.10 (b) these same staff degrees representan entirely different toneF. Thestudent should note that the sharp doesnot then raise anything; it merely causesa staff degree to represent a higher tonethan it otherwise would. There is just asmuch difference between F and F asbetween B and C, and yet one wouldnever think of referring to C as "Braised"!

19. A flat is a character that causes thedegree of the staff with which it isassociated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it otherwise would. (Seenote under Sec. 18 and apply the samediscussion here.)

20. A double-sharp causes the staffdegree on which it is placed to representa pitch one whole-step higher than itwould without any sharp. Similarly, adouble-flat causes the staff degree on

which it is placed to represent a pitchone whole-step lower than it wouldwithout any flat.

Double-sharps and double-flats aregenerally used on staff degrees that havealready been sharped or flatted,therefore their practical effect is tocause staff degrees to represent pitchesrespectively a half-step higher and ahalf-step lower than would berepresented by those same degrees intheir diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10(b) the first space in its diatoniccondition[7] represents F-sharp, and thedouble-sharp on this degree would causeit to represent a pitch one-half stephigher than F-sharp, i.e., F-double-sharp.

CHAPTER III

SYMBOLS OF MUSICDEFINED (Continued)

21. The natural[8] (sometimes calledcancel) annuls the effect of previoussharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the measure in which itoccurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the combination of a natural with asharp, or a natural with a flat is oftenfound: in this case only one sharp or flatis annulled. (Sometimes also the singlesharp or flat will be found by itself,cancelling the double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a

composition changes key, as in Fig. 11,where a change from E to G is shown.

22. The group of sharps or flats (orabsence of them) at the beginning of astaff partially indicates the key in whichthe composition is written. They arecalled collectively the key-signature.

23. The same key-signature may standfor either one of two keys, the major key,

or its relative minor, hence in order todetermine in what key a melody is onemust note whether the tones are groupedabout the major tonic DO or the minortonic LA. In a harmonized composition itis almost always possible to determinethe key by referring to the last bass note;if the final chord is clearly the DO chordthe composition is in the major key, butif this final chord is clearly the LA chordthen it is almost certain that the entirecomposition is in the minor key. Thus ifa final chord appears as that in Fig. 12the composition is clearly in G major,while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is justas surely in E minor.

[Listen]

24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharpsand double-flats, occurring in the courseof the composition (i.e., after the keysignature) are called accidentals,whether they actually cause a staffdegree to represent a different pitch as in

Fig. 14 or simply make clear a notationabout which there might otherwise besome doubt as in Fig. 15, measure two.The effect of such accidentals terminatesat the bar.

[Listen]

25. In the case of a tie across a bar anaccidental remains in force until thecombined value of the tied notes expires.In Fig. 16 first measure, third beat, anaccidental sharp makes the third space

represent the pitch C sharp. By virtue ofthe tie across the bar the third spacecontinues to represent C sharp thru thefirst beat of the second measure, but forthe remainder of the measure the thirdspace will represent C unless the sharpis repeated as in Fig. 17.

[Listen]

26. The following rules for making staffdegrees represent pitches different fromthose of the diatonic scale will be found

useful by the beginner in the study ofmusic notation. These rules are quotedfrom "The Worcester Musical Manual,"by Charles I. Rice.

1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp.Fig. 18.2. To sharp a sharped degree, use adouble sharp. Fig. 19.3. To sharp a flatted degree, use anatural. Fig. 20.4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat.Fig. 21.5. To flat a flatted degree, use a doubleflat. Fig. 22.6. To flat a sharped degree, use anatural. Fig. 23.

[Listen]

27. When two different notationsrepresent the same pitch, the wordenharmonic is applied. Thus we maysay that F sharp and G flat (on keyboardinstruments at least) are enharmonicallythe same.

This word enharmonic is used in suchexpressions as enharmonic change,enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval,

enharmonic modulation, enharmonicrelation, etc., and in all suchcombinations it has the same meaning,viz.a change in notation but no changein the pitch represented.

28. A note is a character expressingrelative duration, which when placed ona staff indicates that a certain tone is tobe sounded for a certain relative lengthof time. The pitch of the tone to besounded is shown by the position of thenote on the staff, while the length of timeit is to be prolonged is shown by theshape of the note. Thus e.g., a half-noteon the second line of the treble staffindicates that a specific pitch (g') is tobe played or sung for a period of timetwice as long as would be indicated by a

quarter-note in the same composition.

29. A rest is a character which indicatesa rhythmic silence of a certain relativelength.

30. The notes and rests in common useare as follows:

Whole-note. An open note-headwithout stem.Half-note. An open note-headwith stem.Quarter-note. A closed note-headwith stem.Eighth-note. A closed note-headwith stem and one hook.

Sixteenth-note. A closed note-

head with stem and two hooks.

Thirty-second-note. A closednote-head with stem and threehooks.Whole-rest.Half-rest.Quarter-rest.Eighth-rest.Sixteenth-rest.Thirty-second-rest.

31. The English names for these notesare:

Whole-notesemi-breve.Half-noteminim.

Quarter-notecrotchet.Eighth-notequaver.Sixteenth-notesemi-quaver.Thirty-second-notedemi-semi-quaver.

The corresponding rests are referred toby the same system of nomenclature:e.g., semi-breve rest, etc.

32. Sixty-fourth and one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes are occasionallyfound, but are not in common use. Thedouble-whole-note (breve), made or , is still used, especially inEnglish music, which frequently employsthe half-note as the beat-unit. Thus infour-half measure the breve would benecessary to indicate a tone having four

beats.

33. The whole-rest has a peculiarity ofusage not common to any of the otherduration symbols, viz., that it is oftenemployed as a measure-rest, filling anentire measure of beats, no matter whatthe measure-signature may be. Thus, notonly in four-quarter-measure, but in two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, andother varieties, the whole-rest fills theentire measure, having a valuesometimes greater, sometimes less thanthe corresponding whole-note. Becauseof this peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed Takt-pausa (measure-rest)by the Germans.

34. A bar is a vertical line across the

staff, dividing it into measures. Theword bar is often used synonymouslywith measure by orchestral conductorsand others; thus, "begin at the fourteenthbar after J." This use of the word,although popular, is incorrect.

35. A double-bar consists of twovertical lines across the staff, at leastone of the two being a heavy line. Thedouble bar marks the end of a division,movement, or entire composition.

CHAPTER IV

ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS, ETC.36. A double bar (or single heavy bar)with either two or four dots indicatesthat a section is to be repeated. If therepeat marks occur at only one point theentire preceding part is to be repeated,but if the marks occur twice (the firsttime at the right of the bar but the secondtime at the left), only the section thusenclosed by the marks is to be repeated.

37. Sometimes a different cadence (orending) is to be used for the repetition,and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.

38. The Italian word bis is occasionallyused to indicate that a certain passage orsection is to be repeated. This use isbecoming obsolete.

39. The words da capo (D.C.) mean

literally "from the head," i.e., repeatfrom the beginning. The words dalsegno (D.S.) indicate a repetition fromthe sign ( or ) instead of from thebeginning.

In the case of both D.C. and D.S. theword fine (meaning literally the end) isordinarily used to designate the point atwhich the repeated section is toterminate. The fermata ( ) wasformerly in common use for this samepurpose, but is seldom so employed atpresent.

D.C. (sin[9]) al fine meansrepeat fromthe beginning to the word "fine."

D.C. al meansrepeat to the

fermata (or hold).

D.C. senza repetizione, or D.C. masenza repetizione, both meanrepeatfrom the beginning, but withoutobserving other repeat marks during therepetition.

D.C. e poi la coda meansrepeat thefirst section only to the mark , thenskip to the coda. (See p. 74, Sec. 157,for discussion of coda).

40. In certain cases where the repetitionof characteristic figures can be indicatedwithout causing confusion, it is thepractice of composers (especially inorchestral music) to make use of certainsigns of repetition. Some of the

commonest of these abbreviations areshown in the following examples.

[Listen]

In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entiremeasure is called for.

[Listen]

41. The word simile (sometimes segue)indicates that a certain effect previouslybegun is to be continued, as e.g.,staccato playing, pedalling, style ofbowing in violin music, etc. The wordsegue is also occasionally used to showthat an accompaniment figure (especiallyin orchestral music) is to be continued.

42. When some part is to rest for two ormore measures several methods of

notation are possible. A rest of two

measures is usually indicated thus .

Three measures thus . Four

measures thus . Rests of more thanfour measures are usually indicated inone of the following ways:

.Sometimes the number of measures iswritten directly on the staff, thus;

.

43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or

grosse pause), the words lunga pausa,or simply the word lunga, aresometimes written over a rest to showthat there is to be a prolonged pause orrest in all parts. Such expressions arefound only in ensemble music, i.e.,music in which several performers areengaged at the same time.

44. The fermata or hold over a noteor chord indicates that the tone is to beprolonged, the duration of theprolongation depending upon thecharacter of the music and the taste ofthe performer or conductor. It hasalready been noted that the hold over abar was formerly used to designate theend of the composition, as the word fineis employed at present, but this usage

has practically disappeared and the holdover the bar now usually indicates ashort rest between two sections of acomposition.

45. The sign 8va...... (an abbreviation ofall'ottava, literally at the octave) abovethe staff, indicates that all tones are to besounded an octave higher than the noteswould indicate. When found below thestaff the same sign serves to indicate thatthe tones are to be sounded an octavelower. The term 8va bassa has also thislatter signification.

46. Sometimes the word loco (in place)is used to show that the part is no longerto be sounded an octave higher (orlower), but this is more often indicated

by the termination of the dotted (orwavy) line.

47. The sign Col 8 (coll'ottavawiththe octave) shows that the tones anoctave higher or lower are to besounded with the tones indicated by theprinted notes.

48. For the sake of definiteness inreferring to pitches, a particular name isapplied to each octave, and all pitches inthe octave are referred to by means of auniform nomenclature. The followingfigure will make this system clear:

Thus e.g., "great G" (written simply G),is the G represented by the first line ofthe bass staff. Small A (written a), isrepresented by the fifth line of the bassstaff. Two-lined G, (written ), isrepresented by the space above the fifthline, treble staff. Three-lined C, (written

), is represented by the second addedline above the treble staff, etc. The one-lined octave may be described as theoctave from middle C to the B

represented by the third line of the treblestaff, and any tone within that octave isreferred to as "one-lined." Thusone-lined D, one-lined G, etc.

In scientific works on acoustics, etc., thepitches in the sub octave (or sub-contraoctave as it is often called) are referredto as C2, D2, E2, etc.; those in the contraoctave as C1, D1, etc.; in the greatoctave, as c1, d1, etc.; in the small octaveas c2, d2, etc.

CHAPTER V

ABBREVIATIONS, SIGNS,ETC., (Continued)

49. A dot after a note shows that thevalue of the note is to be half again asgreat as it would be without the dot, i.e.,the value is to be three-halves that of theoriginal note.

50. When two dots follow the note the

second dot adds half as much as the firstdot has added, i.e., the entire value isseven-fourths that of the original note.

51. When three dots follow the note thethird dot adds one-half the value addedby the second, i.e., the entire value of thetriple-dotted note is fifteen-eighths thatof the original note.

52. A dot over or under a note is calledthe staccato mark and indicates that thetone is to be sounded and then instantly

released. In musicfor organ and for some other instrumentsthe staccato note is sometimesinterpreted differently, this depending onthe character of the instrument.

On stringed instruments of the violinfamily the staccato effect is usuallysecured by a long, rapid stroke of thebow for each tone; in the case of harp

and drum the hand is quickly brought incontact with the vibrating body, thusstopping the tone instantly. On the organthe tone is often prolonged to one-halfthe value of the printed note before thekeys are released.

53. The wedge-shaped dash over thenote (staccatissimo) was formerlyemployed to indicate a tone still moredetached than that indicated by the dot,but this sign is really superfluous, and isseldom used at present.

54. A tie is a curved line connecting theheads of two notes that call for the sametone. It indicates that they are to be

sounded as one tone having a durationequal to the combined value of bothnotes. E.g., a half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal induration-length to that shown by a dottedhalf-note; two half-notes tied wouldindicate a tone equal in duration to thatshown by a whole-note. (See examplesunder Sections 49, 50, and 51).

Fig. 30 illustrates the more commonvariety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows anexample of the enharmonic[10] tie.

[Listen]

55. The slur is used in so many differentways that it is impossible to give ageneral definition. It consists of a curvedline, sometimes very short (in whichcase it looks like the tie), but sometimesvery long, connecting ten, fifteen, ormore notes. Some of the more commonuses of the slur are:

A. To indicate legato (sustained orconnected) tones, as contrasted withstaccato (detached) ones.

In violin music this implies playing alltones thus slurred in one bow; in musicfor the voice and for wind instruments it

implies singing or playing them in onebreath.

B. As a phrase-mark, in theinterpretation of which the first tone ofthe phrase is often accented slightly, andthe last one shortened in value.

This interpretation of the phrase isespecially common when the phrase isshort (as in the two-note phrase), andwhen the tones constituting the phraseare of short duration, e.g., the phrasegiven in Fig. 32 would be playedapproximately as written in Fig. 33.

[Listen]

But if the notes are of greater value,especially in slow tempi, the slur merelyindicates legato, i.e., sustained orconnected rendition. Fig. 34 illustratessuch a case.

[Listen]

This is a matter of such diverse usagethat it is difficult to generalize regardingit. The tendency seems at present to be inthe direction of using the slur (ininstrumental music) as a phrase-markexclusively, it being understood thatunless there is some direction to thecontrary, the tones are to be performedin a connected manner.

C. In vocal music, to show that two ormore tones are to be sung to one syllableof text. See Fig. 35.

[Listen]

In notes of small denomination (eighthsand smaller) this same thing is oftenindicated by stroking the stems togetheras in Fig. 36. This can only be done incases where the natural grouping ofnotes in the measure will not bedestroyed.

[Listen]

D. To mark special note-groups (triplets,etc.), in which case the slur isaccompanied by a figure indicating thenumber of notes in the group. See Fig. 37(a)

The most common of these irregularnote-groups is the triplet, which consistsof three notes to be performed in thetime ordinarily given to two of the samevalue. Sometimes the triplet consists ofonly two notes as in Fig. 37 (b). In such

a case the first two of the three notescomposing the triplet are considered tobe tied.

[Listen]

When the triplet form is perfectlyobvious, the Fig. 3 (as well as the slur)may be omitted.

Other examples of irregular note-groups,

together with the names commonlyapplied, follow.

56. The combination of slur or tie anddots over the notes indicates that thetones are to be somewhat detached, but

not sharply so.

This effect is sometimes erroneouslytermed portamento (lit. carrying), butthis term is more properly reserved for

an entirely different effect, viz., when asinger, or player on a stringedinstrument, passes from a high tone to alow one (or vice versa) touching lightlyon some or all of the diatonic tonesbetween the two melody tones.

57. The horizontal dash over a note indicates that the tone is to be slightlyaccented, and sustained. This mark isalso sometimes used after a staccatopassage to show that the tones are nolonger to be performed in detachedfashion, but are to be sustained. Thislatter use is especially common in musicfor stringed instruments.

58. The combination of dash and dot

over a note indicates that the tone isto be slightly accented and separatedfrom its neighboring tones.

59. Accent marks are made in a varietyof fashions. The most common formsfollow. sf fz. All indicate that acertain tone or chord is to bedifferentiated from its neighboring tonesor chords by receiving a certain relativeamount of stress.

60. In music for keyboard instruments itis sometimes necessary to indicate that acertain part is to be played by a certainhand. The abbreviations r.h. (right hand),m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (maindroite, Fr.), designate that a passage or

tone is to be played with the right hand,while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (manosinistra, It.), and m.g. (main gauche, Fr.),show that the left hand is to beemployed.

61. The wavy line placed vertically

beside a chord indicates thatthe tones are to be soundedconsecutively instead of simultaneously,beginning with the lowest tone, all tonesbeing sustained until the duration-valueof the chord has expired. This is calledarpeggio playing. When the wavy lineextends through the entire chord(covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, allthe tones of the chord are to be played

one after another, beginning with thelowest: but if there is a separate wavyline for each staff as at Fig. 39 then thelowest tone represented on the upperstaff is to be played simultaneously withthe lowest tone represented on the bassstaff.

[Listen]

The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is aderivation of the Italian word arpa(meaning harp), and from this word arpaand its corresponding verb arpeggiare(to play on the harp) are derived also anumber of other terms commonly used ininstrumental music. Among these arearpeggiamento, arpeggiando, arpeggiato,etc., all of these terms referring to aharp style of performance, the tonesbeing sounded one after another in rapidsuccession instead of simultaneously ason the piano.

62. The sign over a noteindicates that the tone is to be begunsoftly, gradually increased in power, andas gradually decreased again, ending assoftly as it began. In vocal music this

effect is called messa di voce.

63. In music for stringed instruments ofthe violin family, the sign indicatesdown-bow and the sign up-bow. Incello music the down-bow sign issometimes written .

CHAPTER VI

EMBELLISHMENTS64. Embellishments (or graces) (Fr.agrments) are ornamental tones, eitherrepresented in full in the score orindicated by certain signs. The followingare the embellishments most commonlyfound: Trill (or shake), mordent,inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn(gruppetto), inverted turn, appoggiaturaand acciaccatura.

Usage varies greatly in the interpretationof the signs representing theseembellishments and it is impossible togive examples of all the different forms.

The following definitions representtherefore only the most commonly foundexamples and the most generallyaccepted interpretations.

65. The trill (or shake) consists of therapid alternation of two tones to the fullvalue of the printed note. The lower ofthese two tones is represented by theprinted note, while the upper one is thenext higher tone in the diatonic scale ofthe key in which the composition iswritten. The interval between the twotones may therefore be either a half-stepor a whole-step.

Whether the trill is to begin with theprincipal tone (represented by theprinted note) or with the one above is a

matter of some dispute among theoristsand performers, but it may safely be saidthat the majority of modern writers onthe subject would have it begin on theprincipal tone rather than on the toneabove. Fig. 40.

When the principal note is preceded by asmall note on the degree above, it is ofcourse understood that the trill begins onthe tone above. Fig. 41.

The trill is indicated by the sign .

[Listen]

[Listen]

The above examples would be termedperfect trills because they close with aturn. By inference, an imperfect trill is

one closing without a turn.

66. The mordent consists of threetones; first the one represented by theprinted note; second the one next belowit in the diatonic scale; third the onerepresented by the printed note again.

[Listen]

67. The double (or long) mordent has

five tones (sometimes seven) instead ofthree, the first two of the three tones ofthe regular mordent being repeated onceor more. (See Fig. 43.)

In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as quicklyas possible, the time taken by theembellishment being subtracted from thevalue of the principal note as printed.

[Listen]

68. The inverted mordent (note theabsence of the vertical line) is like themordent except that the tone below isreplaced by the tone above in each case.This ornament is sometimes called a"transient shake" because it is reallyonly a part of the more elaborate gracecalled "trill." (See Fig. 44.)

[Listen]

The confusion at present attending theinterpretation of the last twoembellishments described, might belargely obviated if the suggestion of arecent writer[11] to call the one theupward mordent, and the other thedownward mordent were to beuniversally adopted.

69. The turn consists of four tones; first,the diatonic scale-tone above theprincipal tone; second, the principal toneitself; third, the tone below the principaltone; and fourth, the principal tone again.

When the sign ( or ) occurs over anote of small value in rapid tempo (Fig.45) the turn consists of four tones ofequal value; but if it occurs over a note

of greater value, or in a slow tempo, thetones are usually played quickly (like themordent), and the fourth tone is then helduntil the time-value of the note hasexpired. (Fig. 46.)

[Listen]

70. When the turn-sign is placed a littleto the right of the note the principaltone is sounded first and held to almost

its full time-value, then the turn is playedjust before the next tone of the melody. Inthis case the four tones are of equallength as in the first example. (See Fig.47.)

[Listen]

The student should note the differencebetween these two effects; in the case ofa turn over the note the turn comes at the

beginning, but in the case of the signafter the note the turn comes at the veryend. But in both cases the time taken bythe embellishment is taken from the time-value of the principal note. For furtherdetails see Grove's Dictionary of Musicand Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. AlsoElson, op. cit. p. 274.

71. Sometimes an accidental occurs withthe turn, and in this case when writtenabove the sign it refers to the highesttone of the turn, but when written below,to the lowest (Fig. 48).

[Listen]

72. In the inverted turn the order oftones is reversed, the lowest one comingfirst, the principal tone next, the highesttone third, and the principal tone again,last.

[Listen]

73. The appoggiatura (lit. leaning note)consists of an ornamental toneintroduced before a tone of a melody,thus delaying the melody tone until theornamental tone has been heard. Thetime taken for this ornamental tone istaken from that of the melody tone.

The appoggiatura was formerlyclassified into long appoggiatura and

short appoggiatura, but modern writersseem to consider the term "shortappoggiatura" to be synonymous withacciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusionthe word acciaccatura will be used inthis sense, and defined under its ownheading.

74. Three rules for the interpretation ofthe appoggiatura are commonly cited,viz.:

(1) When it is possible to divide theprincipal tone into halves, then theappoggiatura receives one-half the valueof the printed note. (Fig. 50.)

(2) When the principal note is dotted(division into halves being therefore not

possible), the appoggiatura receivestwo-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)

(3) When the principal note is tied to anote of smaller denomination theappoggiatura receives the value of thefirst of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)

[Listen]

75. The acciaccatura (or short

appoggiatura) is written like theappoggiatura except that it has a light

stroke across its stem. It hasno definite duration-value, but issounded as quickly as possible, takingits time from that of the principal tone.The appoggiatura is always accented,but the acciaccatura never is, the stressalways falling on the melody tone. (SeeGrove, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 96.)

The use of embellishments is on thewane, and the student of to-day needs theabove information only to aid him in theinterpretation of music written inprevious centuries. In the early days ofinstrumental music it was necessary to

introduce graces of all sorts because theinstruments in use were not capable ofsustaining tone for any length of time; butwith the advent of the modern piano withits comparatively great sustainingpower, and also with the advent in vocalmusic of a new style of singing (GermanLieder singing as contrasted with Italiancoloratura singing), ornamental toneswere used less and less, and when foundnow are usually written out in full in thescore instead of being indicated bysigns.

CHAPTER VII

SCALES76. A scale (from scala, a Latin wordmeaning ladder; Ger. Ton-leiter) is anascending or descending series of tones,progressing according to some definitesystem, and all bearing (in the case oftonality scales at least) a very intimaterelation to the first tonethe key-tone ortonic. (See p. 28, Sec. 78; also note 1 atbottom of p. 38.)

Many different kinds of scales haveexisted in various musical eras, the pointof resemblance among them all being thefact that they have all more or less

recognized the octave as the natural limitof the series. The difference among thevarious scales has been in the selectionof intervals between the scale-tones,and, consequently, in the number of toneswithin the octave. Thus e.g., in ourmajor scale the intervals between thetones are all whole-steps except two(which are half-steps), and the result is ascale of eight tones (including in thisnumber both the key-tone and itsoctave): but in the so-called pentatonicscale of the Chinese and other oldercivilizations we find larger intervals(e.g., the step-and-a-half), andconsequently a smaller number of toneswithin the octave. Thus in the scale uponwhich many of the older Scotch folk

songs are based the intervals arearranged as follows:

1 wholestep 2wholestep 3

step-and-a-half

4 wholestep 5step-and-a-half

The result is a scale of six tones,corresponding approximately with CDEGAC in our modern system.

The term pentatonic is thus seen to be amisnomer since the sixth tone isnecessary for the completion of theseries, just as the eighth tone is essentialin our diatonic scales.

The following Chinese tune (called

"Jasmine") is based on the pentatonicscale.

[Listen]

77. In studying the theory of the scale thestudent should bear in mind the fact thata scale is not an arbitrary series of toneswhich some one has invented, and whichothers are required to make use of. It israther the result of accustoming the ear

to certain melodic combinations (whichwere originally hit upon by accident),and finally analyzing and systematizingthese combinations into a certain definiteorder or arrangement. The application ofthis idea may be verified when it isrecalled that most primitive peopleshave invented melodies of some sort, butthat only in modern times, andparticularly since the development ofinstrumental music, have these melodiesbeen analyzed, and the scale upon whichthey have been based, discovered, theinventors of the melodies beingthemselves wholly ignorant of theexistence of such scales.

78. A key is a number of tones groupingthemselves naturally (both melodically

and harmonically) about a central tonethe key tone. The word tonality is oftenused synonymously with key in thissense.

The difference between key and scale istherefore this, that while both key andscale employ the same tone material, bykey we mean the material in general,without any particular order orarrangement in mind, while by scale wemean the same tones, but now arrangedinto a regular ascending or descendingseries. It should be noted in thisconnection also that not all scalespresent an equally good opportunity ofhaving their tones used as a basis fortonality or key-feeling: neither thechromatic nor the whole-step scalepossess the necessary characteristics forbeing used as tonality scales in the samesense that our major and minor scalesare so used.

79. There are three general classes ofscales extant at the present time, viz.: (1)Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]

80. The word diatonic means "throughthe tones" (i.e., through the tones of thekey), and is applied to both major andminor scales of our modern tonalitysystem. In general a diatonic scale maybe defined as one which proceeds byhalf-steps and whole-steps. There is,however, one exception to this principle,viz., in the progression six to seven inthe harmonic minor scale, which is ofcourse a step-and-a-half. (See p. 33,Sec. 86.)

81. A major diatonic scale is one in

which the intervals between the tonesare arranged as follows:

1 wholestep 2wholestep 3

halfstep 4

wholestep 5

wholestep

In other words, a major diatonic scale isone in which the intervals between threeand four, and between seven and eightare half-steps, all the others beingwhole-steps. A composition based onthis scale is said to be written in themajor mode, or in a major key. Themajor diatonic scale may begin on anyone of the twelve pitches C, C or D,D, D or E, E, F, F or G, G, G orA, A, A or B, B, but in each caseit is the same scale because the intervalsbetween its tones are the same. We have

then one major scale only, but this scalemay be written in many differentpositions, and may be sung or playedbeginning on any one of a number ofdifferent pitches.

82. It is interesting to note that the majorscale consists of two identical series offour tones each; i.e., the first four tonesof the scale are separated from oneanother by exactly the same intervals andthese intervals appear in exactly thesame order as in the case of the last fourtones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make thisclear. The first four tones of any diatonicscale (major or minor) are often referredto as the lower tetrachord[14] and theupper four tones as the uppertetrachord.

[Listen]

It is interesting further to note that theupper tetrachord of any sharp scale isalways used without change as the lowertetrachord of the next major scaleinvolving sharps, while the lowertetrachord of any flat scale is used as theupper tetrachord of the next flat scale.See Figs. 54 and 55.

[Listen]

83. From the standpoint of staff notationthe major scale may be written in fifteendifferent positions, as follows:

[Listen]

It will be observed that in the aboveseries of scales those beginning on Fand G call for the same keys on thepiano, i.e., while the notation isdifferent, the actual tones of the scale arethe same. The scales of C and Dlikewise employ the same tones. Whentwo scales thus employ the same tonesbut differ in notation they are said to beenharmonic, (cf. p. 38, Sec. 93.)

Note.The student is advised to adoptsome uniform method of writing scales,preferably the one followed in thosegiven above, the necessary sharps and

flats appearing before the notes in thescale and then repeated collectively atthe end as a signature. He is alsoadvised to repeat these scales andsignatures over and over until absolutefamiliarity is attained. E.g., EFGABCDE; signature, foursharps, F, C, G, and D.

CHAPTER VIII

SCALES (Continued)84. The minor diatonic scale is used inseveral slightly different forms, but thecharacteristic interval between the firstand third tones (which differentiates itfrom the major scale) remains the samein every case. This interval between thefirst and third tones consists of four half-steps in the major scale and of threehalf-steps in the minor scale and thisdifference in size has given rise to thedesignation major for the scale havingthe larger third, and minor for the scalehaving the smaller one.

85. The original (or primitive) form ofthe minor scale has its tones arranged asfollows.

1 wholestep 2halfstep 3

wholestep 4

wholestep 5

halfstep

As its name implies, this is the oldest ofthe three forms (being derived from theold Greek Aeolian scale), but because ofthe absence of a "leading tone" it issuitable for the simplest one-part musiconly, and is therefore little used atpresent.

86. The harmonic minor scale is likethe primitive form except that itsubstitutes a tone one half-step higher forthe seventh tone of the older (i.e., the

primitive) form. This change was madebecause the development of writingmusic in several parts (particularlyharmonic part-writing) made necessarya "leading tone," i.e., a tone with astrong tendency to move on up to thekey-tone as a closing point. In order tosecure a tone with such a stronglyupward tendency the interval betweenseven and eight had to be reduced insize to a half-step. It should be noted thatthis change in the seventh tone of thescale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and seventh tonesof the scale.

whole half whole whole half

1 step 2 step 3 step 4 step 5 step

87. The melodic minor scale substitutesa tone one half-step higher than six aswell as one a half-step higher thanseven, but this change is made in theascending scale only, the descendingscale being like the primitive form. Thehigher sixth (commonly referred to as the"raised sixth") was used to get rid of theunmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while thereturn to the primitive form indescending is made because theascending form is too much like the tonicmajor scale.

1 wholestep 2halfstep 3

wholestep 4

wholestep 5

wholestep

7 wholestep 6halfstep 5

wholestep 4

wholestep 3

halfstep

This form is used only to a very limitedextent, and then principally in vocalmusic, the harmonic form being inalmost universal use in spite of theaugmented second.

88. The minor scale in its variouspositions (up to five sharps and fiveflats) and in all three forms follows: acomposition based on any one of theseforms (or upon a mixture of them, whichoften occurs) is said to be in the minormode. It will be noted that the first four

tones are alike in all three forms; i.e., thelower tetrachord in the minor scale isinvariable no matter, what may happento the upper tetrachord. The sign + marksthe step-and-a-half.

[Enlarge]

[Listen to A minor scales]

Note.The student is advised to recitethe harmonic form of the minor scale aswas suggested in the case of the majorscale, noting that the "raised seventh"does not affect the key-signature. E.g.,EFGABCDE;signature, one sharp, F.

89. A minor scale having the samesignature as a major scale is said to beits relative minor. E.g.,e is therelative minor of G, c of E, d of F,etc., the small letter being used to refer

to the minor key or scale, while thecapital letter indicates the major key orscale unless accompanied by the wordminor. Relative keys are thereforedefined as those having the samesignature. G and e are relative keys, asare also A and f, etc.

90. A minor scale beginning with thesame tone as a major scale is referred toas its tonic minor. Thus, e.g., c withthree flats in its signature is the tonicminor of C with all degrees in naturalcondition; e with one sharp is the tonicminor of E with four sharps, etc. Tonickeys are therefore those having the samekey-tone.

91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale

(both major and minor) are oftenreferred to by specific names, asfollows:

1. Tonicthe tone. (This refers to thefact that the tonic is the principal tone, orgenerating tone of the key, i.e., it is thetone.)

2. Super-tonicabove the tone.

3. Mediantmidway between tonic anddominant.

4. Sub-dominantthe under dominant.(This name does not refer to the positionof the tone under the dominant but to thefact that the fifth below the tonic is alsoa dominant tonethe under dominantjust as the fifth above is the upper

dominant).

5. Dominantthe governing tone. (Fromthe Latin word dominus meaningmaster.)

6. Super-dominantabove thedominant. Or Sub-mediantmidwaybetween tonic and sub-dominant.

7. Leading tonethe tone whichdemands resolution to the tonic (one-halfstep above it).

8. Octavethe eighth tone.

92. The syllables commonly applied tothe various major and minor scales inteaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]

MajorDO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI,DO.

Minor[17]originalLA, TI, DO, RE,MI, FA, SOL, LA.

harmonicLA, TI, DO, RE,MI, FA, SI, LA.

melodic LA, TI, DO, RE,MI, FI, SI, LA, SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO,TI, LA.

It is interesting to study the changes inboth spelling and pronunciation that haveoccurred (and are still occurring) inthese syllables. The first one (ut) waschanged to DO as early as the sixteenthcentury because of the difficulty ofproducing a good singing tone on ut. Forthe same reason and also in order to

avoid having two diatonic syllables withthe same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fasystem (invented in England about 1812and systematized about 1850) changedSI to TI and this change has been almostuniversally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country. The moreelaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of thediatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, etc.),has not, however, been favorablyreceived in this country and the tendencyseems to be toward still furthersimplification rather than towardelaboration. It is probable that furtherchanges in both spelling andpronunciation will be made in the nearfuture, one such change that seemsespecially desirable being some other

syllable than RE for the second tone ofthe major scale, so that the presentsyllable may be reserved for "flat-two,"thus providing a uniform vowel-soundfor all intermediate tones of thedescending chromatic scale, as isalready the case in the ascending form.

93. The chromatic scale[18] is onewhich proceeds always by half-steps. Itsintervals are therefore always equal nomatter with what tone it begins. Since,however, we have (from the standpointof the piano keyboard) five pairs oftones[19] which are enharmonically thesame, it may readily be seen that thechromatic scale might be notated in allsorts of fashions, and this is in fact thereal status of the matter, there being no

one method uniformly agreed upon bycomposers.

Parry (Grove's Dictionary, articlechromatic) recommends writing thescale with such accidentals as can occurin chromatic chords without changing thekey in which the passage occurs. Thus,taking C as a type, "the first accidentalwill be D, as the upper note of theminor ninth on the tonic; the next will beE, the minor third of the key; the nextF, the major third of the super-tonicall of which can occur without causingmodulationand the remaining two willbe A and B, the minor sixth andseventh of the key." According to thisplan the chromatic scale beginning withC would be spelledC, D, D, E,

E, F, F, G, A, A, B, B, Ctheform being the same both ascending anddescending. This is of course writtenexclusively from a harmonic standpointand the advantage of such a form is itsdefiniteness.

94. For sight-singing purposes thechromatic scale[20] is usually written byrepresenting the intermediate tones inascending by sharps, (in some casesnaturals and double-sharps), and theintermediate tones in descending by flats(sometimes naturals and double-flats).The chromatic scale in nine differentpositions, written from this standpoint,follows, and the syllables mostcommonly applied in sight-singing havealso been added. In the first two scales

the student of harmony is asked to notethat because of the very commonpractice of modulating to the dominantand sub-dominant keys, the intermediatetones 4 and 7 are quite universallyused in both ascending and descendingmelody passages. In other words thescales that follow would more nearlyrepresent actual usage if in each case 4(FI) were substituted for 5 (SE) in thedescending scale; and if 7 (TE) weresubstituted for 6 (LI) in the ascendingform.

[Listen to C chromatic scale]

Note.In writing chromatic scales fromthis sight-singing standpoint the studentis urged to adopt a three-step process;first, writing the major diatonic scaleboth ascending and descending; second,marking the half-steps; third, insertingaccidental notes calling for theintermediate tones. In the abovechromatic scales these intermediate

tones have been represented by blacknote-heads so as to differentiate themfrom the notes representing diatonicscale tones.

95. The whole-step scale (the third typementioned in Sec. 79) is, as its nameimplies, a scale in which the intervalsbetween the tones consist in everyinstance of whole-steps. This reducesthe number of tones in the scale to seven.Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D,E, F or G, A, B, C. This scalehas been used somewhat extensively bythe ultramodern French school ofcomposition represented by Debussy,Ravel, and others, but is not making anyprogress toward universal adoption. Theremarks of a recent English writer[21] on

this subject may be interesting to thestudent who is puzzled by the apparentpresent-day tendencies of French music.He says:

"The student of some interesting moderndevelopments will also speedilydiscover that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis ofmusic is, except upon a keyed instrumenttuned to the compromise of equaltemperament, unnatural and impossible.No player upon a stringed instrument canplay the scale of whole-tones and arriveat an octave which is in tune with thestarting note, unless he deliberatelychanges one of the notes on the road andalters it while playing it. The obviousresult of the application of the whole-

tone scale to an orchestra or a stringquartet would be to force them to adoptthe equal temperament of the pianoforte,and play every interval except the octaveout of tune. When this modification hadtaken hold all music in the pure scalewould be distorted and destroyed, unlessstring players were to face thepractically impossible drudgery ofstudying both the equal temperament andthe pure scale from the start, and wereable to tackle either form at a moment'snotice. A thorough knowledge of thenatural genesis of the scale of westernnations will be the best antidote to fadsfounded upon ignorance of it. It is acurious commentary upon this questionthat Wagner, in the opening of the third

act of Tristan (bars 6 to 10),experimented with the whole-tone scaleand drew his pen through it, as was to beexpected from a composer whose everywork proves the writer to have had thepure scale inbred in him."

There may be some difference ofopinion among acousticians as towhether Mr. Stanford is correct in hisscientific assumptions regarding thedifference between "tempered" and"pure" scales,[22] but even so, there is afar more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never becomepopular as the major and minor scalesnow are, viz., the fact that it offers nopossibility of inculcating tonalityfeeling, which has always been the basis

of even the simplest primitive music.Tonality scales give rise to a feeling ofalternate periods of contraction andrelaxationan active tone (or chord)followed by a passive one, but no sucheffect is possible in the whole-stepscale, and it seems suitable thereforeonly for that class of music whoseoutlines are purposely intended to bevague and indefinitetheimpressionistic style of music writing.

CHAPTER IX

AUXILIARY WORDS ANDENDINGS

96. Being a list of articles, adverbs,conjunctions, prepositions, and endings,often utilized in compounding termsrelating to musical effects.

Aprepositionvariously translated to,at, for, by, in, with, towards.

A cappellain church style.A capriccioat the fancy of the

performer. deux mainsfor two hands.A mezza vocewith half voice.

la, or allain the manner of. Allamarciain the style of a march.

Assaivery, or very much. Allegroassaivery fast.

Benwell. Ben marcatowell marked.

Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collowith,or with the.

Con amorewith tenderness.Colla vocewith the voice.

Comeas, like. Come primoas atfirst.

Contraagainst. In compound wordsmeans "an octave below."

Dafrom. Da Capofrom the head.

Diby, with, of, for. Di bravurawithdaring.

Di moltoexceedinglyvery much.Allegro di moltoexceedingly rapid.

Doppiodouble. Doppio movimentodouble movement.

E, ed, etand. Cresc. et accel.louderand faster.

Ensembletogether, the opposite ofsolo.

Il, La, l', lethe. Il bassothe bass.L'istesso tempothe same speed.

Il pithe most. Il pi forte possibleas loudly as possible.

IssimoItalian superlative ending.Fortefortissimo.

Ino, ettoItalian diminutive endings.Andanteandantino. Pocopochetto.

Menoless. Meno forteless loud.

Mentethe ending which changes anoun or adjective to an adverb. Largolargamente.

Mezzo or mezzahalf, or medium.Mezzo fortemedium loud.

Moltomuch, or very much. Moltocresc.very much louder.

Nel, nella, etc.in the, or at the. Nelbattereat the down beat.

Nonnot. Non tantonot too much.

Ossiaor else. Ossia pi facileorelse more easily.

Perfor. Per il violinofor the violin.

Peulittle. Un peu cresc.a littleincrease in tone.

Pimore. Pi fortemore loudly.

Pocolittle. Poco a pocolittle bylittle.

Poithen. E poi la codaand then thecoda.

Possibilepossible. Forte possibileas loudly as possible.

Quasiin the manner of. Allegro quasiandantea fairly rapid movement, yetin the style of an andante; almost as slowas an andante.

Sanswithout. Sans pedaleswithoutpedals.

Semprealways, or continually. Semprefortea long passage to be played fortethroughout its entirety.

Senzawithout. Senzaaccompagnamentowithoutaccompaniment.

Sino, sinas far as. See p. 14, note.

Soloalone. Opposite of ensemble.

Subunder or lower. Sub-dominantthe under dominant.

Tantosame as troppo, q.v.

Trethree. Tre cordethree strings.

Trsvery. Trs vivementvery lively.

Troppotoo much. Non tanto allegro,or non troppo allegronot too fast.

Una, un, unoone, or a. Una cordaone string. Un peua little.

A working knowledge of these auxiliaryterms will aid the student greatly inarriving at the meaning of hundreds ofterms without stopping to look up eachindividual one.

CHAPTER X

MEASURE97. From the standpoint of the eye, ameasure is that portion of the staff foundbetween two bars, (in certain cases thisspace may be less than a measure, ase.g., at the beginning and end of amovement); but from the standpoint ofthe ear a single, isolated measure is notpossible, and the term must therefore bedefined in the plural form.

Measures are similarly accented groupsof evenly-spaced beats, each grouphaving at least one accented and onenon-accented beat. The strongest accent

falls normally on the first beat in themeasure.

Two essential characteristics areinvolved in the ordinary musicalmeasure:

(1) A group of even beats (or pulses),always felt, though not always actuallysounded, one or more of these beatsbeing stronger than the rest;

(2) Certain rhythmic figures (

etc.) whichform the actual musical content of thesegroups.

The student will note the essential

difference between rhythm and measure.Rhythm is the regular recurrence ofaccent in a series of beats (or pulses),while measure is the grouping of thesebeats according to some specifiedsystem. In listening to a piece of music,two hearers A and B may feel therhythm equally strongly, but A maysubjectively group the beats intoone,two | one, two |etc., while B feels thegroups asone, two, three, four | one,two, three, four |etc. Rhythm is thusseen to be a fundamental thing, inherentin the music itself, while measure is to acertain extent at least an arbitrarygrouping which musicians have adoptedfor practical purposes.

98. In syncopation the normal system of

accenting is temporarily suspended andthe accented tone falls on the regularlyunaccented part of the measure.Syncopation may therefore be defined asthe temporary interruption of a normalseries of accents, i.e., accenting a beatthat is usually not accented. Thus e.g., inFig. 56, measure one has the regularsystem of accents normally found infour-quarter-measure, (strong accent onone, secondary accent on three); butmeasure three has only one accent, and itfalls on the second beat.

[Listen]

99. Measures are usually classified assimple and compound. A simplemeasure is one which has but a singleaccent, i.e., the measure cannot bedivided into smaller constituent groups.There are two main classes of simplemeasures, two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. A compound measure is(as its name implies) one made up bycombining two or more simplemeasures, or by the elaboration of asingle measure (in slow tempo) intoseveral constituent groups. The principalcompound measures are four-beat andsix-beat, both being referred to as

compound-duple measures. Five-beat,seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beatmeasures are also classified ascompound measures.

An English writer[23] classifiesmeasures as duple, triple, or quadruple,specifying that a simple measure is onein which each beat is represented by anote whose value can be divided into

halves ( etc.)and that a compound measure is one inwhich each beat is represented by adotted-note, whose value can be dividedinto three parts, (

). Thereis thus seen to be considerable

difference of opinion as to the meaningof the words simple and compoundwhen applied in this connection, theprincipal question at issue being whetherfour-beat measure is an individualvariety, or whether it is a varietycompounded out of two-beat measures,either by placing two of these in a groupor by the elaboration of a single measureinto a larger number of beats, as is oftennecessary in slow tempi. Perhaps theeasiest way out of the difficulty is toadmit that both may be truebut indifferent compositions. That is, it isfrequently impossible to tell whether acomposition that is being listened to is intwo-beat, or in four-beat measure; andyet it is sometimes possible so to

discriminate. Since, however, onecannot in the majority of casesdistinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be bestto leave the original classification intactand regard four-beat measure as acompound variety.

100. The commonest varieties ofmeasure are:

1. Duple (sometimes called evenmeasure, or even time), in which thereare two beats, the first one beingaccented. Examples of duple measureare 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24] two-eighth, and two-half measure,respectively.

2. Triple, (the old perfect measure), inwhich there are three beats, the first onebeing accented, the second and thirdunaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2,three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-halfmeasure, respectively.

3. Quadruple, in which there are fourbeats, the first and third being accented(primary accent on one, secondaryaccent on three), the second and fourthunaccented. (See note above, under Sec.99.)

4. Sextuple, in which there are six beats,the first and fourth being accented, theothers not. In rapid tempi this is alwaystaken as compound duple measure, adotted quarter note having a beat. It will

be noted that the two measures

areidentical in effect with

.

101. Other varieties of measuresometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, butthese are practically always taken asthree-beat and four-beat measuresrespectively, being equivalent to these ifeach group of three tones is thought of as

a triplet. isidentical in effect with

.

102. Quintuple (five-beat) and septuple(seven-beat) measures are occasionallymet with, but these are rare and willalways be sporadic. The five-beatmeasure is taken as a combination ofthree and two, or of two and three(sometimes a mixture of both in the samecomposition), while the seven-beatmeasure is taken in groups of four andthree, or of three and four.

103. The sign is usually understoodto mean four-quarter measure, and the

sign , two-half measure, but usagevaries somewhat, and the second sign issometimes used to indicate four-halfmeasure. It may safely be said however

that the sign always indicates that a

half-note has a beat. mayoccasionally be found indicating four-half measure but this is rare.

The student will note that the sign isnot a letter C, but an incomplete circle,differentiating two-beat (imperfect)measure from three-beat (perfect)measure. See Appendix A, p. 106.

CHAPTER XI

TEMPO104. The word time in musicalnomenclature has been greatly abused,having been used to indicate:

(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."

(2) Variety of measure-signature; as"two-four time."

(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was tooslow."

To obviate the confusion naturallyresulting from this three-fold and inexactuse of the word, many teachers of music

are adopting certain changes interminology as noted in Sections 105,106, and 107. Such changes may causesome confusion at first, but seem to benecessary if our musical terminology isto be at all exact.

105. The first of the changes mentionedin the above paragraph is to substitutethe word rhythm for the word time whencorrecting mistakes involving misplacedaccent, etc. E.g., "Your rhythm in thethird measure of the lower score waswrong," instead of "Your timewaswrong."

106. The second change mentionedwould eliminate such blind andmisleading expressions as "two-four

time," "three-four time," "four-fourtime," "six-eight time," etc., andsubstitute therefor such self-explanatorydesignations as "two-quarter measure,""three-quarter measure," "four-quartermeasure," "six-eighth measure," etc.E.g., "The first movement of theBeethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is infour-quarter measure."

107. The third change referred to abovewould substitute the word tempo (pluraltempi) for the word time in allallusions to rate of speed. E.g., "Thescherzo was played in very rapidtempo."

The word tempo has been used in thisconnection so long by professional

musicians that there can be no possibleobjection to it on the ground of its beinga foreign word. In fact there is a decidedadvantage in having a word that isunderstood in all countries wheremodern music (i.e., civilized music) isperformed, and just here is found theprincipal reason for the popularity of theItalian language in musical terminology.Schumann, MacDowell and other wellknown composers have tried to breakdown this popularity by using their ownrespective vernaculars in both tempoand dynamic indications, but in spite ofthese attempts the Italian language is stillquite universally used for this purpose,and deservedly so, for if we are to havea music notation that is universal, so

that an American is able to play musicwritten by a Frenchman or a German, ora Russian, then we ought also to have acertain number of expressions referringto tempo, etc., which will be understoodby all, i.e., a music terminology that isuniversal. The Italian language was thefirst in the field, is the most universallyknown in this particular at the presenttime, and is entirely adequate. It shouldtherefore be retained in use as a sort ofmusical Esperanto.

108. There are several ways of findingthe correct tempo of a composition:

1. From the metronomic indication foundat the beginning of many compositions.Thus e.g., the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's

Metronome 92) means that if themetronome (either Maelzel's or someother reliable make) is set with thesliding weight at the figure 92 there willbe 92 clicks per minute, and they willserve to indicate to the player or singerthe rate at which the beats (or pulses)should follow one another. This isundoubtedly the most accurate means ofdetermining tempi in spite of slightinaccuracies in metronomes[25] and ofthe mistakes which composersthemselves often make in givingmetronomic indications.

2. Another means of determining thetempo of a composition is to play it atdifferent tempi and then to choose theone that "feels right" for that particular

piece of music. This is perhaps the bestmeans of getting at the correct tempo butis open only to the musician of longexperience, sure judgment, and soundscholarship.

3. A third method of finding tempi isthrough the interpretation of certainwords used quite universally bycomposers to indicate the approximaterate of speed and the general mood ofcompositions. The difficulty with thismethod is that one can hardly find twocomposers who employ the same wordto indicate the same tempo, so that noabsolute rate of speed can be indicated,and in the last analysis the conductor orperformer must fall back on the secondmethod cited abovei.e., individual

judgment.

109. In spite of the inexactness of use inthe case of expressions relating totempo, these expressions arenevertheless extremely useful in givingat least a hint of what was in thecomposer's mind as he conceived themusic that we are trying to interpret.Since a number of the terms overlap inmeaning, and since the meaning of nosingle term is absolute, theseexpressions relating to tempo are beststudied in groups. Perhaps the mostconvenient grouping is as follows:

1. Grave (lit. weighty, serious),larghissimo, adagissimo, and lentissimoindicating the very slowest tempo

used in rendering music.

2. Largo,[26] adagio,[27] and lentoindicating quite a slow tempo.

3. Larghetto (i.e., a little largo) andadagietto (a little adagio)a slowtempo, but not quite so slow as largo,etc.

4. Andante (going, or walking, ascontrasted with running) and andantinoindicating a moderately slow tempo.

Andantino is now quite universallytaken slightly faster than andante, inspite of the fact that if andante means"going," and if "ino" is the diminutiveending, then andantino means "goingless," i.e., more slowly!

5. Moderatoa moderate tempo.

6. Allegro and allegretto[28]amoderately quick tempo, allegrettobeing usually interpreted as meaning atempo somewhat slower than allegro.

The word allegro means literally happy,joyous, and this literal meaning is stillsometimes applicable, but in themajority of instances the term refers onlyto rate of speed.

7. Vivo, vivace, (lit. lively)a tempobetween allegro and presto.

8. Presto, prestissimo, vivacissimo, andprestissimo possibilethe most rapidtempo possible.

CHAPTER XII

TEMPO (Continued)110. Innumerable combinations of thewords defined in Sec. 109 with oneanother and with other words occur.Some of these combinations with theirapproximate meanings follow. Themeaning of any such expression notfound in the list may usually be arrivedat by consulting the terms defined inparagraph 109 and recalling the use ofcertain auxiliary terms quoted in ChapterIX.

Largo assaivery slow.

Largo di moltovery slow.

Largo ma non tropposlow, but not tooslow.

Largo un pocoslow, but not so slowas largo. (Cf. larghetto.)

Lentementeslowly.

Lentandowith increasing slowness.

Trs lentementvery slowly.

Lentissamentevery slowly.

Lentissamamentevery slowly.

Lento assaivery slowly.

Lento a capriccioslowly butcapriciously.

Lento di moltovery slowly.

Andante affettuosomoderately slow,and with tenderness and pathos.

Andante amabilemoderately slow,and lovingly.

Andante cantabilemoderately slow,and in singing style.

Andante graziosomoderately slow,and gracefully.

Andante maestosomoderately slow,and majestically.

Andante con motoslightly faster than

andante.

Andante (ma) non tropponot tooslowly.

Andante pastoralemoderately slow,and in simple and unaffected style; (lit.rural, pastoral).

Andante quasi allegroalmost as rapidin tempo as allegro; (lit. an andante inthe style of allegro).

Andante sostenutomoderately slowand sustained.

Allegrissimomuch faster than allegro.(The superlative degree of allegro.)

Allegro agitatoa moderately rapid

tempo, and in agitated style.

Allegro appassionataa moderatelyrapid tempo, and in passionate style.

Allegro assai (very allegro)fasterthan allegro.

Allegro commodoa conveniently rapidtempo.

Allegro con brioan allegro played inbrilliant style. Faster than allegro.

Allegro con fuocoan allegro playedwith fire, i.e., with extreme animation.Faster than allegro.

Allegro con spiritoan allegroperformed with spirit.

Allegro con motofaster than allegro.

Allegro di bravuraan allegroperformed in brilliant style, i.e.,demanding great skill in execution.

Allegro furioso (furiously)quickerthan allegro; very brilliant.

Allegro giustoan allegro movement,but in exact rhythm.

Allegro ma graziosoan allegro playedin graceful style.

Allegro (ma) non tantoan allegromovement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non troppoan allegromovement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non prestoan allegromovement, but not too rapid.

Allegro moderatoslower than allegro.

Allegro vivacefaster than allegro.

Presto assaias rapidly as possible.

Presto (ma) non troppoa prestomovement, but not too rapid.

111. There are certain terms whichindicate a modification of the normaltempo of a movement, these beingdivided into two classes, (a) those termswhich indicate in general a slowertempo, and (b) those which indicate ingeneral a more rapid tempo. The furthersubdivisions of these two classes are

shown below.

(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradual retard.

Ritenente, (rit.), ritenuto (rit.),ritardando (rit.), rallentando (rall.),slentando.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is tobecome definitely slower at once.

Pi lento (lit. more slowly), menomosso (lit. less movement).

3. Terms indicating a slower tempocombined with an increase in power.

Largando, allargando. These words areboth derived from largo, meaning large,

broad.

(For terms indicating both slower tempoand softer tone, see page 59, Sec. 127.)

The student should note the differencebetween groups 1 and 2 as given above:the terms in group 1 indicate that eachmeasure, and even each pulse in themeasure, is a little slower than thepreceding one, while such terms as pilento and meno mosso indicate a rate ofspeed becoming instantly slower andextending over an entire phrase orpassage. Some composers (e.g.,Beethoven and Couperin) have evidentlyhad this same distinction in mindbetween rallentando and ritardando onthe one hand, and ritenuto and ritenente

on the other, considering the former(rall. and rit.) to indicate a graduallyslackening speed, and the latter (ritenutoand ritenente) to indicate a definitelyslower rate. The majority of composersdo not however differentiate betweenthem in this way, and it will thereforehardly be worth while for the student totry to remember the distinction.

(b) Terms indicating a more rapidtempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradualacceleration.

Accelerando, affrettando (this termimplies some degree of excitement also),stringendo, poco a poco animato.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is tobecome definitely faster at once.

Pi allegro, pi tosto, pi mosso,stretto, un poco animato.

112. After any modification in tempo(either faster or slower) has beensuggested it is usual to indicate a returnto the normal rate by some suchexpression as a tempo (lit. in time), atempo primo (lit. in the first time),tempo primo, or tempo.

113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato)means literally in robbed time, i.e.,duration taken from one measure or beatand given to another, but in modernpractice the term is quite generally

applied to any irregularity of rhythm ortempo not definitely indicated in thescore.

The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), apiacere, and a capriccio, also indicate amodification of the tempo at the will ofthe performer. Ad libitum means atliberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and acapriccio, at the caprice (of theperformer).

114. The term tempo giusto is theopposite of tempo rubato (and of theother terms defined in paragraph 113). Itmeans literally in exact time. (Tempogiusto is sometimes translated quiterapidly,[29] but this is very unusual.)

115. L'istesso tempo meansat thesame rate of speed. E.g., when ameasure signature changes from 2/4 to6/