Music in Sport and Exercise

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Music in Sport and Exercise : An Update

on Research and Application

By U.S. Sports Academyin Sports Exercise Science, Sports Studies and Sports Psychology

July 7, 200

!o"nload #itation

Abstract

Su$mitted $y% #ostas &arageorghis and !a'id()ee Priest ( Brunel Uni'ersity

A$stract

*n spring +, almost a decade ago, the -irst author pu$lished in he Sport Journal an

article titled /usic in Sport and Exercise% heory and Practice.1 he present articlesorigins are in that earlier "or3 and the -irst authors research "hile a masters student at the

United States Sports Academy in ++42. o a greater degree than in the original +

article, this article -ocuses on the applied aspects o- music in sport and exercise. oreo'er,

it highlights some ne" research trends emanating not only -rom our o"n pu$lications, $utalso -rom the "or3 o- other prominent researchers in the -ield. he content is oriented

primarily to"ards the needs o- athletes and coaches.

U.S. Sports Academy

Su$mitted $y% #ostas &arageorghis and !a'id()ee Priest 4 Brunel Uni'ersity

A$stract

*n spring +, almost a decade ago, the -irst author pu$lished in he Sport Journal an

article titled /usic in Sport and Exercise% heory and Practice.1 he present articles

origins are in that earlier "or3 and the -irst authors research "hile a masters student at theUnited States Sports Academy in ++42. o a greater degree than in the original +

article, this article -ocuses on the applied aspects o- music in sport and exercise. oreo'er,

it highlights some ne" research trends emanating not only -rom our o"n pu$lications, $ut

also -rom the "or3 o- other prominent researchers in the -ield. he content is orientedprimarily to"ards the needs o- athletes and coaches.

usic in Sport and Exercise% An Update on 5esearch and Application

6ith the $anning o- music $y the organiers o- the 2007 8e" 9or3 arathon ma3ing

glo$al headlines, the potentially po"er-ul e--ects o- music on the human psyche "ere$rought into sharp -ocus. *n -act, music "as $anned -rom the 8e" 9or3 arathon as part o-
http://thesportjournal.org/article/author/administrator/http://thesportjournal.org/article/category/sports-exercise-science/http://thesportjournal.org/article/category/sports-studies-and-sports-psychology/http://thesportjournal.org/article/music-sport-and-exercise-update-research-and-application/http://www.sociology.org/wp-admin/options-general.php?page=gs-settings&act=generate_ris&post_id=315http://thesportjournal.org/article/category/sports-exercise-science/http://thesportjournal.org/article/category/sports-studies-and-sports-psychology/http://thesportjournal.org/article/music-sport-and-exercise-update-research-and-application/http://thesportjournal.org/article/music-sport-and-exercise-update-research-and-application/http://www.sociology.org/wp-admin/options-general.php?page=gs-settings&act=generate_ris&post_id=315http://thesportjournal.org/article/author/administrator/


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the "ider USA rac3 : ;ield $an on tactical communications $et"een runners and their

coaches. he marathon committee upheld this $an, "hich is o-ten other"ise o'erloo3ed,uali-ication -rom the e'ent?such "as their desire to run to the $eat. Experienceat other races around the "orld con-irms the precedent set in 8e" 9or3@ try to separateathletes -rom their music at your peril But "hy is music so pi'otal to runners and to sports

people -rom a "ide 'ariety o- disciplines

=o" usic 6ields an E--ect

*n the hot$ed o- competition, "here athletes are o-ten 'ery closely matched in a$ility, music

has the potential to elicit a small $ut signi-icant e--ect on per-ormance C&arageorghis :erry, +7D. usic also pro'ides an ideal accompaniment -or training. Scienti-ic in>uiry

has re'ealed -i'e 3ey "ays in "hich music can in-luence preparation and competiti'e

per-ormances% dissociation, arousal regulation, synchroniation, ac>uisition o- motor s3ills,and attainment o- -lo".

Dissociation

!uring su$maximal exercise, music can narro" attention, in turn di'erting the mind -rom

sensations o- -atigue. his di'ersionary techni>ue, 3no"n to psychologists as dissociation,lo"ers perceptions o- e--ort. E--ecti'e dissociation can promote a positi'e mood state,

turning the attention a"ay -rom thoughts o- physiological sensations o- -atigue. ore

speci-ically, positi'e aspects o- mood such as 'igor and happiness $ecome heightened,

"hile negati'e aspects such as tension, depression, and anger are assuaged CBishop,&arageorghis, : )oiou, 2007D. his e--ect holds -or lo" and moderate exercise intensities

only@ at high intensities, perceptions o- -atigue o'erride the impact o- music, $ecause

attentional processes are dominated $y physiological -eed$ac3, -or example respiration rateand $lood lactate accumulation.

5esearch sho"s that the dissociation e--ect results in a +0 reduction in percei'ed exertion

during treadmill running at moderate intensity C&arageorghis : erry, +@ 8ethery, 2002@

Smedra : Bacharach, +D. Although music does not reduce the perception o- e--ortduring high intensity "or3, it does impro'e the experience thereo-% *t ma3es hard training

seem more li3e -un, $y shaping ho" the mind interprets symptoms o- -atigue. 6hile

running on a treadmill at F o- aero$ic capacity CGH2maxD, listening to music "ill notma3e the tas3 seem easier in terms o- in-ormation that the muscles and 'ital organs send the

$rain. 8e'ertheless, the runner is li3ely to -ind the experience more pleasura$le. he

$ottom line is that during a hard session, music has limited po"er to in-luence "hat theathlete -eels, $ut it does ha'e considera$le le'erage on ho" the athlete -eels.

Arousal Regulation

usic alters emotional and physiological arousal and can there-ore $e used prior to

competition or training as a stimulant, or as a sedati'e to calm /up1 or anxious -eelings


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CBishop et al., 2007D. usic thus pro'ides arousal regulation -ostering an optimal mindset.

ost athletes use loud, up$eat music to /psych up,1 $ut so-ter selections can help to /psychdo"n,1 as "ell. An example o- the latter is t"o(time Hlympic gold medalist !ame &elly

=olmess use o- soul-ul $allads $y Alicia &eys Ce.g., /;allin1 and /&illing e So-tly1D in

her pre(e'ent routine at the Athens Iames o- 200. 6hile the physiological processes tend

to react sympathetically to musics rhythmical components, it is o-ten lyrics or extramusicalassociations that ma3e an impact on the emotions. Hstensi$ly, -ast tempi are associated

"ith higher arousal le'els than slo" tempi.

&arageorghis and )ee C200+D examined the interacti'e e--ects o- music and imagery on an

isometric muscular endurance tas3 "hich re>uired participants to hold dum$$ells in acruci-orm position -or as long as possi$le. ales held +F o- their $ody "eight and

-emales held F o- their $ody "eight. he authors -ound that the com$ination o- music and

imagery, "hen compared to imagery only, music only, or a control condition, enhancedmuscular endurance Csee ;igure +D, although it did not appear to enhance the potency o- the

imagery. he main implication o- the study "as that employing imagery to a $ac3drop o-

music may $e a use-ul per-ormance(enhancement strategy that can $e integrated in a pre(e'ent routine.

Figure 1. Bar chart illustrating mean scores CK + S!D -or isometric muscular endurance

under conditions o- imagery only CAD, moti'ational music CBD, moti'ational music and

imagery C#D, and a no musicLimagery control C!D.

Synchronization

5esearch has consistently sho"n that the synchroniation o- music "ith repetiti'e exerciseis associated "ith increased le'els o- "or3 output. his applies to such acti'ities as ro"ing,

cycling, cross(country s3iing, and running. usical tempo can regulate mo'ement and thus

prolong per-ormance. Synchroniing mo'ements "ith music also ena$les athletes toper-orm more e--iciently, again resulting in greater endurance. *n one recent study,

participants "ho cycled in time to music -ound that they re>uired 7 less oxygen to do the

same "or3 as compared to cycling "ith $ac3ground CasynchronousD music CBacon, yers,: &arageorghis, 200D. he implication is that music pro'ides temporal cues that ha'e the

potential to ma3e athletes energy use more e--icient.

he cele$rated Ethiopian distance runner =aile Ie$rselassie is -amous -or setting "orldrecords running in time to the rhythmical pop song /Scatman.1 =e selected this song$ecause the tempo per-ectly matched his target stride rate, a 'ery important consideration

-or a distance runner "hose aim is to esta$lish a steady, e--icient cadence. he

synchroniation e--ect in running "as demonstrated in an experimental setting $y Simpsonand &arageorghis C200MD, "ho -ound that moti'ational synchronous music impro'ed

running speed $y N.F s in a 00(m sprint, compared to a no(music control condition Csee

;igure 2D.


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Figure 2. ean 00 m times -or synchronous moti'ational music, synchronous oudeterous

music, and a no(music control.

Acquisition of Motor Skills

usic can impact positi'ely on the ac>uisition o- motor s3ills. hin3 $ac3 to elementaryschool days and your initial physical education lessons, "hich "ere pro$a$ly set to music.

usic(accompanied dance and play created opportunities to explore di--erent planes o-

motion and impro'e coordination. Scienti-ic studies ha'e sho"n that the application o-purpose-ully selected music can ha'e a positi'e e--ect on stylistic mo'ement in sport

C#hen, +F@ Spilthoorn, +MD, although there has $een no recent research to $uild upon

initial -indings.

here are three plausi$le explanations -or the enhancement o- s3ill ac>uisition through

music. ;irst, music replicates -orms o- $odily rhythm and many aspects o- humanlocomotion. =ence, music can transport the $ody through e--ecti'e mo'ement patterns, the

$ody pro'iding an apparent 'isual analogue o- the sound. Second, the lyrics -rom "ell(chosen music can rein-orce essential aspects o- a sporting techni>ue. ;or instance, in trac3

and -ield, the trac3 /Push *t1 C$y Salt(n(PepaD is ideal -or rein-orcing the idea that the shot

should $e put, not thro"n@ thro"ing the shot is the most common technical error. hird,music ma3es the learning en'ironment more -un, increasing players intrinsic moti'ation to

master 3ey s3ills.

Attainment of Flow

he logical implication o- study -indings concerning musics e--ects on moti'ational statesis that music may help in the attainment o- -lo", the enith o- intrinsic moti'ation. 5ecentresearch in sports settings has indeed -ound that music promotes -lo" states. Using a

single(su$


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An athlete searching -or music to incorporate in training and competition should start $y

considering the context in "hich he or she "ill operate C&arageorghis, Priest, erry,#hatisarantis, : )ane, 200MD. 6hat type o- acti'ity is $eing underta3en =o" does that

acti'ity a--ect other athletes or exercisers 6hat is the desired outcome o- the session

6hat music(playing -acilities are a'aila$le Some acti'ities lend themsel'es particularly

"ell to musical accompaniment, -or example those that are repetiti'e in nature% "arm(ups,"eight training, circuit training, stretching, and the li3e. *n each case, the athlete should

ma3e selections C-rom a list o- pre-erred trac3sD that ha'e a rhythm and tempo that match

the type o- acti'ity to $e underta3en. o assess the moti'ational >ualities o- particularmusic, the Brunel usic 5ating *n'entory CB5*D may $e used C&arageorghis, erry, :

)ane, +D, as may its deri'ati'e, the B5*(2 C&arageorghis et al., 200MD.

Hne o- the latest de'elopments in the music(in(sport -ield is )ondons 5un to the Beat hal-(

marathon, an e'ent that "ill -eature scienti-ically selected moti'ational music per-ormedli'e $y musicians positioned along the route C5un to the Beat% )ondons =al-(arathon,

n.d.D. Hur research team has $een instrumental in managing the music policy -or 5un to the

Beat and in ensuring that runners are deli'ered music that is appropriate to their pre-erencesand sociocultural $ac3grounds. 6e ha'e gathered rele'ant in-ormation -rom the hal-(

marathons "e$site and used it in prescri$ing musical selections contoured to the e'ents

moti'ational and physiological demands.

!ntensity of Actiity

An athlete or exerciser "hose goal during "arm(up is ele'ating the heart rate to +20 $eatsper minute should select accompanying music that has a tempo in the range o- 04+O0

$eats per minute. Successi'e trac3s should create a gradual rise in music tempo to match

the intended gradual increase in heart rate. oreo'er, segments o- music can $e tailored to'arious components o- training, so that, -or example, "or3 time and reco'ery time are

punctuated $y music that is alternately -ast and loud or slo" and so-t. his approach is

especially "ell suited to highly structured sessions such as circuit or inter'al training. heauthors ha'e used this techni>ue "ith collegiate athletes engaged in a tough "ee3ly circuit

training session, and the upshot has $een a 20 impro'ement in attendance.

Hur recent research has unco'ered the tendency among athletes and exercisers to

coordinate $ursts o- e--ort "ith those speci-ic segments o- a musical trac3 they -ind to $eespecially moti'ating. 6e re-er to the phenomenon as segmentation CPriest :

&arageorghis, 200D. he segmentation e--ect is particularly strong i- the indi'idual 3no"s

the musical trac3 'ery "ell and can anticipate the -lo" o- the music. *t is also $ene-icial tomatch the tempo o- music "ith the intensity o- the "or3out. ;or example, "hen cycling at

around 70 o- ones aero$ic capacity, mid(tempo music C++F4+2F $eats per minuteD is

more e--ecti'e than -aster music C+OF4+F $eats per minuteD C&arageorghis, Jones, : )o",

200M@ &arageorghis, Jones, : Stuart, 200D.

Deliery of Music

#oaches and athletes must choose ho" selected trac3s "ill $e deli'ered $e-ore or during

training or competition. *- others are training near$y and might $e distur$ed $y ones music,


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it should $e deli'ered 'ia an MP3player. usic intended to enhance group cohesion or

inspire a group o- athletes is $est deli'ered "ith a porta$le hi(-i system or stadium pu$lic

address system. *- distraction is an important consideration, the 'olume at "hich music isplayed should $e set >uite high, $ut not high enough to cause discom-ort or lea'e a ringing

in the ears. *ndeed, sound at a 'olume a$o'e 7F dB deli'ered during exercise?"hen $lood

pressure in the ear canal is ele'ated?can cause minor temporary hearing loss CAlessio :=utchinson, ++D.

Selection "roce#ure

he researchers suggest accompanying training acti'ities "ith music, to ena$le athletes to

tap into the po"er o- sound. o start, assem$le a "ide selection o- -amiliar trac3s that meet

the -ollo"ing six criteria% CaD strong, energiing rhythm@ C$D positi'e lyrics ha'ingassociations "ith mo'ement Ce.g., /Body Iroo'e1 $y the Architects ;t. 8anaD@ CcD rhythmic

pattern "ell matched to mo'ement patterns o- the athletic acti'ity@ CdD upli-ting melodies

and harmonies Ccom$inations o- notesD@ CeD associations "ith sport, exercise, triumph, or

o'ercoming ad'ersity@ and C-D a musical style or idiom suited to an athletes taste andcultural up$ringing. #hoose trac3s "ith di--erent tempi, to coincide "ith alternate lo"(,

medium(, and high(intensity training.

A -urther consideration is 'ariety among selections. A study "e pu$lished o- data -rom ama


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6arm(up acti'ity

/Iettin Jiggy 6ith *t1

6ill Smith

+0

Stretching

/)i-ted1

he )ighthouse ;amily

Strength component

/;un3y #old edina1

one )oc

++

Endurance component

/5oc3a-eller S3an3C;un3Soul BrotherD1

;at$oy Slim

+FO

6arm(do"n acti'ity

/6hatta an1

Salt(n(Pepa

#onclusion


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6e ha'e esta$lished that there are many "ays in "hich music can $e applied to $oth

training and competition. he e--ects o- care-ully selected music are $oth >uanti-ia$le andmeaning-ul. As Paula 5adcli--e, the "orld record4holding marathoner, has said, /* put

together a playlist and listen to it during the run(in. *t helps psych me up and reminds me o-

times in the $uild(up "hen *'e "or3ed really hard, or -elt good. 6ith the right music, * do

a much harder "or3out.1

he -indings "e ha'e discussed lead to the possi$ility that the use o- music during athletic

per-ormance may yield long(term $ene-its such as exercise adherence and heightened

sports per-ormance, through a superior >uantity and >uality o- training. Although many

athletes today already use music, they o-ten approach its use in >uite a haphaard manner.6e hope that through applying the principles outlined in this article, athletes and coaches

"ill $e a$le to harness the stimulati'e, sedati'e, and "or3(enhancing e--ects o- music "ith

greater precision.

5e-erences

Alessio, =. ., : =utchinson, &. . C++D. E--ects o- su$maximal exercise and noise

exposure on hearing loss. 5esearch Quarterly -or Exercise and Sport, M2, +4+.

Bacon, #., yers, ., : &arageorghis, #. *. C200D. E--ect o- mo'ement(music synchrony

and tempo on exercise oxygen consumption. anuscript su$mitted -or pu$lication.

Bishop, !. ., &arageorghis, #. *., : )oiou, I. C2007D. A grounded theory o- young tennis

players use o- music to manipulate emotional state. Journal o- Sport : Exercise

Psychology, 2, F4M07.

#hen, P. C+FD. usic as a stimulus in teaching motor s3ills. 8e" ealand Journal o-=ealth, Physical Education and 5ecreation, +, +420.

Jac3son, S. A., : arsh, =. 6. C+MD. !e'elopment and 'alidation o- a scale to measure

optimal experience% he ;lo" State Scale. Journal o- Sport : Exercise Psychology, +, +74

OF.

&arageorghis, #. *. C+D. usic in sport and exercise% heory and practice. he SportJournal, 2C2D. 5etrie'ed arch 2, 2007, -rom

http%LL""".thesport


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&arageorghis, #. *., Jones, )., : Stuart, !. P. C200D. Psychological e--ects o- music tempi.

*nternational Journal o- Sports edicine, 2, M+O(M+.

&arageorghis, #. *., : )ee, J. C200+D. E--ects o- asynchronous music and imagery on anisometric endurance tas3. *n *nternational Society o- Sport Psychology, Proceedings o- the

6orld #ongress o- Sport Psychology% Gol. Cpp. O74OD. S3iathos, Ireece.

&arageorghis, #. *., Priest, !. )., erry, P. #., #hatisarantis, 8. ). !., : )ane, A. .

C200MD. 5edesign and initial 'alidation o- an instrument to assess the moti'ational >ualitieso- music in exercise% he Brunel usic 5ating *n'entory42. Journal o- Sports Sciences, 2,

40.

&arageorghis, #. *., : erry, P. #. C+D. A--ecti'e and psychophysical responses to

asynchronous music during su$maximal treadmill running. Proceedings o- the +European #ollege o- Sport Science #ongress, *taly, 2+.

&arageorghis, #. *., : erry, P. #. C+7D. he psychophysical e--ects o- music in sport andexercise% A re'ie". Journal o- Sport Beha'ior, 20, F4M.

&arageorghis, #. *., erry, P. #., : )ane, A. . C+D. !e'elopment and initial 'alidationo- an instrument to assess the moti'ational >ualities o- music in exercise and sport% he

Brunel usic 5ating *n'entory. Journal o- Sports Sciences, +7, 7+O472.

8ethery, G. . C2002D. #ompetition $et"een internal and external sources o- in-ormation

during exercise% *n-luence on 5PE and the impact o- the exercise load. Journal o- Sportsedicine and Physical ;itness, 2, +724+7.

Pates, J., &arageorghis, #. *., ;ryer, 5., : aynard, *. C200OD. E--ects o- asynchronousmusic on -lo" states and shooting per-ormance among net$all players. Psychology o- Sport

and Exercise, , +O427.

Priest, !. )., &arageorghis, #. *., : Sharp, 8. #. #. C200D. he characteristics and e--ects

o- moti'ational music in exercise settings% he possi$le in-luence o- gender, age, -re>uency

o- attendance, and time o- attendance. Journal o- Sports edicine and Physical ;itness, ,

774M.

Priest, !. )., : &arageorghis, #. *. C200D. A >ualitati'e in'estigation into the

characteristics and e--ects o- music accompanying exercise. anuscript su$mitted -or

pu$lication.

5un to the Beat% )ondons =al-(arathon Cn.d.D. usic% he Science $ehind 5un to theBeat. 5etrie'ed July O, 200, -rom http%LL""".runtothe$eat.co.u3Lmusic.html

Simpson, S. !., : &arageorghis, #. *. C200MD. he e--ects o- synchronous music on 00(m

sprint per-ormance. Journal o- Sports Sciences, 2, +0F4++02.


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Spilthoorn, !. C+MD. he e--ect o- music on motor learning. Bulletin de la ;ederation

*nternationale de lEducation Physi>ue, FM, 2+42.

Smedra, )., : Bacharach, !. 6. C+D. E--ect o- music on percei'ed exertion, plasmalactate, norepinephrine and cardio'ascular hemodynamics during treadmill running.

*nternational Journal o- Sports edicine, +, O24O7.

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