Pharmacologic Pain Management

• Mild to moderate pain: Acetaminophen (APAP), Aspirin (ASA), and NSAIDs may be

sufficient • Moderate to severe pain, especially acute pain: short course of opioids may be

necessary • Cancer pain: opioids are generally required

Acetaminophen (APAP)

• APAP may be as effective as NSAIDs for analgesic and antipyretic effects, without risk of GI bleeding

• dose: 500-1000 mg PO Q6H, not to exceed 4000 mg/day for short-term use o 3000 mg/day max for long-term use o 2000 mg/day max for older patients, for patients with liver disease, and for

patients with heavy alcohol use • APAP are combined with opioid meds to reduce the amount of opioid needed • APAP is the most common cause of hepatotoxicity in the US

o hepatotoxicity is common due to APAP content in OTC products and combination APAP-opioid products

o FDA has reduced APAP doses in combination opioid analgesics (Norco and Percocet: 650 mg APAP/tab ! 325 mg APAP/tab)

Aspirin (ASA)

• ASA is an effective analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory (900-1000mg/dose) • GI upset and GI bleeding are lessened with enteric-coated products and

concomitant use of proton-pump inhibitors (PPI, e.g., omeprazole) • GI bleeding, allergy, and association with Reye syndrome in children limit ASA use

NSAIDs (e.g., Naproxen / Ibuprofen)

• NSAIDs are effective analgesics, antipyretics, and anti-inflammatory agents

• NSAIDs increase the risk of GI bleeding (PGE inhibition) and nephrotoxicity (PGI inhibition), especially in the elderly

o GI bleeding and ulceration may be prevented with concurrent use of PPI / Cytotec (misoprostil) / Celebrex (celecoxib) ! COX-2 inhibitor

o NSAIDs, including Celebrex, can cause fluid retention ! exacerbate HTN / CHF o NSAIDs interfere with antiplatelet effect of ASA

• Voltaren (diclofenac) is also available as a topical patch and gel for use in

musculoskeletal pain / osteoarthritis as an alternative to systemic NSAIDs, especially in patients at risk of GI bleeding

• Indocin (indomethacin): very potent PG inhibitor (i.e., high incidence of GI bleeding

and nephrotoxicity) used for short-term treatment (tx) of acute gout

• Toradol (ketorolac) IM/IV ! common alternative to opioids in ER setting o PO/IM/IV ! short-term (< 5 days) due to increased risk of GI bleeding and

nephrotoxicity, especially in the elderly

µwooMTN

prucomyst

Tand

e ten

M ii

tomy

Narcotic Analgesics

• Short-acting (oral): (1) morphine 4-8 mg PO Q3-4H, (2) hydromorphone (Dilaudid) 1-2 mg Q3-4H, (3) oxycodone (Percocet) 5 mg Q3-4H ! for severe acute pain

• Long-acting (oral): MS Contin (morphine) 15-60 mg PO BID, (2) Exalgo (hydromorphone) tablets 12 mg PO daily, and (3) OxyContin (oxycodone) 10-80 mg PO BID.

• Clinicians prescribing opioids must understand the concept of equi-analgesic dosing and calculating morphine milligram equivalence (MME) ! converting doses from one opioid to another

o Equi-analgesic tables are used for estimating the appropriate dose of a long-acting opioid based on the amount of short-acting opioid

o Equi-analgesic determinations are required for initiating fentanyl patches (FDA requirement)

• Methadone ! longest acting opioid o Methadone is used for opioid detox and for neuropathic / chronic pain due to

it’s duration of action and low cost o High doses (100-150 mg/day) ! risk of QT prolongation on EKG

" baseline EKG is recommended prior to tx and monthly thereafter

• Fentanyl transdermal patches (Duragesic) ! 12.5 – 100 mcg/hour for 72 hours o not for use in opioid naïve patients ! FDA regulation o indicated for patients who have been taking stable dose of opioids for at

least 1 week of oral morphine milligram equivalents (MME) of 60 mg/day o fentanyl patch may require 12-24 hours to achieve steady state levels;

therefore, short acting opioids should be given while waiting the full analgesic effect of the 1st fentanyl patch application

• Meperidine (Demerol) is not a preferred opioid since its metabolite causes irritability and seizures, especially in elderly patients and patients with renal insufficiency

• Tramadol (Ultram) ! Schedule IV (SIV) opioid which binds to opioid receptor and blocks reuptake of serotonin-norepinephrine

o tramadol 50 mg is an approx equivalent analgesic effect to codeine 30 mg o risk of serotonin syndrome in patients taking SSRIs and tramadol o side effects include risk of seizures

• Buprenorphine / Naloxone (Suboxone) and Buprenorphine (Buprenex)

o buprenorphine is a SIII long-acting opioid (Q8H) with partial agonist effects o concomitant use with other opioids for acute pain may result in competitive

inhibition ! blunting of analgesic effect of the stronger opioid Common Side Effects of Opioids 1. Opioid-induced constipation (OIC) should be anticipated and prevented in all

patients • unlike other side effects, tolerance to constipation does not develop over time

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moose sedan__i__

1. Opioid-Induced Constipation (cont.) • prescribing a bowel regimen in patients taking opioids long term is

recommended for quality of care measures o Stool Surfactant: docusate sodium (Colace) o Fiber Laxatives: methylcellulose (Citrucel) / Psyllium (Metamucil) o Osmotic Laxative: milk of magnesia (Phillips MOM) or polyethylene

glycol (Miralax) o Stimulant Laxative: bisacodyl tabs (Dulcolax) – onset: 6-8 hours or

bisacodyl suppository (Dulcolax) – onset 1 hour

• methylnaltrexone (Relistor) 8 mcg SC daily for opioid-induced constipation (OIC) o methylnaltrexone is a peripheral acting mu-opioid receptor antagonist

(GI tract) without affecting central analgesia

• naloxegol (Movantik) 25 mg PO daily for OIC as a peripheral acting mu-opioid receptor antagonist (PAMORA)

2. Sedation can be expected with opioids, although tolerance to this side effect

develops within 24-72 hours at a stable dose • caffeinated beverages may reverse minor opioid sedation

3. Neurotoxicity: hyperalgesia, delirium with hallucinations, and seizures may develop

with high doses of opioids used for prolonged periods • opioid-induced hyperalgesia ! increased sensitivity to pain with chronic use

of high dose opioids • hyperalgesia occurs when typically benign stimuli (e.g., light massage) may

be perceived as painful (allodynia) • opioid-induced hyperalgesia usually resolves with lowering the opioid dose

or switching opioids (“opioid rotation”) 4. Nausea

• nausea usually resolves after a few days of opioid use • unrelieved constipation may be the likely cause of nausea with opioids • treatment: ondansetron (Zofran) 4 mg PO/IV Q6H / prochlorperazine

(Compazine) 10 mg PO/IV Q6H (25 mg suppository Q12H)

5. Respiratory Depression • respiratory depression is uncommon when low opioid doses are given

initially and titrated upward slowly • COPD patients are particularly at risk for respiratory depression with opioids

o COPD patients who require high doses of opioids should be monitored closely

• Naloxone (Narcan), an opioid antagonist, is given as 0.4 mg IV to reverse opioid-induced respiratory depression

• Narcan nasal spray (4 mg) is sold in California pharmacies without a prescription

o repeated doses every 2-3 minutes in alternating nostrils • Evzio (naloxone) Auto-Injector 2 mg IM injection – may repeat every 2-3 min

o Cost: $4000 by Kaleo Pharm, Inc.

6. Drug Tolerance

• opioid tolerance requires increasing dosage to achieve the same analgesic effect

7. Drug Dependence • opioid dependence requires continued dosing to prevent a opioid withdrawal

syndrome • drug dependence is characterized by a withdrawal syndrome following

administration of an narcotic antagonist (naloxone) or by abruptly discontinuing a narcotic after chronic use

8. Psychological Addiction • addiction is characterized by cravings, resulting in an inability to abstain

from continued drug use, despite harm and impairment in behavioral control

• clinicians must understand that physical dependence and tolerance are not equivalent to addiction; physical dependence is expected with chronic opioid treatment

Coanalgesics

• Chronic pain which has a neuoropathic component (e.g., diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia) requires coanalgesic therapy

1. Gabapentin (Neurontin) and Pregabalin (Lyrica)

• bind to voltage-gated calcium channels at the alpha 2-delta subunit and inhibit neurotransmitter release

The

Q

O O

1. Gabapentin (Neurontin) and Pregabalin (Lyrica)…. continued • side effects (dose-dependent): dizziness and sedation

o Start with lower doses and titrate upward to lowest effective dose • pregabalin (Lyrica) may cause euphoria ! classified as Schedule V

2. Antidepressants • Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and SE/NE reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)

possess analgesic qualities; SSRIs possess weak analgesic effects;

• Analgesic antidepressants may provide pain relief separate from their antidepressant effects, since analgesic effects appear to occur earlier (approx. 1 week) and at lower doses than for antidepressant effects

• Analgesic effects of antidepressants in neuropathic pain has been

established in non-depressed

• In patients with underlying depression, SSRIs may also contribute to relief of pain symptomology

2. Antidepressants (continued)

A. Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs): amitriptyline (Elavil) and nortriptyline

(Pamelor) • analgesic MOA with TCAs is uncertain, but analgesic properties are

associated with their actions as NE reuptake inhibitors o evidence suggests that they potentiate endogenous opioid

system • TCAs also relieve depressive symptoms associated with chronic pain • Side Effects: anticholinergic effects (e.g., dry mouth, orthostatic

hypotension, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision) and sedation

B. Serotonin / Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs)

• venlafaxine (Effexor) and Duloxetine (Cymbalta) are better tolerated than TCAs

• duloxetine (Cymbalta) has recently shown to be effective for chronic low back pain and osteoarthritis

• duloxetine (Cymbalta) may cause nausea, insomnia, drowsiness, fatigue, and dizziness

• venlafaxine (Effexor) can cause hypertension and induce EKG changes in patients with cardiovascular risk factors

C. SSRIs ! Analgesia with SSRIs are mainly associated with relief of

depression in patients with chronic pain

3. Topical Agents

A. Lidocaine 5% Patch (Lidoderm) • Lidoderm is useful in patients with localized neuropathic pain • often used as an adjunct to systemic medication • apply patch on skin for 12 hours, then remove for 12 hours to reverse

tachyphylaxis

B. Capsaicin (Zostrix) Cream ! depletes substance P from primary afferent neurons ! reducing pain afferent impulses • burning, stinging, and erythema at the site of application leads to

intolerance in up to 1/3 of patients

4. Benzodiazepines (BZDs): alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan), diazepam (Valium)

• BZDs may be utilized in patients with chronic pain complicated by

anxiety disorder • Disadvantages: addictive potential and respiratory depression in patients

who use opioids concurrently

GRAPHICS

Schedules of controlled substances in the United States*

Schedule ExamplesMedical

use?Potential for

abuse/dependencePrescription

I Heroin, marijuana, LSD No High Not applicable

II Narcotics: Yes High Require awrittenprescription bya licensedpractitioner.Refilling ofindividualprescriptions isprohibited.

CodeineFentanylHydrocodone and hydrocodonecombinations (eg, withacetaminophen)HydromorphoneMorphineMethadoneOxycodone and oxycodonecombinations (eg, withacetaminophen)

Stimulants:

AmphetamineMethamphetamineMethylphenidate

Other:

CocainePentobarbital, secobarbital

III Narcotics: Yes Less than with Schedule Iand II drugs

A prescriptionfor a drug inSchedules IIIthrough V mustbe issued by apractitioner andmay becommunicatedorally, inwriting, or byfacsimile to thepharmacist;may be refilledup to five times

BuprenorphineCombination products with

Commonly used, oral and transdermal, long-acting pure mu-opioid agonists forchronic pain in adults (refer to notes)

Drug

Brandname

(UnitedStates)

Sampleinitial

dose inopioid-tolerantadults

Serumhalf-life(hours)

Durationof

analgesiceffect

(hours)

Comments

Oral, long-acting preparations

Hydrocodone Hysingla ER 20 mgorallyevery 24hours

7 to 9 24 May interact with drugs thatalter CYP3A4 and 2D6metabolismConverted to active metaboliteby CYP2D6, which is subject topolymorphisms; individualeffects varyHysingla ER and Zohydro ERhave abuse-deterrent*properties

Zohydro ER 10 mgorallyevery 12hours

13 ≤12 inpatientswith non-cancer backpain

Hydromorphone Exalgo 8 mg orallyevery 24hours

11 24 Use reduced dose in renaland/or hepatic impairmentExalgo has abuse-deterrent*propertiesHydromorph

Contin(available inCanada)

3 mg orallyevery 12hours

Notspecified

≥12

Morphine MS Contin,OramorphSR

15 mgorallyevery 12hours

Notspecified

8 to 12 Active metabolites aredependent on kidney functionfor clearance; avoid or usereduced dose-frequency in organdysfunctionAccumulation of metabolite maycontribute to hyperalgesia orother neurotoxicityArymo ER has abuse-deterrent*properties

Kadian 30 mgorally dailyin 1 or 2divideddoses

11 to 13 12 to 24

Arymo ER 15 mgorallyevery 8 or12 hours

Notspecified

8 to 12

Oxycodone OxyContin,Oxaydo

10 mgorallyevery 12hours

4.5 8 to 12 OxyContin and Oxaydo haveabuse-deterrent* properties

Xtampza ER 9 mg orallyevery 12hours

5.6 ≤12 Xtampza ER has abuse-deterrent* properties

Oxymorphone Genericonly

5 mg orallyevery 12

9 to 11 12 Take on empty stomach

hours Opana ER brand, an abuse-deterrent formulation, waswithdrawn from the UnitedStates market in mid-2017 dueto concerns related to IVinjection abuse, includingreports of thromboticmicroangiopathy;generic extended-release preparations ofoxymorphone remain available

Transdermal

Fentanyl Duragesic 12 or 25mcg perhour, patchappliedevery 72hours

17followingpatchremoval

48 to 72

Someanalgesiceffect maypersist forup to 12hoursfollowingpatchremoval

Onset of analgesic effect isdelayed 12 to 24 hours afterinitial applicationApproximate dose conversionsfor fentanyl transdermal andcommonly used oral opioids areprovided as a separate table inUpToDate

NOTES: The total daily dose requirement for a long-acting opioid formulation should be established first with theuse of an appropriate immediate-release opioid analgesic. Details for initiating and adjustment of dose varyby each agent. Refer to UpToDate reviews on cancer pain management with opioids and individual drugmonographs (ie, Lexicomp) for detailed information on individual agents.Opioids have similar equianalgesic potency whether administered as an immediate-release form (ie,smaller, more frequently divided doses) or an extended-release preparation. To convert from oralimmediate-release to an extended-release preparation of the same opioid, use the sum of doses ofimmediate-release administered during the usual interval of the extended-release form. As an example,morphine sulfate immediate-release 30 mg orally every four hours (total of 180 mg per day) may beconverted to morphine sulfate extended-release 60 mg orally every eight hours (total of 180 mg per day).Approximate equianalgesic dose equivalents and information on oral immediate-release and parenteralpure mu-opioid agonists that are commonly used in management of cancer pain are provided as separatetables within UpToDate.

mcg: microgram; IV: intravenous.* Abuse-deterrent formulations have one or more properties that make intentional manipulation of the dose form moredifficult (eg, resistant to crushing and dissolution) or less likely to produce an opioid effect (eg, altered to minimizeabsorption through nasal mucosa). No oral opioid formulation prevents ingestion of an excessive dose.

Courtesy of Kathleen Broglio, DNP, MN, ANP-BC, ACHPN and Russell K Portenoy, MD.Additional data from:

1. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Adult Cancer Pain, Version 2.2016.2. Lexicomp Online. Copyright © 1978-2018 Lexicomp, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Graphic 111207 Version 6.0

Approximate oral equianalgesic doses for commonly used opioids

Drug

Approximate equivalentdoses

(oral immediate-releasepreparations)

Approximate equianalgesicdose ratio

(morphine:alternateopioid)

Codeine* 200 mg 1:7

Fentanyl No oral equivalent

Hydrocodone 30 mg 1:1

Hydromorphone 7.5 mg 4:1

Morphine 30 mg 1:1 (reference standard)

Oxycodone 20 mg 1.5:1

Oxymorphone 10 mg 3:1

Equianalgesic conversions serve only as a general guide to estimate opioid dose equivalents. For a review ofmultiple factors that must be considered for safely individualizing conversion of opioid analgesia, refer toUpToDate topic on cancer pain management with opioids: optimizing analgesia.

* Generally not recommended due to high variability in response.

Data from: Lexicomp Online. Copyright © 1978-2018 Lexicomp, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Graphic 108955 Version 4.0

HOW SHOULD THE TOTAL DAILY DOSE OF OPIOIDS BE CALCULATED?

1 Calculating morphine milligram equivalents (MME)DETERMINE the total daily amount of each opioid the patient takes. OPIOID (doses in mg/day except where noted) CONVERSION FACTOR

Codeine 0.15

Fentanyl transdermal (in mcg/hr) 2.4

Hydrocodone 1

Hydromorphone 4

Methadone

1-20 mg/day 4

21-40 mg/day 8

41-60 mg/day 10

61-80 mg/day 12

Morphine 1

Oxycodone 1.5

Oxymorphone 3

These dose conversions are estimated and cannot account for all individual differences in genetics and pharmacokinetics.

ADD them together. 3 2 CONVERT each to MMEs—multiply the dose for each opioid by the conversion factor. (see table)

CAUTION:

• Do not use the calculated dose in MMEs to determine dosage for converting one opioid to another—the new opioid should be lower to avoid unintentional overdose caused by incomplete cross-tolerance and individual differences in opioid pharmacokinetics. Consult the medication label.

USE EXTRA CAUTION:

• Methadone: the conversion factor increases at higher doses

• Fentanyl: dosed in mcg/hr instead of mg/day, and absorption is affected by heat and other factors

HOW SHOULD PROVIDERS USE THE TOTAL DAILY OPIOID DOSE IN CLINICAL PRACTICE? • Use caution when prescribing opioids at any dosage and prescribe the lowest effective dose.

• Use extra precautions when increasing to 50 MME per day* such as:

- Monitor and assess pain and function more frequently.

- Discuss reducing dose or tapering and discontinuing opioids if benefits do not outweigh harms.

- Consider offering naloxone.

• Avoid or carefully justify increasing dosage to 90 MME/day.*

* These dosage thresholds are based on overdose risk when opioids are prescribed for pain and should not guide dosing of medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorder.

LEARN MORE | www.cdc.gov/drugoverdose/prescribing/guideline.html

Side effects of antidepressant medications

Drug Anticholinergic Drowsiness Insomnia/agitationOrthostatichypotension

QTcprolongation*

Gastrointestinaltoxicity

Weightgain

Sexualdysfunction

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

Citalopram 0 0 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ (all SSRIs: see ) 1+ 3+

Escitalopram 0 0 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 3+

Fluoxetine 0 0 2+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 3+

Fluvoxamine 0 1+ 1+ 1+ 0 to 1+ 1+ 1+ 3+

Paroxetine 1+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 0 to 1+ 1+ 2+ 4+

Sertraline 0 0 2+ 1+ 0 to 1+ 2+ 1+ 3+

Atypical agents

Agomelatine(not available inUnited States)

0 1+ 1+ 0 0 1+ 0 0 to 1+

Bupropion 0 0 2+ (immediate release)

1+ (sustained release)

0 1+ 1+ 0 0

Mirtazapine 1+ 4+ 0 0 1+ 0 4+ 1+

Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)

Desvenlafaxine 0 0 1+ 0 0 2+ unknown 1+

Duloxetine 0 0 1+ 0 0 2+ 0-1+ 1+

Levomilnacipran 0 0 0-1+ 0-1+ 0 2+ 0 1+

Milnacipran 0 1+ 0 0 0 2+ 0 1+

Venlafaxine 0 1+ 1+ 0 1+ 2+ 0-1+ 3+

Serotonin modulators

Nefazodone 1+ 2+ 0 1+ 0 2+ 0 0

Trazodone 0 4+ 0 1+ (hypnoticdose)

3+(antidepressantdose)

1+ (hypnoticdose)

2+(antidepressantdose)

1+ (hypnotic dose)

3+ (antidepressantdose)

0 (hypnoticdose)

1+(antidepressantdose)

1+

Vilazodone 0 0 2+ 0 0 4+** 0 2+

Vortioxetine 0 0 0 0 0 3+ 0 1+

Tricyclic and tetracyclic antidepressants (TCAs)

Amitriptyline 4+ 4+ 0 3+ 3+ 1+ (all TCAs see ) 4+ 3 to 4+

Amoxapine 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 2+ 0 2+ ND

Clomipramine 4+ 4+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 1+ 4+ 4+

Desipramine 1+ 2+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 0 1+ ND

Doxepin 3+ 3+ 0 2+ 3+ 0 4+ 3+

Imipramine 3+ 3+ 1+ 4+ 3+ 1+ 4+ 3+

Maprotiline 2+ 3+ 0 2+ 3+ 0 2+ ND

Nortriptyline 2+ 2+ 0 1+ 3+ 0 1+ ND

Protriptyline 2+ 1+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 1+ 1+ 3 to 4+

Trimipramine 4+ 4+ 1+ 3+ 1+ 0 4+ ND

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

Isocarboxazid 1+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 0 1+ 1+ 4+

Phenelzine 1+ 2+ 1+ 3+ 0 1+ 2+ 4+

Selegiline 1+ 0 1+ 1+ 0 0 0 0

Tranylcypromine 1+ 1+ 2+ 2+ 0 1+ 1+ 4+

Scale: 0 = none; 1+ = slight; 2+ = low; 3+ = moderate; 4+ = high; ND = inadequate data.

* Risk of QTc prolongation or torsades de pointes is also elevated with advanced age, female sex, heart disease, congenital long QT syndrome, hypokalemia or hypomagnesemia, elevatedserum drug concentrations (eg, drug overdose, interacting drugs, organ failure) and combination of drugs with QTc prolonging effects. Refer to topic on acquired long QT syndrome.¶ All SSRIs and SNRIs are associated with transient nausea and gastrointestinal discomfort upon initiation or dose increase.Δ Based upon reports of dose related QTc prolongation and arrhythmia, the maximum recommended dose of citalopram is 20 mg for patients at increased risk of elevated citalopram serumconcentrations.◊ Sertraline is associated with higher rates of diarrhea.§ Agomelatine may be hepatotoxic and is contraindicated with any degree of liver impairment. Transaminase monitoring is required.¥ May cause persistent dose-related increases in blood pressure (primarily diastolic) and heart rate. Monitor blood pressure regularly.‡ Levomilnacipran has dose dependent effects on urinary hesitancy.† Trazodone is associated rarely with priapism, which is considered a medical emergency. Refer to UpToDate topic on Serotonin modulators.** Vilazodone is associated with higher rates of nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.¶¶ Caution: can cause liver failure. Not available in Europe, Canada, and several other countries.ΔΔ Gastrointestinal forms of anticholinergic side effects include: dry mouth, constipation, epigastric distress, decreased esophagogastric tone. Refer to "Anticholinergic" data for frequencyrankings.◊◊ None of the SNRIs have anticholinergic activity. However, SNRIs can produce anticholinergic-like effects (which appear to be mediated by noradrenergic effects on the autonomic nervous

¶

Δ ¶

◊

§

¶,◊◊

¥

¶

¥ ‡ ¶

¥ ¶

¥

¶¶

†

ΔΔ

ΔΔ

ceteraLexaproProzac QAMLuvoxPaxil GHSZoloft QAM

WellbutrinRemeron gHIS

PristigCymbaltaFetzimaSavellaEffexor

SeroneDesyrel

ViibrydBrintellix

ElavilAscendinAnafranilNorpraminSinequanTofranilKudiomilPamelorVivactilGurmontil

patchNardDEhrsamParnate

Pharmacology of benzodiazepines used to treat anxiety symptoms/disorders

DrugAdult oral total daily

dose (mg)*Comparative potency

(mg)Onset after oral dose

(hours)Metabolism

Elimination half-life(hours)

Alprazolam 0.5 to 6 0.5 1 CYP3A4 to minimally activemetabolites.

11 to 15

16 (older adults)

20 (hepatic impairment)

22 (obesity)

Alprazolam extendedrelease

0.5 to 6 once daily 0.5 1

Bromazepam 6 to 30 7.5 1 CYP1A2. No activemetabolite.

8 to 20

Chlordiazepoxide 5 to 100 10 1 CYP3A4 to activemetabolites.

30 to 100

Clonazepam 0.5 to 4 0.25 to 0.5 0.5 to 1 CYP3A4. No activemetabolite.

18 to 50

Clorazepate 15 to 60 7.5 0.5 to 1 CYP3A4 to activemetabolite.

36 to 200

Diazepam 4 to 40 5 0.25 to 0.5 CYP2C19 and 3A4 to activemetabolites.

50 to 100

Prolonged in older adultsand renal or hepaticimpairment

Lorazepam 0.5 to 6

0.5 to 4 (hypnotic)

1 0.5 to 1 Non-CYP glucuronidation inliver. No active metabolite.

10 to 14

Oxazepam 30 to 120

15 to 30 (hypnotic)

15 to 30 1 to 2 Non-CYP glucuronidation inliver. No active metabolite.

5 to 15

Prazepam 15 to 60 15 2 to 3 CYP3A4 to activemetabolites.

30 to 200

Prolonged in older adults

Data on drug metabolism and activity of metabolite(s) are for assessment of potential for CYP drug interactions and risk of accumulation. Risk of accumulation is greater, anddose reduction necessary, for older or debilitated adults and for patients with renal or hepatic insufficiency.

* Range of usual total daily dose for treatment of adults with anxiety or panic disorder typically given in divided doses two to four times daily.¶ Important: Data shown are approximate equal potencies relative to lorazepam 1 mg orally and are NOT recommendations for initiation of therapy or for conversion between agents.Δ Half-life of parent drug and pharmacologically active metabolite, if any.◊ Not available in US.§ Range of usual hypnotic dose for adults, given at bedtime.

Graphic 65653 Version 11.0

¶ Δ

◊

◊

Selected adverse effects of antipsychotic medications for schizophrenia

Weight

gain/diabetesmellitus

Hyper-cholesterolemia

EPS/TDProlactinelevation

SedationAnticholinergic

side effectsOrthostatichypotension

QTcprolongation

First generation agents

Chlorpromazine +++ +++ + ++ +++ +++ +++ +

Fluphenazine + + +++ +++ + –/+ – ND

Haloperidol + + +++ +++ ++ –/+ – +

Loxapine ++ ND ++ ++ ++ + + +

Perphenazine ++ ND ++ ++ ++ + – ND

Pimozide + ND +++ ++ + + + ++

Thioridazine* ++ ND + +++ +++ ++++ ++++ +++

Thiothixene ++ ND +++ ++ + + + +

Trifluoperazine ++ ND +++ ++ + + + ND

Second generation agents

Aripiprazole + – + – + – – –/+

Asenapine ++ – ++ ++ ++ – + +

Brexpiprazole + + + –/+ + –/+ –/+ –/+

Cariprazine + –/+ ++ –/+ + –/+ –/+ –/+

Clozapine ++++ ++++ –/+ –/+ +++ +++ +++ +

Iloperidone ++ ++ –/+ –/+ + + +++ ++

Lurasidone –/+ –/+ ++ –/+ ++ – + –/+

Olanzapine ++++ ++++ + + ++ ++ + +

Paliperidone +++ + +++ +++ + – ++ +

Pimavanserin + - -/+ - + + ++ +

Quetiapine +++ +++ –/+ –/+ ++ ++ ++ +

Risperidone +++ + +++ +++ + + + +

Ziprasidone –/+ –/+ + + + – + ++

Adverse effects may be dose dependent.

EPS: extrapyramidal symptoms; TD: tardive dyskinesia; ND: no data.* Thioridazine is also associated with dose-dependent retinitis pigmentosa. Refer to text.¶ Based upon limited experience.Δ Clozapine also causes granulocytopenia or agranulocytosis in approximately 1 percent of patients requiring regular blood cell count monitoring. Clozapine has been associated with excessrisk of myocarditis and venous thromboembolic events including fatal pulmonary embolism. These issues are addressed in the UpToDate topic review of guidelines for prescribing clozapinesection on adverse effects.

References: 1. Lexicomp Online. Copyright © 1978-2017 Lexicomp, Inc. All Rights Reserved.2. The Medical Letter on Drugs and Therapeutics (April 2016); Some Relative Adverse Effects of Second-Generation Antipsychotics (table 3); Vol. 58 (1493):52. www.medicalletter.org.3. Rummel-Kluge C, et al. Head-to-head comparisons of metabolic side effects of second generation antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-

analysis. Schizophr Res 2010; 123:225.4. Durán CE, Azermai M, Vander Stichele RH. Systematic review of anticholinergic risk scales in older adults. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 69:1485.

Graphic 82533 Version 27.0

¶

¶

Δ

Pharmacology of medicines for treatment of adults with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

DrugInitial dailyoral dose

(mg)*

Daily oraldose range

(mg)*

Primarymetabolism

Effect onmetabolism ofother drugs

Selected characteristics relevant to treatment ofadults with GAD

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressantsApplies to all SSRIs: Onset of effect may be delayed 2 to 4 weeks or more. Adverse effects among the SSRIs include: Nausea, diarrhea, insomnia/agitation, somnolence, impairedsexual function, and hyponatremia. Adverse effects of individual agents are presented in a separate table in UpToDate.

Citalopram 10 10 to 40 CYP3A4, 2C19 None Lower risk of insomnia/agitationFew drug interactionsCan prolong QT interval with increasing blood levels

Escitalopram 5 to 10 10 to 20 CYP3A4, 2C19 None Lower risk of insomnia/agitationFew drug interactions

Sertraline 25 to 50 50 to 200 Limited (minorCYP2C9, 2D6, and3A4)

Inhibits CYP2B6,2C19, 2D6

Greater risk of insomnia/agitationMore frequent diarrhea and other gastrointestinal complaints

Paroxetine 20 20 to 50 CYP2D6 Inhibits CYP2B6,2D6

Mildly sedatingWeakly anticholinergicLower risk of insomnia/agitationWithdrawal symptoms if not tapered

Fluoxetine 20 20 to 60 CYP2D6, 2C9, andseveral minor

Inhibits CYP2D6,2C19

Greater risk of insomnia/agitationNo withdrawal symptoms if not taperedTakes weeks to reach steady blood levels due to long half-life

Fluvoxamine 50 100 to 300 CYP1A2, 2D6 Inhibits CYP1A2,2C19

Lower risk of insomnia/agitationWithdrawal symptoms if not taperedSignificant drug interactions

Serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) antidepressantsOnset of effect and adverse effects of the SNRIs are similar to the SSRIs (see above). Adverse effects of individual agents are presented in a separate table in UpToDate.

Duloxetine 30 60 to 120 CYP1A2, 2D6 Inhibits CYP2D6 Greater risk of insomnia/agitationUseful for treatment of comorbid painful conditionsWithdrawal symptoms if not tapered

Venlafaxine(extended-release)

75 75 to 225 CYP2D6, 3A4 None Greater risk of insomnia/agitationIncreased blood pressure (primarily diastolic) and heart rate withincreasing dosesUseful for treatment of comorbid painful conditionsFew drug interactionsWithdrawal symptoms if not tapered

Other

Buspirone 10 mg in divideddoses

10 to 60 mg individed doses

CYP3A4 None A nonbenzodiazepine anxiolyticAugmentation choice for partial response to antidepressantSlow onset and modest efficacyLacks tolerance, dependence, and withdrawalIneffective for comorbid major depression

Pregabalin 50 mg in divideddoses

50 to 300 mg individed doses

Dependent on renalfunction forclearance

None A GABA analog calcium-channel modulator anticonvulsantOnset within days of starting treatmentApproved for treatment of anxiety in some countries (not UnitedStates)Sedation and dizzinessTolerance, dependence, and withdrawal possibleSchedule V controlled substance in United StatesMany patients require >150 mg/day, up to 300 mg/day

Mirtazapine 15 15 to 60 CYP1A2, 2D6, 3A4 None An atypical antidepressantAlternate or augmentation choice for anxiety with insomniaSedating; notably increases appetite

Quetiapine 25 to 50 50 to 300 CYP3A4 None A second generation antipsychotic (SGA)Potential augmentation choice for partial response to antidepressantor alternate as monotherapySedation, extrapyramidal effects, weight gain, and metabolic sideeffects (see separate table on SGA adverse effects)Rarely tardive dyskinesia

Hydroxyzine 50 mg at bedtime 25 to 50 mg threeto four times perday as needed

None None A sedating antihistamine with anxiolytic propertiesAugmentation option for treatment of insomniaAnticholinergic side-effects with increasing doses

Imipramine 75 mg in divideddoses

75 to 200 mg individed doses

CYP2C19, 2D6 Inhibits CYP2D6 A tricyclic antidepressantAnticholinergic side effectsCardiotoxic in overdoseMay be poorly tolerated relative to SSRI and SNRI antidepressants

The pharmacology of benzodiazepines used for treatment of adults with generalized anxiety disorder is presented in a separate table in UpToDate.

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Unipolar depression in adults: Antidepressant doses*

DrugUsual total starting dose per day

(mg)Usual total dose per day

(mg)Extreme daily dose range

(mg)

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Citalopram 20 20 to 40 10 to 40

Escitalopram 10 10 to 20 5 to 30

Fluoxetine 20 20 to 60 10 to 80

Fluvoxamine 50 50 to 200 25 to 300

Fluvoxamine CR 100 100 to 200 100 to 300

Paroxetine 20 20 to 40 10 to 50

Paroxetine CR 25 25 to 50 12.5 to 62.5

Sertraline 50 50 to 200 25 to 300

Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Desvenlafaxine 25 to 50 50 to 100 50 to 400

Duloxetine 30 to 60 60 to 120 30 to 120

Levomilnacipran 20 40 to 80 20 to 120

Milnacipran 12.5 100 to 200 50 to 300

Venlafaxine 37.5 to 75 75 to 375 75 to 375

Venlafaxine XR 37.5 to 75 75 to 225 75 to 375

Atypical agents

Agomelatine (not available in UnitedStates)

25 25 to 50 25 to 50

Bupropion 200 300 (maximum single dose 150 mg) 100 to 450

Bupropion SR 12 hour 150 300 (maximum single dose 200 mg) 150 to 400

Bupropion XL 24 hour 150 300 150 to 450 (United States)

150 to 300 (Europe)

Bupropion hydrobromide 24 hour 174 348 174 to 522

Mirtazapine 15 15 to 45 7.5 to 60

Serotonin modulators

Nefazodone 200 300 to 600 50 to 600

Trazodone 100 200 to 400 100 to 600

Vilazodone 10 40 10 to 40

Vortioxetine 10 20 5 to 20

Tricyclics and tetracyclics

Amitriptyline 25 150 to 300 10 to 300

Amoxapine 25 200 to 300 25 to 400

Clomipramine 25 100 to 250 25 to 300

Desipramine 25 150 to 300 25 to 300

Doxepin 25 150 to 300 25 to 300

Imipramine 25 150 to 300 10 to 300

Maprotiline 25 100 to 225 25 to 225

Nortriptyline 25 50 to 150 10 to 150

Protriptyline 10 15 to 60 5 to 60

Trimipramine 25 150 to 300 25 to 300

Monamine oxidase inhibitors

Isocarboxazid 10 10 to 40 10 to 60

Phenelzine 15 15 to 90 7.5 to 90

Selegiline transdermal 6 mg/24 hour patch 6 to 12 mg/24 hour patch 6 to 12 mg/24 hour patch

Tranylcypromine 10 30 to 60 10 to 60

* Total daily oral doses shown in table may need to be given as two or three equally divided doses per day, depending on specific antidepressant and other factors. For additional detail, referto individual Lexicomp drug monographs included with UpToDate.¶ Lower end doses may be useful for initiating or maintaining elderly, medically compromised (eg, renal or hepatic illness), or drug sensitive patients, as well as patients with a low bodymass index. High doses may be used for medications that are well tolerated but ineffective at lower doses.Δ Maximum recommended dose of citalopram is 20 mg for patients >60 years of age, with significant hepatic insufficiency, or taking interacting medications that can increase citalopramlevels. For more information refer to the UpToDate topic on unipolar depression in adults and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.◊ Although desvenlafaxine doses up to 400 mg per day have been studied, there is no evidence that doses >50 mg per day provide any additional benefit.§ Although duloxetine doses up to 120 mg per day have been used, there is no evidence that doses >60 mg per day provide any additional benefit in treatment of depression.¥ Agomelatine may be hepatotoxic and is contraindicated with any degree of liver impairment. Transaminase monitoring is required according to the product information.‡ Caution: can cause liver failure. Not available in Europe, Canada, and several other countries.† Conservative starting doses shown in table are lower than starting doses shown in some other references. For additional information, refer to UpToDate topics on unipolar depression inadults and cyclic antidepressants and monoamine oxidase inhibitors for treatment of adults with depression.

Data from:

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