History of Air Pollution

1272 - King Edward I of England bans use of sea coal 1377 1399 - Richard II restricts use of coal 1413 1422 - Henry V regulates/restricts use of coal 1661 - By royal command of Charles II, John Evelyn of the Royal Society publishes Fumifugium; or the Inconvenience of the Air and Smoke dissipated; together with Some Remedies Humbly Proposed 1784Watts steam engine; boilers to burn fossil fuels (coal) to make steam to pump water and move machinery Smoke and ash from fossil fuels by power plants, trains, ships: coal (and oil) burning = smoke, ash 1907 - Formation of the predecessor to the Air & Waste Management Association 1930 - 1950s - Air Pollution Episodes 1955 First Federal Air Pollution Control Act - funds for research (USA) 1960 Motor Vehicle Exhaust Act - funds for research (USA) 1963 Clean Air Act (USA)-Three stage enforcement-Funds for state and local agencies 1965 Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act (USA)-Emission regulations for cars to begin in 1968 1967 Air Quality Act (USA)-Criteria documents-Control technique documents 1970 Clean Air Act Amendments (USA)-National Ambient Air Quality Standards-New Source Performance Standards

Why study air pollution ?

Early 1900sThe City of Chicago, Illinois passes an ordinance to reduce the smoke emitted by local factories. 1940sLos Angeles, California becomes one of the first cities in the U.S. to experience severe air pollution problems then called gas attacks. L.A.s location in a basin like area ringed by mountains makes it susceptible to accumulation of auto exhaust and emissions from local petroleum refineries 1948Air pollution kills in Donora, Pennsylvania. An unusual temperature inversion lasting six days blocks dispersal of emissions from zinc smelting and blast furnaces. Out of a total population of 14,000 people, 20 die, 600 others become ill, and 1400 seek medical attention. 1950A chemist at the California Institute of Technology proposes a theory of smog (or ozone) formation in which auto exhaust and sunlight play major roles. 1954An early public protest against air pollution takes place in East Greenville, Pennsylvania. Homemakers march on the town council to demand that a local casket manufacturer be required to stop polluting. Their complaint is that clean laundry hung out to dry became dirtier than before it was washed because of high levels of soot (or particulates) in the air. 1962Silent Spring is published. Rachel Carsons powerful book draws the attention of the American public to the potential consequences of the increasing ability of human activities to significantly and even permanently alters the natural world. 1966In New York City, a three-day temperature inversion over Thanksgiving weekend is blamed for the deaths of 168 people. 1969Millions of Americans watch via satellite, as Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the moon. The same weekend, a very different news story startles the nation. Sulfur dioxide pollution emitted by industries near Gary, Indiana and East Chicago becomes potent acid rain that burns lawns, eats away tree leaves, and causes birds to lose their feathers. 1969A vivid color photographs of Earth from space, widely distributed, shifts human perceptions of our planet. The Earth no longer seems vast but is recognized as a small, fragile ball of life in the immense infinitude of cold, black space. 1970The first Earth Day becomes part of American history. Millions of students and citizens attend rallies to learn about environmental concerns and speak for environmental protection. 1972Representatives of 113 nations, gather on 5th June at a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm to develop plans for international action to protect the world environment. 1978Rainfall in Wheeling, West Virginia is measured at a pH of 2, the most acidic yet recorded and 5000 times more acidic than normal rainfall. 1981Air pollution enters international politics when the Quebec Ministry of the Environment notifies the U.S. that 60 percent of the acid rain (sulfur dioxide pollution) damaging air and waters in Quebec, Canada comes from the U.S. industrial sources in the Midwestern and Northeastern U.S. 1982The National Center for Health Statistics releases a study indicating that four percent of all U.S. schoolchildren, including about 12 percent of all African-American preschoolers, have high levels of lead in their blood. About 675,000 children are at risk of kidney damage, brain damage, anemia, retardation, and other ills associated with lead poisoning. It is recognized that children absorb this lead by breathing air laden with lead pollution, primarily from leaded gasoline. 1985The U.S. EPA estimates 50,000 streams in the U.S. and Canada are dead or dying because of acid rain pollution. 1986The National Academy of Sciences reports that the burning of coal, gasoline, and other fossil fuels is definitely linked to acid rain and the death of trees, fish, and lake ecosystems in both the U.S. and Canada. 1992The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil is the most comprehensive international conference on the environment to date. Representatives from 188 countries and 35,000 participants attend. Two treaties are signed by all except the U.S. One, on global warming recommending curbing emissions of greenhouse gases. The second, on making inventories of plants and wildlife and strategies to protect endangered species.

Air Pollution Episodes

Period of poor air qulaity, upto several days, often extending over large geograpical area.

Winter:cold, stable weather conditions trap pollutants close to sources and prevent dispersion. Elavated concentrations of range of pollutants build up over several days

Summer:hot and sunny weather. Pollutants emitted within the U.K. or Europe transported long distances, reacting with each other in sunlight to produce high levels of ozone, & other photochemical pollutants.

Meuse Valley-Belgium, 1930 63 died (mostly elderly) Sore throats, shortness of breath, cough, phlegm, nausea, vomiting SO2, sulfur dioxide H2O SO4 sulfuric acid mist Cattle, birds and rats died Got little news coverage

Fumigation of a valley floor caused by an inversion layer that restricts diffusion from a stack

Donora, PennsylvaniaOct. 1948 Monongahela River Valley Industrial townsteel mill, sulfuric acid plant, freight yard, etc. Population14,000 Steep hills surrounding the valley Oct 26temperature inversion (warm air trapping cold air near the ground) Stable air, fog, lasted 4.5 days

Environs of Donora, Pennsylvania. Horseshoe curve of Monongahela River is surrounded by mountains. Railroad tracks are located on both sides of the river. Low-lying stretch of Monongahela valley between railroad and river is natural trap for pollutants.Poza Rico, Mexico 1950 Single source high sulfur crude oil Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) Flare went out Inversion in valley 22 sudden deaths, 320 hospitalized All ages Forerunner of BhopalDecember 1952 Great London Smog Cold front, Londoners burned soft coal Factories, power plants Temperature inversion 5 days of worst smog city had ever seen Public transportation stopped Indoor concerts had to be cancelled because no one could see the stage, etc.

Weekly death registered from diseases of the lungs and heart in the London Administrative County around the time of the severe fog in December, 1952.

Total death in Greater London and air pollutants levels measured during the fog of December 1952Seveso, Italy --Dioxin July 10, 1976, north of Milan A valve broke at the Industrie Chimiche Meda Societa Azionaria chemical plant Cloud of 2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin (TCDD) traveled southwest through Seveso toward Milan Contaminant of herbicideBhopal, India Dec. 3, 1984 Union Carbide pesticide plant leak kills up to 2,000 with up to 350,000 injured and 100,000 with permanent disabilities Methyl isocyanate (MIC)used as an intermediary in manufacture of Sevin (Carbaryl) CO + Cl = phosgene Phosgene + methylamine = MIC MICirritant to the lungs---edema, fluid (cause of death, bronchospasms, corneal opacity Hydrogen cyanide? Sabotage or industrial accident?

World-wide Air Pollution Episode November 27-December 10, 1962 Thousands of excess deaths in many cities including NYC, London, Boston, Paris New Orleans Oct-Nov 1958 asthma deaths.

Hundreds Troubled by 'World Trade Center Cough NYC fire fighters, school workers have 9/11 breathing problems, new studies say

Air Pollution

Transfer of harmful and/or of Natural/Synthetic materials into the atmosphere as a direct/indirect consequences of human activity (OECD).

Air Pollution Definition Based on System Approach

Types of Air Pollution Personal air exposure-It refers to exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an individual exposes himself when he indulge himself in smoking Occupational air exposure-It represents the type of exposure of individuals to potentially harmful concentration of aerosols, vapors, and gases in their working environment. Community air exposure-This is most serious, complex, consists of varieties of assortment of pollution sources, meteorological factors, and wide variety of adverse social, economical, and health effects.

The Earths Great Spheres

Lithosphere-The lithosphere contains all of the cold, hard solid land of the planet's crust (surface), the semi-solid land underneath the crust, and the liquid land near the center of the planet

Hydrosphere-The hydrosphere contains all the solid, liquid, and gaseous water of the plane

Biosphere-The biosphere contains all the planet's living things. This sphere includes all of the microorganisms, plants, and animals of Ear

Atmosphere-The atmosphere contains all the air in Earth's system

Atmosphere It is a mixture of gases that forms a layer of about 250 miles thick around the earth.- Bottom 10-12 miles (Troposphere) is most important part in terms of Weather Other aspects of Biogeochemical cycle- The lowest 600 meters of Troposphere: Air Quality Studies Composition of Air - 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% carbon dioxide, water, other gases Divided into four zones:- Troposphere- Stratosphere- Mesosphere- Thermosphere

Source of Air Pollution

Natural Sources Volcano, forest fire, dust storms, oceans, plants and trees Anthropogenic Sources - created by human beings-Stationary sources Point sources (Industrial processing, power plants, fuels combustion etc.) Area sources (Residential heating coal gas oil, on site incineration, open burning etc.)- Mobile sources Line sources (Highway vehicles, railroad locomotives, channel vessels etc.)Air PollutantsAny substance occurring in the atmosphere that may have adverse effects on humans, animals, plant life, and/or inanimate materials.Air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and tironment.

Criteria Air Pollutants Based on health effects with measured air quality levels that violate the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (NAAQS)-CO-NOx-SOx-VOCs-Particulates-PbHazardous Air Pollutants Predecessor: National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 directed EPA to establish emission controls for 189 chemicals listed in the Act.-NOT based on health criteria-Based on Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT)Non-Criteria Pollutants In essence, all pollutants not included in the NAAQS and HAP lists Examples:-CO-NaCl

Air Pollutants

Primary air pollutants- Materials that when released pose health risks in their unmodified forms or those emitted directly from identifiable sources. Secondary air pollutants- Primary pollutants interact with one another, sunlight, or natural gases to produce new, harmful compounds

Primary Air Pollutants Five major materials released directly into the atmosphere in unmodified forms.-Carbon monoxide-Sulfur dioxide-Nitrogen oxides-Hydrocarbons-Particulate matterCarbon Monoxide Produced by burning of organic material (coal, gas, wood, trash, etc.)

Automobiles biggest source (80%)

Cigarette smoke another major source

Toxic because binds to hemoglobin, reduces oxygen in blood

Not a persistent pollutant, combines with oxygen to form CO2

Most communities now meet EPA standards, but rush hour traffic can produce high CO levels

Sulphur Dioxide Produced by burning sulfur containing fossil fuels (coal, oil)

Coal-burning power plants major source

Reacts in atmosphere to produce acids

One of the major components of acid rain

When inhaled, can be very corrosive to lung tissue

London-1306 banned burning of sea coal-1952 killer fog: 4,000 people died in 4 weeks tied to sulfur compounds in smog

Nitrogen Oxides Produced from burning of fossil fuels

Contributes to acid rain, smog

Automobile engine main source

New engine technology has helped reduce, but many more cars

Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons - organic compounds with hydrogen, carbon

From incomplete burning or evaporated from fuel supplies

Major source is automobiles, but some from industry

Contribute to smog

Improvements in engine design have helped reduce

Particulates Particulates - small pieces of solid materials and liquid droplets (2.5 mm and 10 mm)

Examples: ash from fires, asbestos from brakes and insulation, dust

Easily noticed: e.g. smokestacks

Can accumulate in lungs and interfere with the ability of lungs to exchange gases.

Some particulates are known carcinogens

Those working in dusty conditions at highest risk (e.g., miners)

Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) -PM1 having size