M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE assignment
Transcript of M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE assignment
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ASSIGNMENT
SUBJECT: MSc. Environmental Science.
THE GLOBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY.
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Paper-1Introduction to ecology and environment
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Environmental science is the science of the interactions between the
physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment, but with
particular attention to the effects of humans on the natural environment.
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates
physical and biological sciences (includingphysics,chemistry, biology, soil
science, geology, and geography) to the study of the environment, and thesolution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an
integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of
environmental system.
Related areas of study include environmental studies and environmentalengineering. Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences
for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the
environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technologyfor improving environmental quality.
Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth
processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and
mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects ofglobal climatechange. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of
physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring
a systems approach to the analysis of environmental problems. Keyelements of an effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate
space and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active field of scientific
investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze complex environmental problems, (b) the
arrival of substantive environmental laws requiring specific environmental
protocols of investigation and (c) the growing public awareness of a needfor action in addressing environmental problems. Events that spurred this
development included the publication of Rachael Carson's landmark
environmental book Silent Spring along with major environmental issues
becoming very public, such as the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill, and theCuyahoga River of Cleveland, Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and
helped increase the visibility of environmental issues and create this new
field of study.
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its interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences can include studies
of meteorology, greenhouse gas phenomena, atmospheric dispersion
modeling of airborne contaminants,sound propagation phenomena related tonoise pollution, and even light pollution.
Taking the example of the global warming phenomena, physicists createcomputer models of atmospheric circulation and infra-red radiation
transmission, chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric chemicals andtheir reactions, biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to
carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists and
oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding the atmosphericdynamics.
Ecology. An interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is
being impacted by one or more stressors might include several related
environmental science fields. For example, one might examine an estuarine
setting where a proposed industrial development could impact certainspecies by waterand air pollution. For this study,biologists would describe
the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the transport of water pollutantsto the marsh, physicists would calculate air pollution emissions and
geologists would assist in understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.
Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical alterations in the
environment. Principal areas of study include soil contamination and waterpollution. The topics of analysis include chemical degradation in the
environment, multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation
of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air pollutant), and
chemical effects upon biota.
As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent tank which has
entered the habitat soil of an endangered species of amphibian. As a method
to resolve or understand the extent of soil contamination and subsurfacetransport of solvent, a computer model would be implemented. Chemists
would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent to the specific
soil type, and biologists would study the impacts upon soil arthropods,plants, and ultimately pond-dwelling organisms that are the food of the
endangered amphibian.
Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental soil science,
volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's crust. In someclassification systems this can also include hydrology, including
oceanography.
As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be made ofsurface
runoff by soil scientists. Fluvial geomorphologists would assist inexamining sediment transport in overland flow. Physicists would contribute
by assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving waters.
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Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna
from increases in water turbidity.
In the U.S. theNational Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969 set forthrequirements for analysis of major projects in terms of specific
environmental criteria. Numerous state laws have echoed these mandates,applying the principles to local-scale actions. The upshot has been an
explosion of documentation and study of environmental consequencesbefore the fact of development actions.
One can examine the specifics of environmental science by reading
examples ofEnvironmental Impact Statements prepared under NEPA suchas: Wastewater treatment expansion options discharging into the SanDiego/Tijuana Estuary, Expansion of the San Francisco International
Airport, Development of the Houston, Metro Transportation system,
Expansion of the metropolitan Boston MBTA transit system, and
Construction ofInterstate 66throughArlington, Virginia.
In England and Wales the Environment Agency (EA), formed in 1996, is a
public body for protecting and improving the environment and enforces the
regulations listed on the communities and local government site. (formerlythe office of the deputy prime minister). The agency was set up under the
Environment Act 1995 as an independent body and works closely with UK
Government to enforce the regulations.
Terminology
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often usedinterchangeably, but technically, ecology refers only to the study of
organisms and their interactions with each other and their environment.Ecology could be considered a subset of environmental science, which also
could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for example)
ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice, there is considerable
overlap between the work of ecologists and other environmental scientists.
The National Center for Education Statistics in the United States defines an
academic program in environmental science as follows:
A program that focuses on the application of biological, chemical, andphysical principles to the study of the physical environment and the solutionof environmental problems, including subjects such as abating or controlling
environmental pollution and degradation; the interaction between human
society and the natural environment; and natural resources management.Includes instruction in biology, chemistry, physics, geosciences,
climatology, statistics, and mathematical modeling.
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Environmental issues
This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activities.
These articles relate to the anthropogenic effects on the natural environment.
Anoxic waters Anoxic event Hypoxia Ocean deoxygenation Dead zone
Climate changeGlobal warming Global dimming Fossil fuels
Sea level rise Greenhouse gas Ocean acidification Shutdown of
thermohaline circulation
Conservation Species extinction Pollinator decline Coral
bleaching Holocene extinction Invasive species Poaching Endangered
species
EnergyEnergy conservation Renewable energy Efficient energyuse Renewable energy commercialization
Environmental degradationEutrophication Habitat destruction
Invasive species
Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic
fields Electromagnetic radiation and health Indoor air quality Leadpoisoning Sick Building Syndrome
Genetic engineeringGenetic pollution Genetically modified food
controversies
Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmental effects of meat production Slash and burn Pesticide drift
Plasticulture
Land degradationLand pollution Desertification
Soil Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination Soilsalination
Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitatdestruction
NanotechnologyNanotoxicology Nanopollution
Nuclear issues Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclearpower Radioactive waste .
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator_declinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma#Environmentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_Building_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overgrazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_drifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotoxicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropogenichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_eventhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_dimminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level_risehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinator_declinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercializationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma#Environmentalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_fields#Health_and_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_poisoninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_Building_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intensive_farminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overgrazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoculturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_meat_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_and_burnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide_drifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_degradationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desertificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_conservationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_erosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_contaminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_salinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_usehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_fragmentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotoxicologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implications_of_nanotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_safetyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fallouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_waste 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Overpopulation Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in
companion animals Tragedy of the commons
Ozone depletionCFC
Pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution Nonpoint source pollution Point source pollution
Water pollution Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean
dumping Oil spills Thermal pollution Urban runoff Water crisis
Marine debris Ocean acidification Ship pollution Wastewater Fish kill Algal bloom Mercury in fish
Air pollution Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile
organic compound Particulate matter Sulphur oxide
ReservoirsEnvironmental impacts of reservoirs
Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources
Overdrafting
Consumerism Consumer capitalism Planned obsolescence Over-
consumption
Fishing Blast fishing Bottom trawling Cyanide fishing Ghost nets
Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Shark finning
Whaling
Logging Clearcutting Deforestation Illegal logging
Mining Acid mine drainage Mountaintop removal mining Slurry
impoundments
ToxinsChlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Herbicides Pesticides Toxic waste PCB
Bioaccumulation Biomagnification
WasteE-waste Litter Waste disposal incidents Marine debris
Medical waste Landfill Leachate Recycling Incineration GreatPacific Garbage Patch
Environmentalism
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement regardingconcerns for environmental conservation and improvement of the state of
the environment. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often
represented by the color green.
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://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dumpinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_dumpinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_crisishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_acidificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewaterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_killhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algal_bloomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_in_fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropospheric_ozonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_qualityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulate_matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_reservoirshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdraftinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumerismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_capitalismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_obsolescencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Over-consumptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blast_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanide_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal,_unreported_and_unregulated_fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shark_finninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whalinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearcuttinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_logginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_mine_drainagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaintop_removal_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_impoundmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slurry_impoundmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbonshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_DDThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_disruptorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenylhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Litterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Waste_disposal_incidentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landfillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leachatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incinerationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical) 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Environmentalism as a social movement
Environmentalism can also be defined as a social movement that seeks to
influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in orderto protect natural resources and ecosystems. In recognition ofhumanity as a
participant in ecosystems, the environmental movement is centered onecology, health, and human rights.
An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our naturalenvironment and the sustainable management of its resources through
changes in public policy or individual behavior by supporting practices such
as not being wasteful. In various ways (for example, grassroots activism andprotests), environmentalists and environmental organizations seek to give
the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.
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Paper no-2State of India environment
Environmental degradation .
Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment
through depletion of resources such as air, waterand soil; the destruction of
ecosystems and the extinction ofwildlife.
Environmental degradation is one of the ten threats officially cautioned bythe High Level Threat Panel of the United Nations. The World Resources
Institute (WRI), UNEP (the United Nations Environment Programme),
UNDP (the United Nations Development Programme) and the World Bank
have made public an important report on health and the environmentworldwide on May 1, 1998.
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction defines
environmental degradation as The reduction of the capacity of the
environment to meet social and ecological objectives, and needs.
Environmental degradation is of many types. When natural habitats are
destroyed or natural resources are depleted, environment is degraded.
Environmental Change and Human Health, a special section of World
Resources 1998-99 in this report describes how preventable illnesses andpremature deaths are still occurring in very large numbers. If vast
improvements are made in human health, millions of people will be living
longer, healthier lives than ever before. In these poorest regions of the worldan estimated 11 million children, or about one in five, will not live to see
their fifth birthday, primarily because of environment-related diseases. Child
mortality is larger than the combined populations of Norway andSwitzerland, and mostly due to malaria, acute respiratory infections or
diarrhea illnesses that are largely preventable
Types of issues
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Major current environmental issues may include climate change, pollution,
environmental degradation, and resource depletion etc. The conservation
movement lobbies for protection of endangered species and protection ofany ecologically valuable natural areas.
Scientific grounding
The level of understanding ofEarth has increased markedly in recent times
through science especially with the application of the scientific method.Environmental science is now a multi-disciplinary academic study taught
and researched at many universities. This is used as a basis for addressing
environmental issues.
Large amounts of data has been gathered and these are collated into reports,of which a common type is the State of the Environment publications. A
recent major report was the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, with input
from 1200 scientists and released in 2005, which showed the high level ofimpact that humans are having on ecosystem services.
Environmental organizations
Environmental issues are addressed at a regional, nation or international
level by government organisations.
The largest international agency, set up in 1972, is the United NationsEnvironment Programme. The International Union for Conservation of
Nature brings together 83 states, 108 government agencies, 766 Non-
governmental organizations and 81 international organizations and about10,000 experts and scientists from countries around the world. Internationalnon-governmental organizations include Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth
and World Wide Fund for Nature. Governments enact environmental policy
and enforce environmental law and this is done to differing degrees aroundthe world.
Solving environmental issues
Sustainability is the key to preventing or reducing the effect of
environmental issues. There is now clear scientific evidence that humanity is
living unsustainably, and that an unprecedented collective effort is needed toreturn human use of natural resources to within sustainable limits. For
humans to live sustainably, the Earth's resources must be used at a rate at
which they can be replenished.
Concerns for the environment has prompted the formation ofGreen parties,
political parties that seek to address environmental issues. Initially these
formed in Australia, New Zealand and Germany but are now present inmany other countries.
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Film and television
: Environmental issues in film and television
There are an increasing number of films being produced on environmental
issues, especially on climate change and global warming. Al Gore's 2006film An Inconvenient Truth gained commercial success and a high media
profile. FernGully: The Last Rainforest (1992) is an animated film about
rainforest destruction.
Issues
List of environmental issues
List of conservation issues
Specific issues
Environmental issues with agriculture
Aviation and the environment
Environmental issues with computers
Environmental impacts of dams
Environmental issues with energy Environmental effects of fishing
Environmental impact of irrigation
Environmental issues with mining
Environmental issues with paint Environmental issues with paper
Environmental effects of pesticides
Environmental implications of nanotechnology
Environmental issues with shipping
Environmental issues with war
Issues
Climate change
Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes, both of whichtake place on a global scale. Global warming is projected to have significant
impacts on conditions affecting agriculture, including temperature,precipitation and glacial run-off. These conditions determine the carrying
capacity of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human population
and domesticated animals. Rising carbon dioxide levels would also have
effects, both detrimental and beneficial, on crop yields. The overall effect ofclimate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of these effects.
Assessment of the effects of global climate changes on agriculture might
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help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize agricultural
production.
At the same time, agriculture has been shown to produce significant effectson climate change, primarily through the production and release of
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, butalso by altering the Earth's land cover, which can change its ability to absorb
or reflect heat and light, thus contributing to radiative forcing. Land usechange such as deforestation and desertification, together with use of fossil
fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide; agriculture
itself is the major contributor to increasing methane and nitrous oxideconcentrations in earth's atmosphere.
Deforestation
One of the causes of deforestation is to clear land for pasture or crops.
According to British environmentalist Norman Myers, 5% of deforestationis due to cattle ranching, 19% due to over-heavy logging, 22% due to the
growing sector ofpalm oil plantations, and 54% due to slash-and-burn
farming.
In 2000 the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) foundthat "the role of population dynamics in a local setting may vary from
decisive to negligible," and that deforestation can result from "a
combination of population pressure and stagnating economic, social andtechnological conditions."
.
Intensive farming
Intensive farming alters the environment in many ways. Some of the
disadvantages of this method of farming include:
Limits or destroys the natural habitat of most wildlife, and leads to soilerosion
Use offertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.
Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy
crops Generally not sustainable - often results in desertification or, in a worst
case scenario, land that is so poisonous and eroded that nothing else will
grow Requires large amounts of energy input to produce, transport, and
apply chemical fertilizers/pesticides
Use of chemicals on fields creates run-off, excess runs off into riversand lakes causing pollution
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Use of pesticides have numerous negative health effects in workers
who apply them, people that live nearby the area of application or
downstream/downwind from it, and consumers who eat the pesticides whichremain on their food
Irrigation
Irrigation can lead to a number of problems:
Depletion of underground aquifers through overdrafting
Ground subsidence
Underirrigation gives poor soil salinity control which leads to
increased soil salinity with consequent build up of toxic salts on soil surface
in areas with high evaporation. This requires eitherleaching to remove thesesalts and a method ofdrainage to carry the salts away
Overirrigation because of poordistribution uniformity ormanagement
wastes water, chemicals, and may lead to water pollution Deep drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables
which in some instances will lead to problems of irrigation salinity
Irrigation with saline orhigh-sodium water may damage soil structure
Pollutants
A wide range ofagricultural chemicals are used and some becomepollutantsthrough misuse or ignorance.
Spray drift
Pesticides, especially those based on organochloride Pesticide residue in foods
Soil degradation
Main article: Soil degradation
Waste
Plasticulture, the use of plastic materials in agriculture, raises problems
around how to carry out the recycling of agricultural plastics.
Issues by region
Hedgerow removal in the United Kingdom.
Soil salinisation, especially in Australia.
Methane emissions from livestock in New Zealand. See Climate
change in New Zealand.
Some environmentalists attribute the hypoxic zone in the Gulf of
Mexico as being encouraged by nitrogen fertilization of the algae bloom.
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Mitigation
The exponential population increase in recent decades has increased the
demand for food which in turn has increased the effects on the environment.The global population is not increasing as rapidly as in previous years and is
expected to eventually stabilise.
Organic agriculture is a farming practice that can have a lower impact on the
environment although some critics doubt that it can be used to support theglobal population due to its lower yields. Other methods include
permaculture andbiodynamic agriculture, the latter being a form of organic
farming but incorporating a spiritual element.
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Paper no-3
Environmental educationEnvironmental education (EE) refers to organized efforts to teach about
how natural environments function and, particularly, how human beings canmanage their behavior and ecosystems in order to live sustainably. The term
is often used to imply education within the school system, from primary to
post-secondary. However, it is sometimes used more broadly to include allefforts to educate the public and other audiences, including print materials,
websites, media campaigns, etc. Related disciplines include outdoor
education and experiential education.
Environmental education is a learning process that increases people'sknowledge and awareness about the environment and associated challenges,
develops the necessary skills and expertise to address the challenges, and
fosters attitudes, motivations, and commitments to make informed decisionsand take responsible action
Focus of EE
EE focuses on:
Awareness and sentivity about the environment and environmental
challenges Knowledge and understanding about the environment and
environmental challenges
Attitude concern for the environment and help to maintainenvironmental quality
Skills to mitigate the environmental problems
Participation for exercising existing knowledge and environmental
related programmes.
History
The roots of environmental education can be traced back as early as the 18thcentury when Jean-Jacques Rousseau stressed the importance of an
education that focuses on the environment in Emile: or, On Education.Several decades later, Louis Agassiz, a Swiss-born naturalist, echoed
Rousseaus philosophy as he encouraged students to Study nature, not
books.[1] These two influential scholars helped lay the foundation for aconcrete environmental education program, known as Nature study, which
took place in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
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The nature study movement used fables and moral lessons to help students
develop an appreciation of nature and embrace the natural world.[2] Anna
Botsford Comstock, the head of the Department of Nature Study at CornellUniversity, was a prominent figure in the nature study movement and wrote
the Handbook for Nature Study in 1911, which used nature to educate
children on cultural values.[3]
Cornstock and the other leaders of themovement, such as Liberty Hyde Bailey, helped Nature Study garner
tremendous amounts of support from community leaders, teachers, and
scientists and change the science curriculum for children across the UnitedStates.
A new type of environmental education, Conservation Education, emerged
as a result of the Great Depression and Dust Bowl during the 1920s and
1930s. Conservation Education dealt with the natural world in a drasticallydifferent way from Nature Study because it focused on rigorous scientific
training rather than natural history.[4] Conservation Education was a major
scientific management and planning tool that helped solve social, economic,and environmental problems during this time period.
The modern environmental education movement, which gained significant
momentum in the late 1960s and early 1970s, stems from Nature Study and
Conservation Education. During this time period, many events such asCivil Rights, the Vietnam War, and the Cold War placed Americans at
odds with one another and the U.S. government. However, as more people
began to fear the fallout from radiation, the chemical pesticides mentioned
in Rachel Carsons Silent Spring, and the significant amounts of airpollution and waste, the publics concern for their health and the health of
their natural environment led to a unifying phenomenon known asenvironmentalism. Ultimately, the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970 anational teach-in about environmental problems paved the way for the
modern environmental education movement. Later that same year, President
Nixon passed the National Environmental Education Act, which wasintended to incorporate environmental education into K-12 schools.[5] Then,
in 1971, the National Association for Environmental Education (now known
as the North American Association for Environmental Education) wascreated to improve environmental literacy by providing resources to teachers
and promoting environmental education programs.
Internationally, environmental education gained recognition when the UN
Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm, Sweden, in1972, declared environmental education must be used as a tool to address
global environmental problems. The United Nations Education Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP) created three major declarations that have guided thecourse of environmental education.
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Stockholm Declaration
June 516, 1972 - The Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Environment. The document was made up of 7 proclamations and26 principles "to inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the
preservation and enhancement of the human environment.
The Belgrade Charter
October 1322, 1975 - The Belgrade Charter was the outcome of the
International Workshop on Environmental Education held in Belgrade,Yugoslavia. The Belgrade Charter was built upon the Stockholm
Declaration and adds goals, objectives, and guiding principles of
environmental education programs. It defines an audience for environmentaleducation, which includes the general public.
The Tbilisi Declaration
October 1426, 1977 - The Tbilisi Declaration "noted the unanimous accord
in the important role of environmental education in the preservation andimprovement of the world's environment, as well as in the sound and
balanced development of the world's communities." The Tbilisi Declaration
updated and clarified The Stockholm Declaration and The Belgrade Charter
by including new goals, objectives, characteristics, and guiding principles ofenvironmental education.
Later that decade, in 1977, the Intergovernmental Conference on
Environmental Education in Tbilisi, Georgia emphasized the role ofEnvironmental Education in preserving and improving the globalenvironment and sought to provide the framework and guidelines for
environmental education. The Conference laid out the role, objectives, and
characteristics of environmental education, and provided several goals andprinciples for environmental education.
Modern environmental education in the United States
Following the 1970s, non-governmental organizations that focused on
environmental education continued to form and grow, the number of
teachers implementing environmental education in their classroomsincreased, and the movement gained stronger political backing. A critical
move forward came when the United States Congress passed the National
Environmental Education Act of 1990, which placed the Office ofEnvironmental Education in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and
allowed the EPA to create environmental education initiatives at the federal
level
Antecedents in the United States
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In the United States some of the antecedents of Environmental Education
were Nature Studies, Conservation Education and School Camping. Nature
studies integrated academic approach with outdoor exploration (Roth,1978). Conservation Education brought awareness to the misuse of natural
resources. George Perkins Marsh discoursed on humanitys integral part of
the natural world. The governmental agencies like the U.S. Forest Serviceand the EPA were also pushing a conservation agenda. Conservation ideals
still guide environmental education today. School Camping was exposure to
the environment and use of resources outside of the classroom foreducational purposes. The legacies of these antecedents are still present in
the evolving arena of environmental education.
About
Environmental education has been considered an additional or elective
subject in much of traditional K-12 curriculum. At the elementary school
level, environmental education can take the form of science enrichmentcurriculum, natural history field trips, community service projects, and
participation in outdoor science schools. EE policies assist schools andorganizations in developing and improving environmental education
programs that provide citizens with an in-depth understanding of the
environment. School related EE policies focus on three main components:curricula, green facilities, and training.
Schools can integrate environmental education into their curricula with
sufficient funding from EE policies. This approach known as using the
environment as an integrating context for learning inserts environmental
education into the core subjects and thus environmental education does nottake time away from other important subjects, such as art, gym, or music In
addition to funding environmental curricula in the classroom, environmentaleducation policies allot the financial resources for hands-on, outdoor
learning. These activities and lessons help address and mitigate "nature
deficit disorder", as well as encourage healthier lifestyles.
Green schools, or green facility promotion, are another main component ofenvironmental education policies. Greening school facilities cost, on
average, a little less than 2 percent more than creating a traditional school,
but payback from these energy efficient buildings occur within only a few
years. Environmental education policies help reduce the relatively smallburden of the initial start-up costs for green schools. Green school policies
also provide grants for modernization, renovation, or repair of older school
facilities. Additionally, healthy food options are also a central aspect ofgreen schools. These policies specifically focus on bringing freshly prepared
food, made from high-quality, locally grown ingredients into schools.
In secondary school, environmental curriculum can be a focused subject
within the sciences or is a part of student interest groups or clubs. At the
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undergraduate and graduate level, it can be considered its own field within
education, environmental studies, environmental science and policy,
ecology, or human/cultural ecology programs.
Environmental education is not restricted to in-class lesson plans. There are
numerous ways children can learn about the environment in which they live.From experiential lessons in the school yard and field trips to national parks
to after-school green clubs and school wide sustainability projects, theenvironment is a topic which is readily and easily accessible. Furthermore,
celebration of Earth Day or participation in EE week (run through the
National Environmental Education Foundation) is a great way to dedicateyour lessons to environmental education. To be most effective, promote a
holistic approach and lead by example, using sustainable practices in the
classroom and school grounds and encouraging students and parents to bringenvironmental education into their home.
The final aspect of environmental education policies, but certainly not leastimportant, is training individuals to thrive in a sustainable society. In
addition to building a strong relationship with nature, American citizensmust have the skills and knowledge to succeed in a 21st century workforce.
Thus, environmental education policies fund both teacher training and
worker training initiatives. Teachers must be trained to effectively teach andincorporate environmental studies in their curricula. On the other hand, the
current workforce must be trained or re-trained so that they can adapt to the
new green economy. Environmental education policies that fund training
programs are critical in educating citizens to prosper in a sustainablesociety.
Related disciplines
Environmental education has crossover with the disciplines of outdoor
education and experiential education. Both disciplines complementenvironmental education yet have unique philosophies.
Outdoor education means learning "in" and "for" the outdoors. It is a
means of curriculum extension and enrichment through outdoor experiences
Environmental education is often taught or enhanced through outdoorexperiences. The out of doors experience, while not strictly environmental
in nature, often contain elements of teaching about the environment.
Experiential education is a process through which a learner constructsknowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences Experiential education
can be viewed as both a process and method to deliver the ideas and skills
associated with environmental education.
While each of these disciplines have their own objectives, there are pointswhere both disciplines overlap with the intentions and philosophy of
environmental education.
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Trends
One of the current trends within environmental education seeks to move
from an approach of ideology and activism to one that allows students tomake informed decisions and take action based on experience as well as
data. Within this process, environmental curricula have progressively beenintegrated into governmental education standards. Some environmental
educators find this movement distressing and a move away from the originalpolitical and activist approach to environmental education while others find
this approach more valid and accessible.
Movement
There is a movement that has progressed since the relatively recent founding(1960s) of the idea of environmental education in industrial societies, which
has transported the participant from nature appreciation and awareness to
education for an ecologically sustainable future. This trend may be viewedas a microcosm of how many environmental education programs seek to
first engage with participants through developing a sense of nature
appreciation which is then translated into actions that affect conservation
and sustainability.
Programs range from New York to California, including Life Lab at
University of California, Santa Cruz, as well as Cornell University .
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Paper no-4
Population and community ecology
UMass Extension Natural Resources and EnvironmentalConservation is involved in a number of projects in the
following topic areas.
watersheds-water-quality:
Watersheds & Water Quality
The NREC program addresses watershed and water quality
issues and needs by providing information, technical
assistance and training programs on:
the relationship between watershed health and quality
of life
impacts of land use practices on watershed resources
community-based watershed protection
watershed assessment, modeling and monitoring
technical issues related to watershed and water resource
protection
best management practices for watershed protection
household hazardous waste
protecting watershed resources via land use planning
involving schools in watershed-based community
projects
WET LAND:
To address education, training and technical needs in the
area of wetlands protection and conservation, the NREC
program:
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Facilitates cooperative needs assessment, prioritization
and program planning among agencies and organizations
engaged in wetlands education
Provides educational programs and materials on
wetland conservation, functions and values, regulations, and
best management practices
Develops wetlands assessment methodologies and
provides training and technical assistance in their use
Provides technical assistance to agencies, municipalities and natural
resource professionals
FISH WILD LIFE AND BIODIVERSITY
NREC addresses needs and issues in fish, wildlife and
biodiversity conservation by:
Providing educational programs and materials on
biodiversity conservation, ecology and natural history of fish
& wildlife, habitat management, and conservation biology
Developing approaches for natural resource inventory,
natural communitymapping, and biodiversity assessment
Developing wetlands assessment methodologies andproviding training and technical assistance in their use
Coordinating amphibian monitoring efforts in
Massachusetts
Providing education materials, training, and technical assistance in the
area of marine aquaculture
FOREST CONSERVATION
Despite many people's impressions of Massachusetts, it is a
heavily forested state. In fact, at 62% forest cover, it is the8th most forested state in the country. Our forests provide
tremendous public benefits, including: clean water, wildlifehabitat, carbon sequestration, scenic backdrops, recreational
opportunities, and wood products. The health of ourcommonwealth is intimately linked to the health of our
forests.
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You might be surprised to learn that 70% of forests in
Massachusetts are Family Forests, owned by private
individuals and families. In fact there are over 47,000 family
forest owners who own 10 or more acres of land in
Massachusetts. The future well being of our forests and the
many benefits they provide is dependant on the many
independent decisions that these tens of thousands of
landowners make.
The intent of the UMass Extension Forest Conservation
program is to inform the decisions of these landowners and
to conserve the many benefits this land provides.
Visit MassWoods.net, the Forest Conservation programs
main website to find: Land trusts in your town
State service and private foresters in your town
Neighbors with training and experience in forestry and
land protection
Your options for passing on your land
Stories of families who have conserved their land
Timber Harvesting Information
Southern New England Stumpage Prices Landowner programs, including Ch. 61, 61A and 61B
Land Use
The knowledge base and skills required of volunteer town
land-use boards has changed dramatically in the 1990s.
They face increasingly complex legal and environmental
decisions that have broad and sometimes unanticipated
ramifications. At the same time, lifestyle changes and
workplace demands have reduced the number of volunteers
and the time they have available for "keeping up", let alone
for planning ahead. Professional staff has taken up part of
the slack in larger municipalities, but Massachusetts
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predominant town meeting style of government - and strong
devotion to home rule - keeps the volunteer boards on the
front lines of policy making, long range planning, resource
protection and, ultimately, grass-roots decision making.
The NREC program in Land Use Management and Planning
uses applied research and extension programs addressing
needs:
By providing education and training to local officials,
planners, policy-makers, and community leaders
As an outreach and education provider to those who
train or educate local officials: circuit riders,
Board/Commission staff, consultants, etc.
As a facilitator of collaborative pilot approaches among
groups of training providers
By developing innovative growth planning tools and
approaches
Land Protection
NRECs Land Protection program provides tools and
approaches, education programs and information to
facilitate effective and strategic land conservation programs
in Massachusetts. Elements include:
Assessment and prioritization of land for conservation
Outreach to forest landowners
Education, information and technical assistance to
municipalities, land trusts and other conservation
organizations .
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7/30/2019 M.Sc. ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE assignment
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PAPER NO.5
NATURAL RESOURCES CONSER VATION
This is a glossary of environmental science.
Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical,chemical, and biological components of the environment. Environmental
science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach
to the study of environmental systems.
: Environmental science
Contents: 09AB CD EFG HI JKLMNO P QRST UVW XYZSee also
0-9
1-in-100 flood a flood with 1 in 100 chance of occurring in anygiven year (used as a safety requirement for the construction industry.)
20/30/10 standard - 20 mg/l Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD),
30 mg/l Suspended Solids (SS), 10 units of E. coli: the water quality
standard for greywater use in toilets, laundry and surface irrigation.
5Rs - (sustainability) reduce, remanufacture, reuse, recycle, recover.
A
abiotic - non-living chemical and physical factors of the environment
(see alsobiotic).
absorption pit (soakaway) a hole dug in permeable ground and
filled with broken stones or granular material and usually covered with earth
allowing collected water to soak into the ground.
absorption - one substance taking in another, either physically or
chemically.
acclimation - the process of an organism adjusting to chronic change
in its environment. acid mine drainage - the outflow ofacidic water from metalmines or
coal mines.
acid rain - rain or other forms of precipitation that is unusually acidic.
adaptation - a characteristic of an organism that has been favoured by
natural selection.
adaptive radiation - closely related species that look very different, asa result of having adapted to widely different ecological niches.
adsorption - one substance