SMALL SCALE GOLD MINING AND LIVELIHOODS, A CASE OF

GWANDA DISTRICT, ZIMBABWE.

By

NHLANHLA MLILO

N0124877B

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters in

Development Studies

To the

Institute of Development Studies

At the

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, ZIMBABWE

MR. NEVEL TSHUMA

Submitted: August 2013

ii

DECLARATION

I declare that this research study is my work. It is submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements of the degree in Master’s in Development Studies at the Institute of Development

Studies in the National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo in Zimbabwe. I further

declare that the work is submitted for the first time at this university/faculty and that it has never

been submitted to any other university/faculty for obtaining a degree. I hereby cede copyright of

this product to the National University of Science and Technology.

…………………………………………

NHLANHLA MLILO

Student Number: N0124877B

On......................... day of ................................................................................2013.

iii

ABSTRACT

The study was an investigation into the effects of small-scale gold mining on livelihoods in

Gwanda district, wards 6 and 21. The researcher utilised both qualitative and quantitative data

collection methods. Research findings show that ASM is a viable source of livelihood for miners

who are now engaging in the activity full-time and contributes to the growth of down-stream

support businesses. The research also revealed that although the sector is contributing to the

strengthening of miner livelihoods it has negative effects on the livelihoods of non-miners and

the development of surrounding communities. Study findings show that a lack of sector specific

policy/legislation and poor institutional support has contributed to the lack of sustained growth

and minimal sector contribution to national and community development. Deep seated and

strained political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental management

conditions accompanied by a culture of patronage have become a threat to achieving sustainable

small-scale mining growth in the district and the country as a whole. Consequently, lack of

control by the communities, low minerals pricing and poor sector administration by government

has led to gross minerals smuggling, destruction of community social fabric and environmental

degradation. Recommendations from the study findings are for the enactment of a mining sector

policy that recognises, promotes and regulates small-scale mining. The study also recognised that

the enactment of appropriate policies alone would not be enough to promote the growth of the

ASM sector and increase its contribution to the economic growth of the nation and promotion of

livelihoods, there is need also for increasing the number of mineral buying points, official market

liberalisation in minerals pricing would ensure competitive prices compared to those in the

illegal markets thus eradicating minerals smuggling.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I owe gratitude to the individuals that helped me in their various capacities, Tobias Ndlovu,

Mabutho Singo and Xolani Donga; all of them colleagues, who understood my time constraints

and allowed me time out to attend to the research study. They helped with data collection as my

research assistants or enumerators; I am greatly indebted to them.

Special thanks to Mr Martin January from the Zimbabwe School of Mines for providing a

comprehensive small-scale mining data on Gwanda District and also assisting with establishing

links with key informants. I would like to thank my family (Nonhlanhla and Lwandle), not only

for financial support, but for their invaluable insights in critiquing my research instruments and

for proof reading my earlier chapters.

Lastly and most importantly, I wish to thank, Mr Nevel Tshuma my Study Supervisor, for his

impeccable guidance, encouragement, professional and technical advice in writing this

dissertation. He was a pillar of support throughout the research study. I am greatly indebted to

him for his comments and expert advice.

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LIST OF TABLES/ FIGURES

TABLE 1: CRITERIA USED IN THE DEFINITION OF SMALL-SCALE MINING ACROSS AFRICA (UNECA 2003,

MWAIPOPO ET AL, 2004) ................................................................................................................................... 8

FIGURE 1: SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS FRAMEWORK. ADAPTED FROM ASHLEY AND CARNEY 1999..... 24

FIGURE 2: ARTISANAL MINING POVERTY TRAP. ADAPTED FROM UNESCO, 2003 ....................................... 25

FIGURE 3: MAP OF STUDY AREA, BY AUTHOR. ................................................................................................... 30

TABLE 2: RESPONDENTS FOR QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................ 32

FIGURE 6: IMPACTS OF ASM ON LIVELIHOODS (SLF ANALYSIS OF STUDY).................................................. 38

FIGURE 4: GENDER BREAKDOWN OF RESPONDENTS ....................................................................................... 39

FIGURE 6: ENGAGEMENT OF MINERS (RESPONSES IN %) ................................................................................ 40

TABLE 3: RATE OF OCCURRENCE OF MEANS OF SURVIVAL ........................................................................... 41

TABLE 4: ANALYSIS TABLE ON UTILIZATION OF PROCEEDS FROM MINING ............................................... 44

FIGURE 7: IMPACT OF ASM ON COMMUNITY ..................................................................................................... 47

PICTURE 1: LAND MINED USING METAL DETECTORS ...................................................................................... 48

FIGURE 8: ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF ASM ON LOCAL LIVELIHOODS ................................................... 49

FIGURE 9: CHALLENGES FACED BY MINERS ...................................................................................................... 51

FIGURE 10: POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO CHALLENGES FACES IN ASM SECTOR .............................................. 53

FIGURE 11: IS IT EASY TO OBTAIN A MINING LICENSE? .................................................................................... 54

FIGURE 12: BENEFITS OF HAVING MINING LICENSE ........................................................................................ 55

FIGURE 13: ARE MINING LAWS BEING PROPERLY ENFORCED ....................................................................... 56

FIGURE 14: PERCEPTION ON AVAILABILITY OF SUPPORT TO ASM SECTOR ................................................. 58

FIGURE 15: AVAILABLE SUPPORT OFFERED TO ASM SECTOR ........................................................................ 58

FIGURE 16: ACCESSIBILITY OF INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT ............................................................................... 59

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ABBREVIATIONS

ASM Artisanal Small-Scale Mining

CASM Community Artisanal Small-scale Mining initiative

CRJP Council for Responsible Jewellery Practices

CSR Community Social Responsibility

EMA Environmental Management Agency

ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment programme

GDP Gross Domestic Product

H/H heads Household Heads

ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals

LSM Large Scale Mining

MIASA Mining Industry Association of Southern Africa

RDC Rural District Council

SLF Sustainable Livelihoods Framework

WCG World Gold Council

ZASMC Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Council

ZIMVAC Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee

ZSM Zimbabwe School of Mines

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 1

1.0 Introduction 1

1.2 Study Background 1

1.3 Statement of the Problem 4

1.4 Purpose of study 5

1.5 Specific Objectives 5

1.6 Research questions 5

1.7 Assumptions of the study 5

1.8 Justification of the study 6

1.9 Scope 6

1.9.1 Delimitation 6

1.9.1.1 Target area (Gwanda district, ward 6 and 21) 7

1.10 Artisanal and small scale mining characterization (Definition). 7

1.11 Definition of terms 9

1.11.1 Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners 9

1.11.2 Large-scale mining (LSM) 9

1.11.3 Ukutsheketsha 9

1.11.4 Otsheketsha 9

1.12 Limitations 9

1.13 Conclusion 10

CHAPTER 2 11

LITERATURE REVIEW 11

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2 Contextualizing ASM Impact on Livelihoods 11

2.2.1 Institutional framework for ASM 11

2.2.2 Livelihood impacts of ASM 17

2.2.3 Challenges faced by ASM 21

2.2.4 Sustainable livelihoods framework 23

2.2.5 Artisanal Mining Poverty Trap 25

2.3 Conclusion 27

CHAPTER 3 28

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 28

3.1 Introduction 28

3.2 Study Area Background 28

3.3 Research design 30

3.4 Study Population 31

3.5 Sampling 32

3.6 Entry into the Field 33

3.7 Data Collection 33

3.8 Data triangulation 35

viii

3.9 Conclusion 36

CHAPTER 4 37

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 37

4.1 Introduction 37

4.3.1 Summary of findings 37

4.3.2 Demographics 38

4.3.3 Miner engagement status 39

4.3.4 Livelihood impacts of ASM 40

4.3.5 Utilization of proceeds from mining 42

4.3.6 ASM and income levels 44

4.3.7 Impact of ASM on community 46

4.3.8 Impacts of environmental effects of ASM on local livelihoods 48

4.3.9 Community decision making on ASM 49

4.3.10 Challenges faced by miners 50

4.3.11 Mining policies 53

4.3.11 Benefits of operating with a license 54

4.3.12 Enforcement of mining legislation 55

4.3.13 Institutional support 56

4.4 Conclusion 59

CHAPTER 5 60

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60

5.1 Introduction 60

5.2 Conclusions 60

5.3 Recommendations 61

5.6 Conclusion 62

REFERENCES 64

ANNEX 1: NON-MINERS QUESTIONNAIRE 68

ANNEX 2: MINERS QUESTIONNAIRE 71

ANNEX 3: KEY INFORMANT QUESTIONNAIRE 76

1

Chapter 1

1.0 Introduction

This chapter introduces the topic of the study; an investigation into the impacts of artisanal and

small scale mining on livelihoods, a case of Gwanda District, wards 6 and 21. ASM has been taken

as a form livelihood by majority poor rural communities with gold deposits or other minerals like

diamonds and glass. It is arguable that when pursued appropriately ASM has the potential of

transforming livelihoods. The essence of this research study is to examine the relationship between

ASM and livelihoods sustainability. Experiences and findings from other studies show that ASM

has had major negative environmental impacts; however they fall short of interrogating the complex

relationship between ASM and sustainable livelihoods.

1.2 Study Background

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining is a crucial livelihood activity employing more than 13

million workers and sustaining 80-100 million people worldwide. It produces between 350-800 tons

of gold per year contributing about 20-30% of global gold output1. The World Gold Council as

quoted in the Mining Weekly (Volume 19, 2013) reports that demand for gold Jewellery rose by

12% in the first quarter of 2013. The rise in demand also fuelled a corresponding rise in mining

activities in supply nations2. The people depending on small-scale gold mining are usually members

of poor rural households in developing countries, (Heemskerk and Oliviera, 2003). In most African

countries like Ghana, Madagascar and Zimbabwe, small-scale gold mining has become important

due to escalating poverty and lack of employment opportunities in the formal sector, (Logan 2004,

Murwendo et al 2011). As established in the preceding statement, in Zimbabwe, small-scale gold

mining has become important due to escalating poverty and lack of employment opportunities in

the formal sector.

1 The role of small-scale gold mining in promoting sustainable livelihoods among local communities in Kadoma district of Zimbabwe, Talent Murwendo, Oswell Rusinga and Hardlife Zinhiva, Clarion University of Pennsylvania, Clarion, Pennsylvania, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa (Volume 13, No.7, 2011) 2 Upward Trajectory, Mining Weekly, Volume 19, 2013

2

Artisanal and small-scale mining can be traced back to the 13th century as evidenced by the

Portuguese- Monomotapa gold trade era, modern mining in Zimbabwe started at the turn of the 20th

century (Dreschler, 2001). Gold was the motive which led to the European colonization of

Zimbabwe, and gold has been the mainstay of its prosperity to the present time (Macgregor 1947).

Small-scale gold mining became a commercial activity in Zimbabwe in the 19th

Century when the

British South African Company (BSAC) received a charter to administer the country in 1890, (Wild

and Wiltshire 1971; Metcalf 2008, Murwendo et al 2011). Zimbabwe is a gold country. According

to the Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe (2010) the Achaean terrain of Zimbabwe is, in terms of gold

yield per square kilometer, the most productive of its kind in the world. The report further estimates

that 700 tons of gold, which represents about a third of the country's historical production, were

mined crudely from the seventh century to the start of modern mining activity at the turn of the 20th

century.

The expansion of gold panning was most rapid after the implementation of the Economic Structural

Adjustment programme (ESAP) of the early 1990s, which saw a significant decline in formal

employment and the subsequent move of labour into informal sectors in search of livelihoods

(Murombedzi 2005, Mabhena 2012). Unemployment increased to over 80% in the past decade due

to economic and political crises which drove away foreign and domestic investments (Bhebhe nd).

Bhebhe (nd) further argues that large-scale mines downsized their operations and even closed due

to high operational costs and political uncertainty, releasing many people to artisanal and small-

scale mining. The whole scenario was exacerbated by the collapse of large-scale commercial

farming activities following the Fast Track Land Reform Programme in the early 2000s.

Subsequent economic policies crafted by subsequent governments like Land Reform and

Indigenization policies further plunged the country into economic recessions hence further

promoting the sprouting of artisanal and small scale mining as a means of livelihoods for the rural

poor3. The resilience of artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities especially during economic

crises has proved to be one of the major sources of livelihoods in local communities where gold

3 Small Scale Mining and Sustainable Development within the SADC Region, World Business Council for Sustainable Development, International Institute for Environment and Development, No 84, August 2001

3

deposits are found since they provide employment and income for the day-to-day survival

(Noestaller et al, 2004).

The Zimbabwean economy is experiencing a slowing economic growth rate, according to the

Minister of Finance (2013) the country’s GDP has been revised down from 2012s 9.4% to 4.4%,

stating that the country is likely to witness a 5 year average growth rate of 5% going forward.

Finance ministry budgetary projections peg annual national gold production for 2013 to be

17,000kg. The country is losing a lot of money as Fidelity Gold Refiners is not capitalized to refine

gold4. According to Victor Gapare the president Chamber of Mines Zimbabwe, as quoted in the

Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010, mining in 2010 contributed 47% towards the total

national GDP and a contribution to exports of 65% on the back of firming mineral prices and rising

production. Mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2 billion, while the country’s GDP is

estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to nominal GDP of about 20%5.

Thus, this establishes mining as the cornerstone in the Zimbabwean economy.

Although there are no formal statistics, over 60% of the formal laborers (teachers, soldiers, nurses

and those in the armed forces) disserted their posts during the period 2006 – 2008 to seek greener

pastures. A majority of those who left their formal jobs were involved in ASM and other crossed

the boarders to Europe and neighboring countries. The economic decline entrenched ASM as a

means of livelihoods, poor sector regulatory services, lack of adequate equipment and mining skills

led to environmental degradation.

The Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of Mines,

Environment and Tourism, provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities in

Zimbabwe. While the act did not inhibit the development of ASM, it is not seen as promotional

either. Furthermore, the promulgation of the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in

1991 represented a bold step by the Zimbabwean government to recognize and regulate a sector that

had become too significant to ignore in terms of size, socio-economic and environmental effects

4 Minister of Finance, Zimbabwe National Budget 2013, Government Printers 5 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011

4

and general regional importance (Mponga and Ngorima, 2002). Mponga and Ngorima (2002)

further argue that the promulgation of these regulations removed an important structural constraint

to the growth of the sector by according it legal status.

The ministry of Youths and Youth Development through the Indigenization and Economic

Empowerment Act (act 14/2007, chapter 14:33) promoted the sprouting of numerous small scale

mines, this being seen as an empowerment drive. This policy provided the legal framework for the

establishment of the mines but has been criticized for not providing the institutional and technical

support requisite for running these mines sustainably. The rise in incidents of mine accidents is

evidence to this. The study will explore the ASM phenomenon, how it impacts on the livelihoods

and the environment, exploring the intricacies of the tradeoffs in this relationship. More recently,

the advent of metal detectors as gold prospecting devices has hit the gold mining sector.

Lack of consensus in government a regards ASM administration has further led to confusion in the

implementation of policy on mining. President R.G. Mugabe opening Zimbabwe’s fifth parliament

declared; “for the illegal panners, steps are on the way to decriminalize and allow them to work in

a legal way”6. The plan to legalise gold panning by small scale miners, usually working as

individuals was first mooted by the ministry of Mines in May 2013. In championing the drive to

legalizing artisanal small scale mining the minister reiterated that a third of gold deliveries in 2011

came from small scale miners commonly known as omakorokoza. David Coltart (2012) warns that

Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold panners7.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

The last decades have seen increased international and local attention paid to a number of features

of artisanal and small scale mining. This phenomenon exists mostly due to the need for income,

food, employment, asset ownership and decent living conditions which cannot be provided for

through the formal employment sector (Mwaipopo et al 2004). Studies have been conducted world

6 Government Gazette, Presidential Speech, Fifth Parliament opening 7 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart

5

over to ascertain the impacts of ASM on the community livelihoods at national level, however in

Zimbabwe few studies have been conducted at macro level to ascertain the impacts of ASM on

livelihoods therefore this study seeks to bridge that gap through investigating the impacts of ASM

on the livelihoods and the nexus between nexus between ASM and other environmentally based

livelihoods in Gwanda District.

1.4 Purpose of study

The purpose of the study is to examine the impacts of ASM on community livelihoods.

1.5 Specific Objectives

1. To determine the extent to which ASM has affected community livelihoods

2. To establish the effectiveness of ASM as a livelihood strategy

3. To determine the challenges faced by Artisanal and small scale miners

4. To establish institutional support available to Small scale miners

1.6 Research questions

1. To what extent has ASM impacted on community livelihoods

2. How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy

3. What challenges have are being faced by Artisanal and small scale miners

4. What institutional support is available to artisanal and small scale miners getting

1.7 Assumptions of the study

Most ASM mines/ miners operate illegally and their mining operations are from time to time

disturbed by police raids. It is assumed that by the government through the relevant arms of

governance will not have eradicated artisanal small scale mining by the time of the study.

Furthermore the study assumes that the demand for gold will remain high to want sustained ASM

operations in the study area.

6

Furthermore, it is the assumption of the study that political stability will remain in the country

allowing for access to field. Also the research proceeds under the assumption that ASM practices

will remain the same, mining legislation will not change for the duration of the programme.

1.8 Justification of the study

Gold mining is one of the sectors noted as having the potential to boost a country’s economy

through the attraction of foreign direct investment, employment creation and overall poverty

reduction. However, gold mining has accounted for negative social environmental problems which

have implications on the livelihoods of local communities. A study on the impact of mining on

livelihoods of local communities and livelihood strategies adopted as a survival mechanism is

relevant to provide deeper understanding of issues that can contribute to sustainable development

effort. The study on the impacts on ASM provides a fundamental basis for decision making for

organisations involved in the administration of mine rights, policy advocacy and management of the

environment in general.

It shall contribute to the exploration and furthering of understanding of the trade-offs on the

interaction between ASM, its livelihoods contributions and environmental sustainability. The study

will further interrogate the SLM put forward by DFID and the ASM poverty trap model put forward

by UNESCO as regards ASM and its sustainability and contribution to livelihoods.

Furthermore, the study shall bring in-depth insights and understanding in the field of ASM as a

vehicle to sustainable livelihoods and community development. It seeks to make real contributions

in the form of recommendations on policy and institutional structuring for a formalized and

sustainable ASM field.

1.9 Scope

1.9.1 Delimitation

The study investigated the impacts of ASM on the livelihoods of both miners and non-miners in

Gwanda district, wards 6 and 21.

7

1.9.1.1 Target area (Gwanda district, ward 6 and 21)

Zimbabwe inherited a mining system from Rhodesia where the country was divided into six mining

districts which are, Gwanda, Bulawayo, Hwange, Kwekwe, Harare and Mutare8. The study focused

on the Gwanda mining district which is administered by an Assistant Mining Commissioner in the

ministry of mines Gwanda Office. The area of the study was limited to wards 6 and 21 in Gwanda

district. The study targeted a range of district officials, members of the private sector, school of

mines, ward 6 and 21 communities and small scale miners operating in target wards.

The area of study was chosen given that the 2 largest gold mining companies in Gwanda mining

district are located in ward 21, ward 6 boasts of a resettlement area where most small scale gold

miners are resident. Mineral deposits in these wards are by far the richest across the Gwanda district

(Moyo 2013). Exploitation of the gold deposits formally and informally has been taking place for

longer in these two wards when compared to all other areas in Gwanda district that now have mines

sprouting up9. Also the area boosts of a number of registered small scale miners and those plying

their trade illegally, popularly known as otsheketsha/ amakorokoza. The rich pickings that ASM

offers and chances of employment from the mines in these two wards has attracted people from

across the country, mixing of people from different cultures of different skills sets and of differing

socio-cultural inclinations has also brought diversity in the community hence these two wards make

for a good study area of how small scale gold mining impacts on livelihoods of miners and non-

miners.

1.10 Artisanal and small scale mining characterization (Definition).

No universally accepted definition of ASM has been established across the globe10. The term has

been used to cover a broad spectrum of activities - from the army-run Hpakant jade mines in

8 An Outline of the Geological History of Southern Rhodesia, Geological Survey Bulletin No 38, A.M. Macgregor 9 Environmental damage caused by gold panning in Gwanda district {Zimbabwe} nd, Dumile Bhebhe, Masters in Disaster Risk Management University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 10 Increasing the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to poverty reduction in Tanzania, based on an analysis of mining livelihoods in Misungwi and Geita districts, Mwanza region, Rosemarie Mwaipopo, Wilson Mutagwaba,

8

Myamar, for example, where up to a million miners can be working on one site, to individual

garimpeiros panning for gold in the remote regions of the Brazilian Amazon, as well as former state

mining company workers or laid-off private company employees who have organised themselves

into cooperatives (Shoko nd, MMSD Global Report, 2002). At the national level in different

countries, criteria for identifying artisanal and/or small-scale mining are usually tied to the

legislative system. For example, in Ethiopia this relates to the depth of working and ban on use of

explosives; similarly, in Senegal SSM is recognized in accordance with the depth of working and

the production methods applied (Mwaipopo et al, 2004).

Table 1: Criteria used in the definition of small-scale mining across Africa (UNECA 2003, Mwaipopo et al, 2004)

Country Criteria

Côte d’Ivoire Level of mechanization

Ethiopia Annual production, level of mechanization

Ghana Capital investment, number of participants

Guinea Type of minerals exploited

Senegal Depth of working, crude production levels

South Africa Capital investment

Tanzania Capital investment, labour and technology requirements

United Nations Annual production capacity

Zambia Size of concession area

Zimbabwe Size of concession area, capital investment

The artisanal small-scale mining sector in Zimbabwe comprises primarily unregistered gold diggers

and panners (men, women and children alike) scattered along some 5000km or so of Zimbabwe’s

main rivers. Artisanal small scale miners are often defined as those who employ manual, low

technology mining conducted on a small scale (World Bank, 1995). These are further divided into

two categories, the legal and illegal.

David Nyange and Eleanor Fisher, A report prepared for the Department for International Development (UK),October 2004

9

The legally registered Artisanal and small-scale miners are those miners who have registered their

mining claims with the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME) in accordance with the provisions of

the Mines and Minerals Act Chap. 21:05 (1996). The miners operate, or at least attempt to, within

the confines of mines and minerals Act, together with other relevant statutory instruments such as

the Mining Management and Safety Regulations, 1990(D’Souza, 2002; Quiroga, 2002).

1.11 Definition of terms

1.11.1 Artisanal and Small-Scale Miners - In this research ASM refers to mining by individuals,

groups, families, or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization either legally or illegally.

1.11.2 Large-scale mining (LSM) - Established mining concessions legally recognized, employing

over 100people and listed on major global stock exchanges.

1.11.3 Ukutsheketsha – The use of crude mining and mineral ore processing methods.

1.11.4 Otsheketsha – Individuals involved in small scale artisanal gold mining using crude mining

and mineral ore processing methods.

1.12 Limitations

The High Court judgment (Constitutional Court ruling handed down on 31 May) paved the way for

the holding of elections on the 31st of July 2013, this constrained access to the field as political

activities (campaigning) were in full swing. Getting clearance from relevant stakeholders (Police,

Presidents Office, District Administrator and the RDC) was difficult as the election period is a very

sensitive period. Fears were that the researcher will campaign for one political party in the guise of

conducting research.

Use of the focus group discussion proved difficult as getting clearance for holding meetings was a

hustle during a highly volatile election period. The researcher conducted focus group discussions at

10

the mine sites for the miners and utilized community meetings as an opportunity to conduct focus

group discussions at community level. Focus group discussion guides and interview questionnaires

were shared with relevant authorities to demystify the research process. Respondents consent was

sought at all times.

1.13 Conclusion

This chapter introduced the topic of study: small scale mining and livelihoods, a case of Gwanda

District. The research sought to explore the intricate tradeoffs between ASM impacts on livelihoods

for miners and non-miners. The preceding chapter will explore the conceptual framework within

which ASM exists, interrogating findings of other research and policy provisions that either support

or suppress ASM.

11

Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

Gold and diamond mining constitute more than half of all mineral exploitation worldwide, with an

estimated 6 to 9 million artisanal miners active in the gold and diamond sectors (Chupenzi, Ingram

and Schure, 2009). The Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit of 1998 stresses the need for good

management of resources at all local areas for the benefit of all global citizens. For any nation to

guarantee its future citizens of a good life, sustainable development should be at the core of its

resource management. This chapter reviews literature related to ASM and its impacts on

livelihoods. The chapter further reviews the Zimbabwean mining institutional framework as it

relates to ASM, impacts of livelihoods on community livelihoods, challenges faced the ASM sector

and the ASM poverty trap as promulgated by UNESCO amongst other literature.

2.2 Contextualizing ASM Impact on Livelihoods

2.2.1 Institutional framework for ASM

ASM has had unprecedented growth in developing economies over the past few decades11.

Artisanal and small-scale miners work largely in the ‘informal sector’, extracting valuable minerals

from primary ore bodies and is characterized by the lack of long-term mine planning/control. All

across the world, the consensus is that it can be legal or illegal, formal or informal and can

encompass everything from individual gold panners to medium scale operations employing

hundreds of people12. The lack of formalization of most operations serves as a serious impediment

to improving the sector’s contribution to sustainable development. It implies that most of their

businesses are not registered – they operate beyond government supervision and thus do not strive

to follow health and safety regulations or meet environmental standards and also do not remit taxes

nor trade their commodities through the formal markets.

11 Lei Shen & Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of cleaner production, www.elservier.com/locate/jclepro 12 Lei Shen & Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of cleaner production, www.elservier.com/locate/jclepro

12

Most countries lack policy frameworks that are flexible enough to accommodate ASM and this

impinges on their ability to operate13. The challenge faced in promoting the idea of legalizing ASM,

however, is that despite mounting evidence that points to ASM having become an integral

economic activity throughout sub-Saharan Africa, in many policymaking circles, it continues to be

viewed as a transient, “rush type” industry with few permanent linkages to the rural economy

(Hilsong, 2009, Maconachie & Hilson, 2011). The Ghanaian Government has done little to work

with mining groups to encourage legalization14. In China, despite many ASM operations being

illegal, the government (especially local government) has been intimately involved in the sector,

actively owning, operating and/ or encouraging ASM operations, although most have been

privatized15. As of April 2008, Cameroon had no industrial mining exploitation permits, the absence

of a coherent operational strategic code was blamed for the relegation of the mining sector as a

pillar of development in the country16. The prospecting, research, exploitation, circulation and

transformation of all minerals substances in the Republic of Congo are protected by Law No. 40-

2005 of April 2005, dubbed the Mining Code (Republic of Congo 2005). Articles 39-44 of the

Mining Code of the Republic of Congo govern the artisanal mining sector, including procedures for

annual artisanal mining permits.

In Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of

Mines and Mine Development provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities.

While the act does not inhibit the development of ASM, it is not seen as promotional either

(Mwaipopo et al, 2004). The act is complemented by 18 pieces of legislation administered by eight

other ministries, which cover the usage and management of natural resources, a situation that

sometimes lead to conflicts. For example, the Natural Resources Act sets the limit for cultivation on

riverbanks at 30m while the Forest Act sets the limit at 100m17. Despite the act being

13 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 14 Maconachie & Hilson, Artisanal gold mining: a new frontier in post-conflict Siera Leon?, 2011 15 Wright T. Small mines in the Chinese local industry, working paper no. 80 of National Library of Australia, 1998. 16 Tieguhog J Chupezi, Verna Ingram and Jolien Schure, Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in Sagha Tri-National Park landscape, 2009. 17 Rosemarie Mwaipopo, Wilson Mutagwaba, David Nyange and Eleanor Fisher (2004), Increasing the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to poverty reduction in Tanzania, Based on an analysis of mining livelihoods in Misungwi and Geita districts, Mwanza region, A report prepared for the Department for International Development (UK)

13

complemented by a host of other legal provisions, in Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals

Development act supersedes all other acts, thus natural reserves or agricultural land can be laid to

waste if there is need for exploitation of mineral resources on the same land18, an example being

displacement of the Marange communities to pave way for exploitation of diamonds on the lands

and the Lupane forests destruction to tap gas in the area. Sunga and Marinda (1998) argue that the

enactment of the Mining Act, Chapter 165 has made it possible for all interested parties to

extensively explore the mineral potential of the country. They assert that in its application it has

eliminated the need for direct negotiations over the minerals rights between landowners and

potential miners, as is the case with other countries for example South Africa.

Furthermore, the promulgation of the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in 1991

represented a bold step by the Zimbabwean government to recognize and regulate a sector that had

become too significant to ignore in terms of size, socio-economic and environmental effects and

general regional importance (Mponga and Ngorima, 2002). Mponga and Ngorima (2002) further

argue that the promulgation of these regulations removed an important structural constraint to the

growth of the sector by according it legal status. The Mines and Minerals Development minister is

quoted in a rally in Umzingwane district (Matabeleland South Province, Zimbabwe) as having

blessed ASM. Many critiques view these statements as political overtones to secure support for his

political party, however in the everyday world of otsheketsha this is in the spirit of Indigenization.

The effectiveness of the Ministry of Mines in administering the Act is constrained by lack of human

and financial resources.

“Besides the Mines Act there are other pieces of legislations, which govern the

usage, and management of natural resources like the Natural Resources Act

(1975); Parks and Wildlife Act (1975) and the Hazardous Substances and Articles

Act (1971)” (Interview - Martin January, School of Mines, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe,

2013).

18 Government of Zimbabwe, Mines and Minerals Act

14

More recently, the advent of metal detectors as gold prospecting devices has hit the gold mining

areas. Lack of consensus in government a regards ASM administration has further led to confusion

in the implementation of policy on mining. President R.G. Mugabe opening Zimbabwe’s fifth

parliament declared; “for the illegal panners, steps are on the way to decriminalize and allow them

to work in a legal way”19. The plan to legalize gold panning by small scale miners, usually working

as individuals was first mooted by the ministry of Mines and Minerals Development in May 2013.

In championing the drive to legalizing artisanal small scale mining the minister reiterated that a

third of gold deliveries in 2011 came from small scale miners commonly known as omakorokoza.

David Coltart (2012) warns that Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold

panners20.

Legalization of the ASM sector should help to ensure that negative social and environmental effects

of the sector are better managed and will enable governments to capture more of the revenues from

the sector. In Tanzania for example, the implementation of a mineral trade liberalization policy in

the late 1980s created to formalize ASM sector increased the legally traded gold production from

US$0.55m in 1985 to US$38.78m in 1992 (Hentschel et al. 2002). According to the Chamber of

Mines Zimbabwe, as quoted in the Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010, mining in 2010

contributed 47% towards the total national GDP and a contribution to exports of 65% on the back

of firming mineral prices and rising production. Mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2

billion, while the country’s GDP is estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to

nominal GDP of about 20%21. Thus, this establishes mining as the cornerstone in the Zimbabwean

economy. These gains were realised following the decentralization of the Fidelity Printers gold

buying offices22, this enabled the country to capture gold from small-scale miners across the

country’s districts. January (2013) asserts that the lack of government success in controlling ASM

activities has in part been due to a tendency for regulatory frameworks to be control-oriented, with

few obvious benefits or incentives for miners. He further argues that Artisanal Small-scale miners

will only formalize and register their operations if they see some real advantages to doing so.

19 Government Gazette, Presidential Speech, Fifth Parliament opening 20 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart 21 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011 22 Victor Gapare, Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010

15

In the evolvement of the mining sector over centuries, not only have national governments been

developing laws and regulations, but regional and international organisations have also exerted

influence23. Numerous mining associations for the promotion and advocacy of miner’s issues have

been sprouting across the world and Zimbabwe. Regional initiatives to promote the small-scale

mining sector are more pronounced in the western, eastern and southern parts of Africa. Global

initiatives include the Community Artisanal Small-scale Mining (CASM) initiative supported by

the World Bank aims to increase networking, information sharing and best practices sharing among

ASM stakeholders and plays a coordination role between ASM assistance projects and donor

funding (MMSD 2002).

The International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM) is a multi-partnership organisation that

commits cooperate members to implement its principles under sustainable development framework,

including global standards, public reporting, and independent assurance and sharing of best

practices24. The World Gold Council (WCG), a global advocate for gold committed to playing a

key role in development of responsible gold mining25. The Council for Responsible Jewellery

Practices (CRJP) promotes ethical, social and environmental practices throughout the diamond and

gold Jewellery supply chain, from mine to retail shop26. Lastly but not least, the Kimberly process,

was initiated by African diamond-producing countries in May 2000 to develop an international

certification scheme for rough diamonds to prevent ‘conflict diamonds’ from entering legitimate

markets (Kimberly process 2004). Criticism of these institutions has been that they exist mostly to

tackle issues governing the LSM sector rather than dispersed small-scale mining. This research will

amongst other things seek to investigate whether ASM in Zimbabwe is ripping benefits from these

institutions.

Regionally, in the Congo Basin, only Cameroon and the DRC have setup nationally supported

structures to facilitate small-scale mining (Chupezi, Ingram and Schure 2009). In Mozambique, 61

23 Tieguhog J Chupezi, Verna Ingram and Jolien Schure, Impacts of artisanal gold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in Sagha Tri-National Park landscape, 2009. 24 http://www.icmm.com/sd_framework.php 25 http://www.icmm.com/iccm_principles.php 26 http://www.responsiblejewellery.com/what.html

16

cooperatives have been established as a part of pilot project. These groups are given government

support on legal issues, technical assistance and training27. Zimbabwe has its fair share of mining

support associations, institutions such as the Mining Industry Association of Southern Africa

(MIASA), Zimbabwe Chamber of Mines, National Miners Association of Zimbabwe, Gold Miners

Association of Zimbabwe, Minerals Marketing Corporation of Zimbabwe, Mining Affairs Board,

Gwanda Mining Association all purport to have miners concerns at heart and help them access

capital. Some groups of artisanal miners form cooperatives in order to comply with the law in

countries which require ASM to be structured, others to access services (Chupenzi, Ingram and

Schure, 2009).

In recognition of the shortcomings of the legislative provisions in administering the artisanal and

small scale mining sector a new association, the Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Mining

Council (ZASMC) was launched in Gwanda in June 2013. In the past the government, through the

police department embarked on blitz arresting illegal artisanal and small scale miners saying their

mines were not registered and their activities threatened the environment. The ZAMSC president as

quoted in the Business Chronicle (21 June 2013), “national registration of ASMs started in

Gwanda, Matabeleland South Province. The province is one of the regions with the highest number

of gold deposits as well as artisanal and small scale miners”28. The association working together

with ASM mining associations may just provide a sustainable solution to enhance the socio-

economic contributions of ASM to local communities and the national GDP through regularizing

the trade of gold and ensuring CSR by ASMs. The ZAMSC president further argues that the ASM

sector in Zimbabwe has been largely crippled by poor funding from financial institutions and the

central government. The impact of institutions such as mentioned above have been varied, in

Zambia for example, a recent report highlighted the unsustainability and ‘paralyzed’ nature of the

regional mining bureau, which is deprived of a means to meet its own costs on an ongoing basis

with little incentive to collect revenue29. Similarly, each of Ghana’s seven small-scale mining

district centers are without adequate communication facilities, computing and staff (Hilson and

Potter, 2003; Kramcha, 2004), a case similar to that faced by mining associations in Zimbabwe.

27 Artisanal and Small-scale mining: Improving the contribution of Artisanal and Small-scale mining to sustainable development 28 Mr Wellington Takavarasha, Small-scale miners formalize operations, Business Chronicle, 21 June 2013 29 Fredrikson, Goran, Study on the regional mining bureas (Zambia), 2003

17

2.2.2 Livelihood impacts of ASM

In recent times, thinking about poverty and sustainable development has begun to converge around

the linked themes of vulnerability, social protection and livelihoods (Mabhena 2010). Chambers

and Conway (1995) define a livelihood as “a means of gaining a living” or “a combination of the

resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live” (as cited in Scoones 2009:172). Elliss

and Ade Freeman (2005), explain the term livelihood as an attempt to capture both what people do

in order to earn a living and the resources that provides them with capability to build a satisfactory

living taking into account risk factors, institutional and policy context that either helps or hinders

them in their pursuit of viable living (as cited in Yaro 2010). However the most widely recognized

and accepted definition is based on Chambers and Conway (1991), they assert that a livelihood

“encompasses the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living, a livelihood is

sustainable which can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks , maintain or enhance its

capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the next generation

which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in the long and

short term” (as quoted in Hilson and Bachirigah, 2007).

The mining industry has been a key in development of many civilizations, underpinning the iron

and bronze ages, the industrial revolution and the infrastructure of today’s information age30.

Hentscchel et al (2000) argues that ASM takes place throughout the world but is more pronounced

in developing countries in Africa, Asia, Oceania and central and South America. Today more than

100million people worldwide depend directly or indirectly on ASM for their livelihoods (CASM

2008, Chupenzi, Ingram and Schure 2009). The worlds 10 to 15 million artisanal miners produce

25% of the world’s gold (UNIDO 2009). ASM supports the formal economy by producing extra

minerals to fill the gap left by the formal mining concerns; for instance, in Brazil women work in

the reprocessing of tailings ‘pallaris’ to supplement their husbands’ earnings through selling the

mineral to formal mining concerns (Mpendazoe 1996; Manzungu and Sithole, 1999; Dreschler

2001; Jerez 2001; Mabhena 2012). In DRC and Sierra Leone, artisanal gold and diamond mining

30 Chupenzi, Ingram and Schure, Impactsof artisanalgold and diamond mining on livelihoods and the environment in the Shangha Tr-National Park, 2009

18

make up 75% of national mining production. In most African countries like Ghana, Madagascar and

Zimbabwe, small-scale gold mining has become important due to escalating poverty and lack of

employment opportunities in the formal sector, (Logan 2004; Murwendo et al 2011). As previously

mentioned, in Zimbabwe mining exports for 2010 are estimated at $1.2 billion, while the country’s

GDP is estimated at $6.1 billion, which implies a mining contribution to nominal GDP of about

20%31, following the decentralization of the Fidelity Printers gold buying offices32.

A well supported small-scale mining sector is an engine of economic growth, fuelling the expansion

of a series of downstream and allied service industries (Noetstaller et al, 2004). Noestaller et al

(2004) further argue that the paradox of ASM is that although it has many more local linkages than

LSM these linkages are not economically robust. Estimates from the ISG are that, in Africa today,

ASM directly employs over 8 million workers who, in turn support over 45 million dependents33. In

Tanzania, for instance, small scale mining became prominent after the implementation of the

structural adjustment programme of the late 1980s and early 1990s (Mabhena 2012), this is also the

case with Zimbabwe, furthermore the economic crunch following the implementation of the land

reform programme and implementation of a sanctions regime leading to massive closures of

companies lead to the proliferation of ASM as an alternative source of employment.

Hilson (2009) asserts that ASM plays a pivotal role in alleviating poverty in the developing world

and contributing significantly to national revenues and foreign exchange earnings. However,

Maconachie and Hilson (2011) argue that the employment, income and production generated from

ASM often come with significant costs to miners and nearby communities’ health, safety and

environment. The estimated 2 000 gold panners in Gwanda can be assumed to present “new jobs”

in the economy of which 1 428 were full time and another 672 part time. Based on full time jobs

therefore total person years of employment from gold panning were approximately 1770 in 2000.

Using this assumption of twice the number of panners’ results in approximately 3 500-person years

of employment (Bhebhe, nd).

31 From the president’s desk, Chamber of Mines Journal, Nov 2010 - Jan 2011 32 Victor Gapare, Chamber of Mines Journal of November 2010 33 Dr Gavin Hilson, Formalizing Artisanal and Small-scale mining: Challenges and way forward, presentation at The University of Reading

19

The creation of a sustainable future for Africa may lie in its ability to develop and maximize its

natural resources (Commission for Africa 2005; Diamond facts 2006; Chupezi, Ingram and Schure

2009). In addition to providing cash income to local and national economies, ASM is labour

intensive and thus a major purveyor of employment, reducing rural unemployment rates

(Maconachie & Hilson 2011). A vibrant small-scale mining economy spawns the development of

numerous downstream industries which would help absorb the breath of skill, in the form of youth

“graduates” from vocational training programmes, who are currently jobless. In Tanzania, for

example, several local equipment manufacture businesses, including fabricators of wood winches

and washing drums, have emerged to service a burgeoning artisanal gold mining economy (Hinton

and Veiga 2004; Maconachie & Hilson 2011). In Ghana these organisation/ companies carry the

label ‘Mine Support Service Companies’, and have facilitated a transition from artisanal or

traditional mining to semi-mechanized and mechanized mining methods in some mining districts,

particularly Tarkwa (Aryee, 2003).

Artisanal and Small-scale mining is an attractive employment option for rural areas and in crippled

economies, barriers to entry are minimal and activity levels are dynamic because precious minerals

often rise in value during periods of economic crisis, as in Zimbabwe during the financial crunch of

the 2000s. In 1998, ASM in China earned RMB4.36 billion (US$0.5 million). ASM operations in

the Shade province of China provided employment for 15,000 peasants since 2000, greatly

mitigating poverty in Shabe’s rural areas (Maconachie & Hilson, 20011). In Ghana, it is estimated

that 30,000 people are employed within the legalized small-scale mining sector (World Bank,

1995), with the minerals Commission and Ghana Chamber of mines noting that 60% of the

country’s total mining labour force is employed in small-scale mines (Hilson 2001; Kramcha 2004).

Kramcha (2004) argues that in countries such as Brazil, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, the

number of illegal miners operating is also in the hundreds although employment statistics are

notoriously difficult to capture. In Zimbabwe, ASM support industries are largely sprouting in the

services sector, thus ASM has led to increased revenues for stores (bottle stores, grocery and

furniture stores), the catering services and an increase in transport business. Sex work has also been

on the increase.

20

Ye Q and Zhang (1998), argue that employment provided by ASM has helped lower crime and

suicide rates in rural areas, assisted in raising living standards and minimise rural-urban migration

in ASM areas. The Gwanda Social Services Officer argues that in Gwanda unlike China, ASM has

contributed to a rise in crime rate. Bhebhe (nd) argues that the employment and income generated

allows panners to support their families either in whole (for full time panners) or in part (for part

time panners who have farm plots or other seasonal jobs). The revenues generated from minerals

trade help build infrastructure in the respective countries. For example, in 1966, Botswana had only

3 miles of paved road, today there are nearly 4000miles, as well as public transportation system,

there is now a country-wide digital telephone network, consisting of several thousand miles of fibre

optic cable (Maconachie & Hilson, 20011). According to Murwendo, Rusinga and Zinhiva (2011),

in Zimbabwe most of the money from ASM is spent on consumption goods. About 28% miners

spend money on food, 25% on clothes, 14% on electrical gadgets while only 3% spend on

remittances. This revealed that most of the miners ventured into mining as a survival strategy rather

than as a long-term investment. Income from ASM is at times used to help pay for fees, buy food,

and other necessities. Thus, panners who are successful in finding gold might have a small cash

surplus after meeting normal living expenses. The importance AS mining may hold for households

and local economies, it is not recognized as a key livelihood activity within national planning. For

example, ASM was not brought into the first PRSP. There are now, however, some signs of a shift

with research and consultation currently taking place under Government auspices; however it is

likely that the dominant view will be in terms of administration and environmental issues rather

than social and economic issues for AS miners (URT, 2004; Mwaipopo, Mutagwaba, Nyange and

Fisher 2004).

According to Mwaipopo et al (2004), livelihood sustainability of ASM communities is challenged

by two key aspects. Firstly is the fact that ASM is based on production of non-renewable resources,

and secondly is the limited geological knowledge that participants in ASM have about the resource

potential in their areas. The interplay of power dynamics of who gets what, when and how, shows

how power is negotiated between actors such as local bureaucrats, councilors and local

communities with regards to mining activities and outcomes. According to Bryant and Bailey

(2008), the power which actors possess either in greater or lesser amounts influences the outcomes

21

of mining (Livelihood outcomes) activities thus creates an unequal relationship between actors

(artisanal and small scale miners) and local communities thus bringing into perspective thesis study

of how ASM affects livelihoods of these groups.

2.2.3 Challenges faced by ASM

The problems associated with small scale mining are numerous and fairly common to all

developing countries of the world. They range from the disruption of local community life, conflict

over land (which in the case of Brazil’s Yanomani Indians resulted in the death of about 1500

people during a gold rush in 1987), numerous environmental impacts which affect the delivery of

common property services to local communities (Shoko, nd). ASM is challenged technically34.

Miners usually lack knowledge about legislation on health and safety, protection of the

environment, mineral rights and a decent work environment.

Furthermore ASM lacks access to appropriate technology because without capital to invest suitable

plant and equipment becomes prohibitively expensive. Consequently short-term mining operations

are soon abandoned once the easy ore is extracted, often leaving behind long-term environmental

damage35. In a Strategy for African Mining (Strongman, 1992) by the World Bank, Africa’s chief

source of financial support for the mining sector, bank officials are rather more interested in

partnering directly with multinational mining houses and facilitating, through the implementation of

sweeping reforms, the expansion of large scale mineral exploitation and ultimately industrial scale

activity36. Despite facilitating minimal economic growth in the likes of Tanzania, Ghana and Mali,

subjecting the bank to significant criticism (Ross 2001, Pegg 2006; Maconachie & Hilson 2011)

this blueprint for mine development continues to be rigidly adhered to throughout sub-Saharan

Africa. Furthermore, it is argued that ASM has continued to feature in some comprehensive sector

support programmes implemented across the globe but has generally been an “add-on” or

afterthought, given attention after implementation of frameworks for large-scale mining (Hilson,

2009, Maconachie & Hilson 2011), Zimbabwe’s lack of a proper policy framework and funding

facility for ASM sector is evidence enough.

34 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 35 Hilson 2012, Poverty traps in small scale mining communities: the case of sub-Saharan Africa. 36 Maconachie & Hilson, Artisanal gold mining: a new frontier in post-conflict Siera Leon?, 2011

22

The informal unregulated nature of much ASM across the globe makes it vulnerable to illegal

dealings37. Unregulated ASM becomes easy prey of organised crime and para-military operations,

especially in high value minerals like diamonds, gold and coltan. Rebel groups in countries like

Siera Leon, DRC and Angola have used ‘conflict minerals’ to finance military campaigns against

established government. In Sierra Leon, the development of a legitimate gold industry is crippled

by the fact that there are currently few incentives for buyers to export their gold through official

channels; the remoteness of many gold producing areas, a lack of mobility for buyers, porous

international boarders near the mining areas and low official buying prices all encourage illicit

trading (Maconachie and Hilson, 2011), just as is the case with Zimbabwe.

Issues such as health and safety, including the use of mercury, public health, including the high

incidence of STDs and HIV/AIDS in mining areas as well as those related to outbreaks of

contagious diseases such as cholera and malaria. In Bolivia, for example, a miner can be expected

to live only 48 years (Quiroga, 2001; Kramcha 2004), no official statistics exists for Zimbabwe. In

South Africa, experts believe that the industry hardest hit by HIV/AIDS is mining, with studies

showing infection rates from one-quarter to almost one-half of the country’s miners, in Zambia

18% of the copper miners are estimated to be HIV positive and in Botswana were diamonds

account for half of the governments total revenue, a third of the industry’s employees are estimated

to be HIV-positive (Kramcha 2004). Although no official statistics exist in Zimbabwe on HIV

prevalence rates on the mining sector, isolated data like SANDVIK sero-prevalence survey of 2005

that revealed that the HIV prevalence rate at the company was 15%38, the minister of Mines and

Mining Development39 in his address at a Zimbabwe School of Mines graduation said, ‘the disease

is haunting the mining industry’40, furthermore the concerted efforts by the National AIDS Council

in rolling out behaviour change programmes in mining towns is evident to the growing concern of

HIV/ AIDS in these areas.

37 Boosting Artisanal and Small-scale mining, Bulletin 4 38 SANDVIK, Sandvik Mining and Construction Zimbabwe combating HIV & AIDS, (nd) 39 Minister of Mines and Minerals Development 2013, Dr Obert Mpofu 40 NewsDay, High prevalence of HIV and AIDS in mines - Minister

23

The sustainability of ASM underpinned livelihoods is highly contested due to the high magnitude of

environmental degradation it is associated with. ASM activities in Kadoma are viable at the

expense of the environment and social relations because most of the miners do not have a sense of

entitlement to mining claims41.

2.2.4 Sustainable livelihoods framework

In recent times, thinking about poverty and sustainable development has begun to converge around

the linked themes of vulnerability, social protection and livelihoods (Mabhena, 2010). Chambers

and Conway (1995) define a livelihood as “a means of gaining a living” or “a combination of the

resources used and the activities undertaken in order to live” (as cited in Scoones 2009:172).

However the most widely recognized and accepted definition is based on Chambers and Conway

(1991), they assert that a livelihood “encompasses the capabilities, assets and activities required for

a means of living, a livelihood is sustainable which can cope with and recover from stresses and

shocks , maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood

opportunities for the next generation which contributes net benefits to other livelihoods at the local

and global levels and in the long and short term” (as quoted in Hilson and Bachirigah, 2007)

Stephen Morse et al (2009), assets that the model defines livelihoods in terms of the ability of a

social unit to enhance its assets and capabilities in the face of shocks and stresses over time. SLA

first seeks to identify the important assets in livelihood, their trends over time and space as well as

the nature and impacts of shocks and stresses (environmental, economic and social) upon these

assets. With regards to livelihood strategies, the framework identifies three broad groups of

strategies: livelihood intensification, diversification and migration, of which are important for the

construction and enhancement of livelihood outcomes and poverty reduction within an evolving

social, political, economic and environmental context (Snoones 1998, Yaro 2010). The framework

further acknowledges the fact that livelihood approaches are holistic and entail a broad range of

issues - policies, institutions and processes which are reflected in how power, politics and social

differentiation influence livelihood choices. According to Yaro (2010), these issues could create

constraints and opportunities for communities, households and individuals in their quest for a viable

41 Murwendo, Rusinga and Zinhiva, The role of small-scale gold mining in promoting sustainable livelihoods among local communities in Kadoma district of Zimbabwe, 2011

24

means of living. The SL framework places people, particularly rural poor people, at the center of a

web of inter-related influences that affect how these people create a livelihood for themselves and

their households.

Key components of the SLA are assets and capital endowment, which are human capital, physical

capital, financial capital, social capital and natural capital as represented in the SLA by the asset

pentagon42. Linking the research to the SLA, the researcher asks key questions such as, does the

enterprise (ASM) affect access to assets, or change their quality or productivity; if natural resources

are used, are they used sustainably, how does the exploitation of natural capital impact on other

means of livelihoods based on natural capital; are cash earnings invested in human capital

(education, health) or other reserves (financial, physical assets) and does the enterprise strengthen

or undermine community co-operation and institutions, particularly institutions for common

property resource management?

Figure 1: Sustainable livelihoods framework. Adapted from Ashley and Carney 1999

42 Developing methodologies for livelihood impact assessment: Experience of the African Wildlife Foundation in East Africa, Working paper 129, Overseas Development Institute, Portland House, London UK, Caroline Ashley and Karim Hussein, 2000.

25

Mwaipopo et al (2004) argue that livelihood sustainability of ASM communities is challenged by

two key aspects. Firstly, the fact that ASM production is based on production of non-renewable

resources, and secondly is the limited geological knowledge that small-scale miners have about the

resource potential in their areas and technical skills on mining. Lastly the livelihoods approach

describes how livelihood strategies translate into outcomes and other livelihoods sources. The thesis

endeavors to investigate how revenues generated from ASM impact on the livelihoods of both

miners and non-miners.

2.2.5 Artisanal Mining Poverty Trap

The institutional and technical challenges faced by small-scale miners across have in most cases led

to the perpetuation of a vicious cycle of poverty. UNESCO promulgated ASM poverty trap model.

Poor and inadequate policies, inefficient equipment and an inability to diversify income earning

activities may be the main driving forces behind the impoverishment of ASM43. According to

findings from studies done by UNESCO artisanal mining if poorly managed can lead to a poverty

trap.

Figure 2: Artisanal mining poverty trap. Adapted from UNESCO, 2003

43 Artisanal and small scale mining: Improving the contribution of Artisanal and Small scale mining to sustainable development (nd)

26

The link between environment and livelihoods has long been made in many parts of the world44. In

particular, a vicious circle of degradation of the environment from small-scale mining can increase

poverty and thus exacerbate dependence upon natural resources. Studies across the globe and

Zimbabwe have revealed the link between environmental degradation and livelihoods poverty trap

(Mabhena 2010).

Labonne and Gilman (1990) note that poverty results from a denial of choices, which implies living

in a marginal and vulnerable environment; lack of opportunities further exhausts this environment.

Labone and Gilman (1990) further asset that in the most basic of situations, nomadic small-scale

miners use basic equipment and operate under harsh and risky conditions, they face considerable

challenges in their efforts to mechanize, unable to mobilize the funds needed to purchase

sophisticated equipment . Further understanding of the UNESCO Artisanal and Small scale mining

poverty trap reveals that a key to livelihood improvement is ensuring that the natural resource base

used by the poor is maintained and even improved. Sustainable livelihood strategies imply that the

economic needs of individuals and communities are integrated into the maintenance of the

environment. Ashley and Hussein, (2000) asset that poverty is multidimensional and the approaches

to reduce it have to be similarly multidimensional: political, economic, social and environmental.

Therefore, the reduction of poverty requires opportunities for the poor to do more for themselves in

all these sectors.

The major challenge in devising pro-poor policies for artisanal miners is to understand the

perception of the poor45. By interacting with them, one can gain their trust to achieve a real and

lasting ownership of the development process (Ashley and Hussein, 2000). In application of this

concept, many scholars agree that the poorest miners need access to productive resources and

appropriate knowledge of their use. In the case of artisanal mining, where there already is access to

resources, the challenge is to improve organisation and techniques.

44 Lei Shen, Aron James Gunson (2005), The role of artisanal and small scale mining in China’s economy, Journal of Cleaner Production 14 (2006), www.ciencedirect.com 45 Livelihoods and policy in the artisanal and small scale mining sector – An overview, Center for Development Studies, University of Wales Swansea (2004)

27

Yaro (2010) argues that one method would be to channel some of the income to spur alternative

production activities that demonstrate the possibility of sustainability. In some rural communities,

there is an over-reliance on mining as the sole potential economic engine as in the case of

Matabeleland South Province after the falloff the livestock industry. This dependence suggests a

potential opportunity to invest mining income in other livelihood activities. Thus the thesis

investigates how incomes from mining contribute to the livelihoods of miners and non-miners, does

mining income promote down-stream businesses. The UNESCO ASM poverty trap concept also

argues that, up-scaling of mining technology may contribute towards poverty reduction. Within

poor artisanal communities, women and children contribute significantly to household income.

2.3 Conclusion

The above discussed frameworks and the legislative provisions for ASM point to the research

questions and would help address them in this paper. Whereas the legislative provisions for mining

provide the basis of how legal arrangements have implications on ASM practice in Zimbabwe, the

SLA concept provides a foundation to the understanding of how livelihoods are constructed thus

would enable the researcher to make an informed inquiry and analyse of responses as to how ASM

impacts on livelihoods. The UNESCO ASM poverty trap model serves as a guide to previously

noted trends on the impacts of ASM on livelihoods.

To this end, the next chapter (3) discusses the research methodology utilized in the study.

28

Chapter 3

Research methodology

3.1 Introduction

Research methodology is seen by Miller (1979) as the planned sequence of the process involved in

conducting research. The research methodology is unquestionably the most complex process in

research given the enormous variability in their different paradigms, operations and the interactions

that take place. Stenbacka (2001) has it that the methodology situates the researchers in the

empirical world and connects them to specific sites, persons, groups, institutions, physical places

and bodies of relevant interpretive materials including documents and archives. It also seeks to

address the general planning of the research process, strategies and data collection techniques.

The quantitative approach was the dominant mode of research employed; the adoption of this mode

of inquiry was intended to permit full investigation of ASMs impacts on livelihoods in the selected

communities. Further to the quantitative method that was adopted, the researcher used qualitative

techniques for data validation. According to Kagan quoted by Bogdan and Biklen (1992) and Mites

and Huberman (1994) they argued that qualitative method of research enables researchers to learn

about how people behave in their contemporary surroundings and their lives. Through the

qualitative approach the researcher was able to observe and describe events as they occurred,

studied human interaction and responses as influenced by the need to enhance their livelihoods.

3.2 Study Area Background

Gwanda district (in Matabeleland South Province) consisted of 24 wards, is one of the driest

districts of Matabeleland South Province of Zimbabwe. The district has a population of 116 357

people (56,524 males and 59,833 females), target wards which are wards 6 and 21 have total

populations of 4,911 and 7,812 respectively based on the ZimStats, 2012 Census preliminary report.

The district falls under Agro-ecological region 5, characterized by very low erratic rainfall ranging

from 300mm to 400mm per annum. In the last 20 years Zimbabwe has experienced consecutive

droughts, a number of flash floods, crop pests and livestock diseases. These hazards have also

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affected and have been worse in Matabeleland Provinces (Ndlovu 2012), Gwanda District being

amongst the worst affected. Ndlovu (2012) also argues that droughts and prolonged dry spells have

contributed to chronic food insecurity and heavy loss of livestock through lack of pastures, water

and diseases. In the past people were surviving on small grains cropping and livestock rearing.

However droughts, diseases and recent economic meltdown in Zimbabwe have exacerbated the

situation. Since the beginning of the 21st

century small-scale gold mining activities have taken

center stage as a result of recurring droughts, loss of jobs through resettlement in large-scale

commercial farms, retrenchments as a result of ESAP (Murwendo et al 2011, Metcalf, 2008).

Ever worsening humanitarian situation has forced government and NGOs to intervene with relief

activities. A major relief activity is food aid (WFP, 2012). “World Food Programme and other

NGOs have been assisting communities for the past 15 years with food after each failed

agricultural season” (Social Services Officer, Gwanda RDC 2013). Livestock quality has

deteriorated and the monopolistic market controlled by the government has been offering low

prices. Gold panning has resulted in land degradation (Mabhena, 2012). Mabhena (2010) in his

thesis “Visible Hectares, Vanishing Livelihoods” further assets that a lot of vegetation has been

destroyed and the district is now susceptible to desertification due to improper land use, increased

human activity and impact of climate change. Increased human activities especially increased

unregulated open cast mining, increased number of livestock in relation to land and pastures have

damaged the environment (Ndlovu 2012). The discovery of gold and other minerals has resulted

sudden population growth in the district and target wards in particular as they are located in gold

belts46.

46 Gwanda District Strategic Plan 2012

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Figure 3: Map of study area, by author.

3.3 Research design

The researcher employed a combination of the exploratory and cross sectional research designs.

Exploratory research involved literature review and conducting focus group interviews. The

exploration of the ASM phenomena in this way helped the researcher’s need to triangulate data

obtained through interviews and questionnaires. The objective of exploratory approach was to

identify key issues and key variables. The researcher also employed cross-sectional study method in

observing a representative subset of the target population, during the research period. This approach

enabled the researcher to describe some features of the population, such as engagement in mining,

mining methods, use of proceeds from mining and how environmental impacts of ASM have

affected livelihoods.

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3.4 Study Population

The term population in research is used in much more definite way than as it is in its meaning

related to people. Aggarwal (1988:14) stated that the term population, in research, is used in a

broader sense than its common place meaning as a population of people. Aggarwal (1988) stated

that population may consists of persons, answers to various items of test, the behavior of inanimate

objects such as throws of dice or coins, cities, families, opinions of the electorate of a nation and the

like. In Aggarwal’s (1988) view, a population is a well-defined group of any of these.

In relation to the study, population referred to the people involved in artisanal and small scale

mining and the local residents of wards 21 and 6 of Gwanda district. The target population was

consisted of mine workers (from both the legally registered and illegal mines), local leadership,

local residents and the business community in the two wards. At a broader level, the project

engaged the local authorities and mining associations operational in the district and the two target

wards in particular.

There are 12 Artisanal and Small Scale Mines in the two target wards, each mine with an average of

20 workers although the figure fluctuates from time to time dependent on gold output prospects.

From these 12 mines, the research targeted 5 respondents from each mine. Ward 6 has a total

population of 4,911 people in 1,023 households; the research however targeted two villages in ward

6 which are Sigodo village and Gwakwe village because of their proximity to the mining area. 3

small scale mines are located in Sigodo village, these mines and those in ward 21 draw some of

their labour-force from Gwakwe village. Ward 21 has a total population of 7,812 people in 2,229

households; the two largest gold mines in Gwanda district which are Blanket Mine and

Vumbachikwe Mine are located in this ward. The majority of the households in this ward are in the

mining compounds as they are employed by the two large mines.

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The research targeted respondents for the research as show in table 2 below.

Table 2: Respondents for Questionnaire

Ward Artisanal and Small Scale

Mines

Local community Total # of

respondents

# of Mines Targeted # of Households Targeted

6 5 30 miners 30 H/H heads 60

21 8 30 miners 98 30 H/H heads 60

3.5 Sampling

Sampling is defined as “the process of selecting units (for example people, organizations) from a

population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to

the population from which they were chosen”47. The advantages that accrue from using a sample

rather than the entire population is the reduced cost in terms research budget to reach the entire

research population. Sampling enabled the researcher to manage time since the volume of data

collected was reduced, this enhance accuracy in data collection.

Sampling procedures used in the research were the stratified random sampling for miners and non-

miner respondents and the snow ball sampling method for key informants.

Stratified random sampling is a sampling method that involves the division of a population into

smaller groups known as strata. The strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or

characteristics. A random sample from each stratum is taken in a number proportional to the

stratum's size when compared to the population. These subsets of the strata are then pooled to form

a random sample.

The researcher firstly divided the target population based on ward boundaries and then further

divided these on village boundaries. For ward 6, two villages (Sigodo and Gwakwe) out of 6

villages were targeted. In ward 21 only the resettlement area was targeted. The main advantage

47 http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/sampling.php. Online (17/06/2013)

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realised with use of stratified sampling was its ability to capture key population characteristics in

the sample. Similar to a weighted average, this method of sampling produces characteristics in the

sample that are proportional to the overall population.

The researcher also utilized the snowball sampling method. Aggarwal (1998), posits that the term

snowball sampling stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but becomes bigger

and bigger as it rolls downhill. According to Aggarwal (1998) snowball sampling is used to

describe a sampling procedure in which the sample goes on becoming bigger and bigger as the

study proceeds. The researcher used the snowball sampling method in the selection of mining

administration agencies and other key informants (ASM associations, gold buyers and other

relevant stakeholders) for the in-depth interviews. The subjects identified firstly by the researcher

served as informants for the identification of more subjects. The advantage of this method was that

it enhanced detailed acquisition of information from knowledgeable individuals and practitioners in

the field of ASM. However, the only noted disadvantage with this sampling method was that it was

time consuming in terms of scheduling and obtaining consent with targeted respondents, also it

required strict management as the scope of the subject responses kept on increasing posing the

danger of derailing the study focus by too much data.

3.6 Entry into the Field

This was important in determining the successful completion of the research and collection of data.

At the field level authorization to conduct research was granted by the District Administrator and

the Community Relations Officer Zimbabwe Republic Police (Gwanda).

3.7 Data Collection

Drew, et.al (1985) described data collection from a research perspective as the actual execution of

the investigation which involves data recording through administering questionnaire, or interviews

and recording responses. According to Drew, et.al (1985) researchers should seek for data from a

variety of sources and of different types. He called this triangulation and argued that it can be

achieved by interviewing individuals with different point of view.

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Before carrying out data collection, the researcher conducted a pretest of the data collection tools

especially the in-depth and focus group interviews. This was necessitated by the fact that the quality

of data to be analyzed is dependent on the quality of data that would be recorded. The pretest

enabled the researcher to acquire skills on gaining rapport and techniques to administer research

instruments. The data collection instruments used were the in–depth interview, focus group

discussion and observation.

The researcher developed and employed questionnaires (see Annex 1 and 2) to capture in a

statistical form the responses to the research questions. Drew, et.al (1985) assets that

questionnaires have advantages over some other types of survey tools in that they are cheap to

develop and administer, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone

surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. Boyce (2006)

however argues that such standardized answers may frustrate users, questionnaires are also sharply

limited by the fact that respondents must be able to read the questions and respond to them. Thus,

for some demographic groups conducting a survey by questionnaire may not be practical. However,

for this research a majority of respondents were literate, for the illiterate the researcher translated

the questionnaire into the local language (Ndebele). Research questionnaires were administered to

60 miners and 60 non-miners.

In-depth interviews were conducted with key informants (see Annex 3). Boyce (2006) defines in-

depth interviews as a qualitative research technique that involves conducting intensive individual

interviews with a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives on a particular idea,

programme and situation. In this study, the researcher used a one-on-one interview approach with

selected respondents. Interviews were undertaken to examine the impact of ASM on livelihoods of

miners and local community members, livelihood strategies carved out to enhance economic

wellbeing and finally problems local communities encounter in their livelihoods strategies. Use of

in-depth interviews was proved appropriate in interviewing people with busy schedules especially

technicians, mine workers other professionals. Respondents for the in-depth interviews were

selected through a snowballing sampling method. This method was time consuming as it involved a

35

lot of travelling, to make appointments with respondents before undertaking the same journey again

for the purpose of conducting the actual interview. This increased the research costs for

transportation and communication.

According to Pratt and Loizos (1992) focus group interviews are intended to encourage collective

response and to identify differences of opinion as well as areas of consensus within the group. At

the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. Scholars argued that the hallmark of

focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to generate data and insights that would be

unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in groups. The researcher conducted four focus

group discussions (two for the miners and two for the non-miners. These were used for validation

(triangulation) of data obtained through in-depth interviews and questionnaires. Use of this method

of data collection enabled the researcher to note group dynamics, such as the differences in

problems experienced by the groups, hidden attitudes and perceptions.

In addition to the above mentioned data collection methods utilized, the researcher also used the

camera and observation methods to verify data presented by respondents. Use of a camera was done

with the consent of the participants being observed.

3.8 Data triangulation

Triangulation is used to indicate that more than two methods were used in a study with a view to

double (or triple) check results. This is also called "cross examination"48. Triangulation in particular

refers to the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same

phenomenon49. Triangulation is a powerful technique that was used in the validation of data

through cross verification from more than two sources. The multiple methods used in the study

were the in-depth interview, questionnaires and focus group discussions.

48 Cheng, Liying (2005: 72) Changing language teaching through language testing: A wash back study. Cambridge University Press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)#Types. ( 15.06.2013) 49 Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2006). Qualitative research in education: An introduction to theory and methods. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0205512256. from - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)#Types. (15.06.2013)

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3.9 Conclusion

Three major data collection instruments, namely the questionnaire, focus group discussion and

interviews were identified as appropriate in approaching this social science study. Guiding

questions for each method identified were then established and research questionnaires pre-tested

for validity.

Finally the data was collated, analysed and synthesized ready for interpretation, discussion and

conclusion drawing. This entailed reducing the massive volume of information, identifying

significant patterns, and constructing a framework for communicating the essence of what the data

revealed or in simple terms, organizing it, describing it, and categorizing it according to sources of

verification or questions. This proved an invaluable exercise with the shared experiences facilitating

the explanation and interpretation of the results. Chapter 4 is data presentation and analysis.

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Chapter 4

Data Presentation and Analysis

4.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the data presentation and analysis for the research conducted from the 22nd

of July to the 1st of August 2013 on the impacts of artisanal and small scale mining on livelihoods, a

case of Gwanda District, wards 6 and 21. Research tools used were the questionnaire and focus

group discussion. The following chapter is a data presentation and analysis interrogating the

complex relationship between ASM and livelihoods for miners and non-miners in wards 26 and 6

of Gwanda district.

4.3 Research findings

4.3.1 Summary of findings

The researcher used the Sustainable Livelihood Framework in the interrogation of the nexus

between ASM and livelihoods. Figure 5 below summarises the research findings.

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Figure 6: Impacts of ASM on livelihoods (SLF analysis of study)

4.3.2 Demographics

Pie chart below shows that there were more male respondents (74% males) than females (26%

males), mining is a traditionally male dominated profession. It is expected that having more male

respondents was an advantage as ASM is mainly undertaken by males hence their assessment of the

mining situation is expected to be more accurate.

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Figure 4: Gender breakdown of respondents

4.3.3 Miner engagement status

Research findings shows that ASM has been a viable source of livelihood for the miners, this

assertion is supported by the majority of respondents (75%) as shown in figure 6 below. The few

respondents who argue that mining is not a full time employment reported that to supplement their

income miners are engaged in a variety of activities that include engagement in crime, gambling

and agricultural livelihoods (crop and animal husbandry). As noted in many other studies, in many

areas mining is a seasonal occupation with proceeds reinvested in farming and ranching, the case is

largely similar in Gwanda were miners reinvest their capital in other income earning activities.

However it was noted in focus group discussions that most miners are migrants, they reinvest their

income in their home areas not necessarily in Gwanda or wards 6 and 26 were the study was

undertaken. These findings show that ASM has had a positive impact on human capita through

increased employment and increase in revenues earned by miners leading to sustenance of other

livelihood capitals.

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Figure 6: Engagement of miners (responses in %)

4.3.4 Livelihood impacts of ASM

Respondents further argued that the sector has become a profitable sector, these sentiments are

supported by ministry of finance. Respondents argue that the profitability of ASM is attributed to

the engagement of miner’s fulltime in mining. The fact that there are no minimum qualifications

required for one to become a miner has ensured access to the sector by many people thus

contributing to provision of employment for the majority. Increased employment has led to positive

gains in the financial, physical, human and social capitals. 20% of the respondents were not sure if

ASM has become a profitable endeavor or not.

The researcher drew comparisons on respondent’s perception on the rate of occurrence/ promotion

of various means of survival to investigate how ASM has impacted on the financial, human and

social capitals. Respondent’s responses were categorized into 7 categories as follows: crime,

prostitution, gambling, size of land under crops and size of livestock herds. Table 3 below shows

responses acquired showing respondent’s perception of how the current situation compares to

period before mining.

41

Table 3: Rate of occurrence of means of survival

Item Increased (%) Decreased (%)

1 Crime 88 12

2 Prostitution 56 44

3 Gambling 20 80

4 Land under crop 0 100

5 Livestock herds 12 88

The majority of respondents noted that while ASM has had a positive impact on livelihoods, it has

also contributed to the rise in occurrence of negative coping mechanisms adopted by both miners

and non-miners alike over the past few years. 88% of the respondents noted a rise in crime rates and

56% a rise in prostitution. Focus group discussions revealed that the rise in crime rates is caused by

the lack of financial security associated with an ASM mining economy, poor cash flow injection

into the main economy coupled with the negative effects of ASP on the environment have led to

poor performance of other sectors such as agriculture (crop and animal husbandry). Most common

crimes in the target area were noted to be muggings done mostly by miners who would have failed

to prosper through the mining endeavor, statistics from Gwanda ZRP show that in the past year

only there have been three cases of attempted murder.

According to Sigodo village secretary, most marriages of miners are necessitated by a need for

security by females as they cohabit with the highest earners of the season. Although, females are

also involved in mining their earnings are usually less as compared to those of their male

counterparts since they are not able to work in deep shafts owing to lack of proper equipment and

the physical effort needed for conducting deep underground mineral ore extraction. These

sentiments were also echoed by a stamp mill manager, he concurs with the assertions made by the

village secretary above, he further notes that the quarry loads brought in for milling by female

miners are relatively smaller than those brought by males. Generally female miners earn less than

males owing to the above mentioned factors.

No conclusive consensus was reached on prostitution as only 56% of the respondents reported a rise

in prostitution compared to the 44% who reported a decrease. Information obtained through focus

group discussions show that the majority of miners are cohabiting, the rate of changing partners is

42

very high, and it is difficult however to then term that occurrence prostitution. Rise in levels of

prostitution has a negative effect in that it has a potential to decimate the human capital through the

spread of diseases like HIV/ AIDS. With these negative effects on the human capital, it then can be

concluded prostitution may lead to a reversing of the gains on livelihoods brought forward by ASM

as proceeds will no longer be reinvested in the promotion of other sectors but used to care for the

sick thus leading to economic stagnation or decline.

Furthermore, all respondents (100%) reported that land under agriculture and livestock herds (88%)

have been on the decline since the beginning of ASM in the area. This is in agreement with

responses from focus group discussions were respondents attributed a reduction in cropping area to

competition for labour and other capitals (financial and physical) between mining and field

activities. The decline in livestock herds has been as a result of the decimation of pastures by

miners who use metal detectors, poisoning of livestock though irresponsible use of mining

chemicals in rivers and other water sources50. The ZSM argues that the above stated challenges

further puts credence to the assertions of the ASM poverty trap model that ASM leads to the

perpetuation of poverty through mismanagement of non-renewable resources.

4.3.5 Utilization of proceeds from mining

Analysis of the impact of ASM on the human capital show that there has been an increase in

amongst other issues access to education for children through increased incidents of payment of

school fees. Table 4 below shows that 66% of miners and 60% of non-miners stated that the mining

proceeds have been used in the payment of education fees for miners and non-miners children alike.

The physical capital (road, household and other service infrastructure) of the target wards have not

changed significantly since the commencement of mining activities. Focus group discussions

revealed that most miners are not permanently resident in the area, they send money to their homes

for reinvestment and purchasing household goods. These research findings are in agreement with

those of the ZIMVAC 2013/2014 season, the report states that during the 2012/ 2013 consumption

year, poor roads, transport, infrastructure and communication (17.2%) and production water

shortages (11.5%) were cited as the most common challenges faced by the sampled communities.

50 Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Gwanda District Office

43

This was followed by poor access to education (8.9%), inadequate health facilities (8.8%) and poor

water and sanitation (8.8%)51. Respondents conceded to the fact that there is a high incidence of use

of mining proceeds in purchase of food, 78% and 80% by non-miners and miners respectively,

through focus group discussions respondents revealed that the drop in the number of incidents of

miners begging for food from neighbors is a sign that ASM has contributed to an improvement in

food security It however has to be noted that food security has improved only in mining areas of

these wards, the ZIMVAC 2013/2014 draft survey report highlights that Matabeleland South

Province has the highest food insecurity population, pegged at 32% (196 508 Households) for the

2013/2014 season, a rise of 2% when compared to the 2012/2013 season which stood at 30%. The

same report pegs Gwanda District food insecure population at 25.1%, amber codes ward 6, one of

the target wards as being critically food insecure52.

Profitability of ASM has not been translated to prosperity for all sectors in the economy hence there

are still many vulnerable groups and some of these resort to crime. As shown in table 4 below 64%

of respondents who are miners and 80% of non-miners reported an increase in the incidents of use

of mining proceeds in the purchase of clothes. The rise of sale of cheap second hand clothes in flea

markets coupled with hawkers stationed at stamping mills53 selling these wares has increased the

incidents of miners immediately purchasing clothes after obtaining their proceeds from gold. The

low levels of use of mining proceeds in payment of lobola noted by both miners and non-miners

alike was attributed to the informal nature of the marriages entered into by the panners.

51 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 141 52 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 125, 152, 218 53 Stamping mills – these are ore crushing mills for the extraction of gold from rocks.

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Table 4: Analysis table on utilization of proceeds from mining

Item

Miners No-miners

Yes (%)

1 Pay education fees for children 66 60

2 Health (pay health expenses for family) 54 72

3 Purchase enough food at home 72 68

4 Purchase clothes 64 80

5 House construction 10 10

6 Purchase TV 40 45

7 Purchase radio 88 75

8 Pay lobola 6 40

Key informants revealed that there are regressive psycho-social tendencies associated with informal

small-scale mining. They argue that the majority of miners fail to plan for their future owing to the

promise of getting more gold tomorrow, thus they fail to build or renovate houses. True to the

assertions by key informants, one miner said there was no hurry in planning for the future as

‘igolide kalipheli kuphela amandla endoda’ (literally translated, means gold reserves can never be

finished, it is only ones energy that fails). This they argue, also explains the flamboyant life styles

synonymous with miners immediately after selling their gold were they splash their money without

foresight for provision for the future. The majority of miners in focus group discussions revealed

that they did not have medical aid or life policy savings.

4.3.6 ASM and income levels

When asked if they were getting more money now than 5-10 years ago most miners (68%) stated

that their incomes have increased. This they attributed to amongst many factors, the gains of the

land reform programme, working with district elites in mining hence ensuring their safety from

prosecution even if they are working without mining licenses, the advent of the vuvuzela mining54

and or those operating in legally registered mines the continued albeit at a slow rate acquisition of

mining equipment has helped in increasing production. Mining experts from the Zimbabwe School

of Mines argue that the use of metal detectors has led to an increase in miner incomes as the process

involves minimal labour as compared to underground mining and also miners can cover vast tracks

54 Clifford Mabhena (2012): Mining with a ‘Vuvuzela’: reconfiguring artisanal mining in Southern Zimbabwe and its implications to rural livelihoods, Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 30:2, 219-233. Mining with a vuvuzela refers to the use of metal dictators in the search for gold.

45

of land. They further posit a question if the increased income measures up to the environmental

degradation caused by this form of mining. In addition to the earlier mentioned reasons for the rise

in incomes, miners in focus group discussions all concurred that more experience gained over the

years in mining contributed largely towards a rise in earnings as their efficiency in resource

utilization has increased and lag time in production has decreased.

Few miners (12%) stated that their income has decreased over the past years. 20% of the miners

report that the earnings from ASM have remained largely the same over the years despite the

gradual ASM activities. The low government prices have contributed to the proliferation of the

black market and smuggling of gold to neighbouring countries like South Africa and Botswana.

Miners reporting huge increases in their earnings are largely involved in gold smuggling or selling

through unofficial channels. The president of the Zimbabwe Artisanal and Small Scale Miners

Council (ZASMC) argues that the country needs to legalize and register all small scale miners and

also provide competitive prices for the purchase of gold so as to motivate miners to sell in official

markets.

Although no formal statistics on trends of gold output by the ASM sector have been obtained,

miners highlighted that there have been variances in output and profitability of the sector over the

years. On the economic front, monetary policies like the dollarization have had a positive impact on

profitability and production. This the miners attribute to the firming of gold prices and also the

stabilization of inflation allowing for retention of value of proceeds. Global demand has also been a

constant determinant of production and profitability, as earlier stated the World Gold Council as

quoted in the Mining Weekly (Volume 19, 2013) reports that demand for gold Jewellery rose by

12% in the first quarter of 2013. The rise in demand also fuelled a corresponding rise in mining

activities in supply nations55 and also a corresponding rise in gold prices.

Legal experts consulted concurred with miners’ assertions that national policies have had an impact

on ASM productivity and profitability in the country. The expansion of gold panning was most

rapid after the implementation of the Economic Structural Adjustment programme (ESAP) of the

55 Upward Trajectory, Mining Weekly, Volume 19, 2013

46

early 1990s, which saw a significant decline in formal employment and the subsequent move of

labour into informal sectors in search of livelihoods (Murombedzi 2005, Mabhena 2012). In target

wards, respondents noted that ASM proliferation started increasing during the period of the

implementation of the Land Reform programme. This period was characterized by opening up of

lands previously privately owned (farms), unrestricted access to these lands coupled with minimal if

any regulatory structures to manage the lands promoted proliferation of illegal mining activities.

The rise of ASM through the land reform policy was not without its negative impacts, Mabhena

(2010) assets that unregulated mining in resettlement areas has caused wanton environmental

degradation, contributed to an increase in food insecurity owing to reduction in land under crops

and decimation of wild life. The former Minister of Education (David Coltart) weighs in on these

sentiments noting that Zimbabwe faces “long term ruin” from the activities of gold panners56.

These negative environmental effects of ASM if left unchecked can lead to a poverty trap not only

for miners but other individuals not involved in mining.

4.3.7 Impact of ASM on community

Figure 7 below shows that 60% of the respondents assert that ASM has contributed to an increase in

markets for downstream businesses. Major industries benefiting from the proliferation of ASM are

the retail (grocery and bottle stores) and the industry support businesses such as carpenters and

electricians. These findings are in line with findings by Aryee (2003) in Ghana and those of Hinton

and Veiga (2004) in Tanzania, were they report that several local equipment manufacture

businesses, including fabricators of wood winches and washing drums, have emerged to service a

burgeoning artisanal gold mining economy (Maconachie & Hilson 2011).

Rise in mining has had a negative effect on the social capital as it has contributed to a rise crime

rates. In 2012 alone the ZRP Gwanda reports that there have were nine (9) murder cases reported

and investigated in wards 6 and 2157. Respondents also noted that there has been an increase in

muggings and gambling. These findings correlate assertions by Maconachie and Hilson (2011) who

argue that the employment, income and production generated from ASM often come with

significant costs to miners and nearby communities’ health, safety and environment.

56 www.mikecampbellfoundation.com/page/freeforall-gold-mining-creates -waste-lands-coltart 57 ZRP Gwanda, Public Relations Officer, 21 July 2013

47

Only 10% of the respondents noted that ASM has contributed to improved infrastructural

development. The low level of infrastructural development in the area was attributed to the fact that

most miners are migrants from out of Gwanda district hence they reinvest their earnings in their

home areas. Also the land ownership structure makes it difficult for infrastructural development as

most miners are either lodgers or staying in shacks in the mining areas hence not allowed to make

permanent infrastructural developments.

Figure 7: Impact of ASM on community

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4.3.8 Impacts of environmental effects of ASM on local livelihoods

Picture 1: Land mined using metal detectors Picture 2: Unprotected dis-used shaft mines

Past studies have almost all conceded to the fact that mining especially ASM has had a largely

negative impact on the environment. More recently, the advent of metal detectors as gold

prospecting devices has hit the gold mining areas in Zimbabwe and Gwanda district. Picture 1

above shows land mined following detection of availability of gold, caterpillars and hundreds of

miners descend on the land and strip it bare of top soil and vegetation in search of gold.

Deforestation caused by mining using detectors has led to, among many other negative impacts,

destruction of eco-life and has been implicated by many scholars to lead to increased runoff.

Picture 2 shows disused mine shafts left un-reclaimed and unsecured by small scale gold miners in

ward 6, Gwanda district. These unprotected disused mine shafts pose a trap for domestic animals

and wildlife, can be breeding site for parasites like mosquitoes and destroy the scenic view of an

area.

The majority of respondents (60%) reported that ASMs environmental effects have had negative

effects on local livelihoods (Figure 6 below). Main effects noted were the un-reclaimed and

unsecured mines that present hazards to livestock in the areas. The ZIMVAC 2013/2014 draft

survey report states that Matabeleland South Province the highest cause of livestock (cattle) loss in

49

the province is drought, pegged at 69%58. Environmental effects of mining thus further compound

on the effects of drought in crippling the ranching industry. Furthermore, mining has led to a

hardening of water (salty water) following the use of chemicals in minerals processing. Although

large mines have protected tailings facilities, the water they use in minerals processing seeps into

the ground and eventually contaminates the underground water system. Drilling of deep mine shafts

in the areas has also been blamed for the drying up of boreholes near the mines. 30% of the

respondents noted that the environmental effects of mining have had no effect on local livelihoods

as mining is not conducted in the middle of the community. Only 10% of the respondents reported

that the environmental effects of ASM have had no effect on local livelihoods. It thus can be

concluded from data obtained that the environmental impacts of mining have a largely negative

impact on local livelihoods.

Figure 8: Environmental impacts of ASM on local livelihoods

4.3.9 Community decision making on ASM

In Zimbabwe the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165, which is administered by the Ministry of

Mines and Mine Development provides the main legislative framework for all mining activities.

Furthermore, the Mining (Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations of 1991 represented a bold

step by the Zimbabwean government in the regulation of the sector. All respondents noted that they

58 Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee draft report for 2013/ 2014 season, published August 2013, pp. 90

50

have not been involved in decision making on mining. Thus it can be concluded that the

promulgation of the mining laws has not been translated to empowering communities to make

decisions or be involved in decision making on mining activities in their communities. Key

informants revealed that mining laws in Zimbabwe employ a top-down approach were decisions are

made at an executive level and only pushed on communities for implementation. In Gwanda

district, 70% of gold belt area is under Caledonia Mining Corporation the owners of Blanket Mine

concession59, they are responsible for leasing out to small scale registered miners, not the

community that will have to live with the miners. Unregistered miners only need to find a rich gold

belt then they start mining even without consulting community members.

4.3.10 Challenges faced by miners

Figure 9 below shows that the majority of respondents (54%) cited lack of capital as a major

challenge faced by the ASM sector. Most of the small-scale miners are not legally registered hence

they cannot access loan facilities in banks and other financial houses. Legal experts interviewed

argue that the Mines and Minerals Development Act in the country favors Large Scale Miners

(LSM), leading to a low investor confidence in the ASM sector as there is poor security of

investment. 15% of the respondents cited the harsh government legislation that is available in

dealing with the sector as a leading deterrent in the growth of the sector. In agreement with the

views of the miners the Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe notes that the ministry of Mines and

Mining Development published new mining fees and charges on 27 January 2012, these fees and

charges are very high compared to those that are paid in other countries with significant mining

industries for similar activities60.

In addition to the prohibitive costs of obtaining a prospectors license there are added costs of

acquiring an environmental assessment certificate (EAC) required before a mining license can be

awarded. Miners note that the department of EMA has not done enough to educate them on

environmental management. Continued harassment of miners by the police in mining areas has led

to the rise in corruption were miners have resorted to bribing officers. The lack of incentives for

59 Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development, Gwanda District Office, August 2013 60 The Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe, 2012 Annual Report

51

abiding with government requirements to register have mainly lead to the proliferation of gold

smuggling, respondents also argued that selling through official channels comes at a loss for miners

owing to very low government prices hence their preference of illegal markets.

Further to the above mentioned challenges faced by miners, 31% of the miners stated that a lack of

equipment has crippled many operations. As mentioned earlier, approximately 70% of area with

rich gold belts in Gwanda district is under the Caledonia Mining Corporation which operates

Blanket Mine and the working arrangement has been that small-scale miners should not insert

headgears on their mines and also are limited to 60m deep operations. This has led to failure to fully

exploit mineral resources in the area. Despite Blanket Mine placing restrictions to the amount of

mechanization for the small-scale miners, miners’ ability to procure equipment is prohibited by lack

of capital and failure to access loans.

15%

31%54%

Low production

Harsh gorvernment laws

lack of equipment

Fall in prices

Lack of organisation

Lack of capital

Figure 9: Challenges faced by miners

On challenges faced by the ASM sector, figure 10 below shows that the highest number of

respondents (33%) mentioned that the challenges faced in ASM are other than the need for

formalization (30%), promotion of financing for the sector (20%) and provision of training for

miners (13%). The 33% argued that the complex nature of the challenges faced by the ASM sector

call for a multi-pronged approach in solving them. Top amongst the suggested possible solutions

52

was the need for concerted efforts to minimise or eradicate corruption in the administration of the

sector.

Furthermore, respondents argued that there is a need for development of appropriate legislature to

fully administer the sector. In agreement with these sentiments, the Mines and Minerals

Development Deputy Minister61 while officially opening the 2013 Mine Entra expo noted that the

ASM sector has not been proactive in creating linkages with the rest of the economy, as the country

still exports raw materials62. In a bid to reduce the challenges faced by miners, including the ASM

sector the ministry is crafting a Minerals Development Policy aimed at transforming the industry.

The Deputy Minister, addressing delegates during the Zimbabwe Artisanal and small scale mining

Councils Mine Entra Conference noted that following the documentation of the numerous

challenges faced by the ASM sector, the government has come up with the syndication programme

and service centers. Under the syndication, the government will formalize the ASM sector

organizing miners into groups and licensing them. The successful implementation of the

syndication programme will see the government providing extension support to small-scale miners

and creating employment opportunities. In addition, the programme will see more revenue inflows

into government coffers since minerals produced will be formally marketed through the service

centers63.

The ZAMSC president however notes that government initiatives although noble will only be

successful if coupled/ supported with an equal commitment in offering a competitive buying price

for gold and capital injection in agreement with 20% of the respondents who argued that securing

capital/ investments to support the growth of the ASM sector is critical to the sectors growth and

sustainability. Legal experts in Gwanda concur with the president of ZAMSC and the miners in that

the establishment of service centers and licensing of miners is a half measure if miners are not

going to be capitalized, the market stimulated to be favorable for trading to be done formally and

also the government legislative arms committed to administering policies on mining appropriately.

Legal experts also note that the problems faced by miners arise and are perpetuated by the elites

61 Mines and Minerals Development Deputy Minister, Gift Chimanikire, 2013 62 Creating linkages in mining, Daily Bulletin, Mine Entra 2013, 26 July Issue 63 Government to formalise artisanal, informal miners, Daily Bulletin, Mine Entra, 26 July Issue

53

who are benefiting from the current setup. 13% of the respondents noted that there is a need for

trainings on sustainable mining if the problems of ASM sector are to be solved.

Figure 10: Possible solutions to challenges faces in ASM sector

4.3.11 Mining policies

All miners interviewed including key informants stated that they are aware that mining in

Zimbabwe is governed by legislations, the Mines and Minerals Act Chapter 165 and the Mining

(Alluvial gold) (Public Streams) Regulations in 1991, which are administered by the Ministry of

Mines and Mine Development. It is noted that these provide the main legislative framework for all

mining activities in the country.

Legal experts however note with concern that while these acts do not inhibit the development of

ASM, they are not promotional either. There is need for a comprehensive Mineral Development

Policy to guide the development of the minerals industry. The Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe

states that the government is in the process of developing a new comprehensive Mineral

Development policy that will also encompass the administration of ASMs.

13 small-scale mines in wards 6 and 26 are legally registered and have valid mining licenses. A host

of other miners operating in river banks and in abandoned mine shafts are unregistered. The

54

research focused on all people involved in mining hence both the registered miners and unregistered

ones were interviewed and involved in focus group discussions.

Figure 11 below shows that the majority of respondents (50%) are of the opinion that obtaining

mining licenses is a difficult process. Many miners stated that they have in the past tried and failed

to obtain prospectors licenses due to a variety of reasons, to amongst them being the requirement of

too many documents acquired in different offices in different towns and the prohibitive costs of

acquiring a license. 30% of the respondents argued that is easy to obtain a mining licenses. They

argue that one needs only to have all required documentation in order to obtain the license. Those

saying that it is difficult to obtain a mining license argue that the requirements for one to obtain a

mining license are in themselves prohibitive for many prospective miners. Only 20% of the

respondents stated that they were unaware if the obtaining a mining license is easy or difficult as

they have never interested themselves in the process of obtaining a mining license.

Figure 11: Is it easy to obtain a mining license?

4.3.11 Benefits of operating with a license

Figure 12 below shows that the majority of respondents (60%) argue that having a mining license

has one major benefit in that miners have freedom to exploit and sell minerals. Respondents note

that police raids have largely rendered the operations of illegal miners difficult as they are always

55

on the run, if caught miners are forced to bribe the officers with the gold they would be having to

avoid persecution. 20% of the respondents reported that operating with a miner’s license enabled

them to easily market and carry their gold to markets without fear of prosecution. They further

explained that the freedoms they enjoy are far outweighed by the poor prices they have to contend

with in selling their gold through the formal markets were the prices are very low compared to the

parallel market. Focus group discussions and key informants all concur on the fact that small-scale

miners are now in the practice of selling smaller portions of their produce to the government in

order to satisfy a licensing requirement and the larger portion through the informal markets so that

they could make reasonable profits in their operations. A further 20% of the respondents noted that

there are no benefits accrued from operating with a license.

Figure 12: Benefits of having mining license

4.3.12 Enforcement of mining legislation

Respondents were of varied views on the issue of the administration of available mining policies in

the country, 50% of the respondents argued that mining laws are not being properly administered on

the ground yet 33% argue to the contrary, that these laws are being properly administered.

Respondents who stated laws are being properly administered assert that the legal provisions

currently available as law on mining were not crafted to administer the small-scale mining sector

hence in their application there are challenges when it comes to regulation of the ASM sector, this

56

however they argue does not mean that the pieces legislation/ policy are not being implemented

properly. Legal experts and other key informants argue that the current mining laws favor LSMs,

hence even in setting up of mining fees the focus is on the LSM sector and in the process crippling

the ASM sector as noted by the Chamber of mines of Zimbabwe64.

Figure 13: Are mining laws being properly enforced

Figure 13 above shows that 17% of the respondents were not aware if legislation is being properly

implemented or not. Findings from focus group discussions revealed that these respondents were

aware that there is legislation governing the operations of mining however they were not aware of

its nature. Thus, this calls for a massive awareness campaign on awareness on policy for the mining

community.

4.3.13 Institutional support

The majority of respondents (55%) were not aware of any support offered to small-scale miners in

Zimbabwe. They stated that they have heard of the formation of Small-scale mining

Corporations/Associations however despite joining some of there have not been any real benefit

they accessed or any support either technically or in promotion of market linkages. 27% state that

they are aware of support available to small-scale miners, the majority of those in this group are

64 Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe, Annual Report 2012

57

mine owners and former professionals who went into mining following the economic crunch in the

country. Figure 14 below shows that from the 27% who alluded to the availability of support to

small-scale miners, the majority (50%) asset that marketing support from Small-scale mining

associations and the Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development, 30% said there is technical

support offered in the form mining skills and environmental management trainings yet only 20%

argued that there is support in the form of provision of exploration equipment. Findings from key

informants and focus group discussions show that support available for small scale miners includes

market linkages such as the Mine Entra, ASM conferences and linking miners to loan facilities such

as the Ministry of Youth Development and Empowerment, the Women Miners Association also

through the Ministry of Women’s Affairs has access to loan facilities. Figure 15 below shows that

60% of the respondents who noted the availability of support for small-scale miners said that

accessing these facilities was difficult. Respondents argued that the difficulty in accessing the

support was mainly due to the lack of legal registrations by most small-scale miners, for those

legally registered the loan requirements are prohibitive as most entrepreneurs have no facilities to

declare as collateral in loan applications.

20% of the respondents as shown in figure 16 asset that they are unaware if the available support

services are easily accessible. Only 20% argue that the facilities are easily accessible. Key

informants posit that the support services are easily accessible. They argue that a lack of awareness

on proper channels to be followed to obtain the support largely caused by the poor communication

amongst miners and the poor coordination efforts of small-scale mining cooperatives in information

dissemination and awareness building for the stifled access to support.

58

Figure 14: Perception on availability of support to ASM sector

30%

20%

50%

Technical training

Exploration equipment

Marketing

Figure 15: Available support offered to ASM sector

59

Figure 16: Accessibility of institutional support

4.4 Conclusion

The chapter presented and analysed data obtained from the field. The researcher interviewed a total

of 160 respondents, there were 60miners and 60 non-miners. Research findings show that ASM has

been a viable means of livelihood for miners with little contribution to those of the non-mining

community. ASM has not only been contributing to the growth of employment rates for rural poor

but also for urban dwellers and professionals. Challenges faced by the sector are numerous and

complex requiring multi-sectorial collaboration and commitment to proper administration of the

sector.

60

Chapter 5

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Introduction

Research on the nexus between ASM and livelihoods in Gwanda District took place just after the

holding of the harmonized elections in the country yet before the announcement of the election

results. The atmosphere during this period was tense, the country operating under a caretaker

government. This situation compounded the challenges of access target area and suspicion on

motives of researcher. The heightened political contestations, coupled with fear of authorities by

miners, especially those operating without permits further hindered the data collection process.

Chapter 1 introduced the statement of the problem, background and rationale of the study,

research questions, the significance of the study and assumptions. The conceptual framework and

literature review to enhance understanding of the study was dealt with in detail in Chapter 2 of

the study, while Chapter 3 covered the research methodology. Research results, findings,

discussions and analysis were presented in Chapter 4. This chapter then (Chapter 5) attempts to

summarily present the research conclusions and put forward possible solutions,

recommendations on way forward and implications for future study.

5.2 Conclusions

The chapter focused on research data presentation and analysis. Research findings show that

ASM has become a leading source of livelihoods in the target wards and possibly in gold rich

areas. This sector has become the leading employer for unskilled and semi-skilled laborers in

rural and urban areas. Growth of the sector has been coupled with both positive and negative

impacts on the human, physical, social, natural and human capitals. From data gathered it

emerged that the positive impacts of ASM as a livelihood strategy far outweigh its negative

impacts. Furthermore, the research came to the conclusion that ASM has been an effective

livelihood strategy, promoting the growth of downstream industries, enhancing human capital

61

development, however its contribution to the livelihoods of non-miners is limited as there is no

means of transfer of mining proceeds for injection into community development.

Respondents noted with great concern the destruction of environment (deforestation, siltation of

dams, poisoning of water sources with mining chemicals and drying up of water bodies owing to

drop in water table) from which they mainly drove their livelihoods and the rise in unsavory

coping means like crime and prostitution. Respondents argue that with proper administration the

sector stands to be amongst the highest contributors to improving the livelihoods of community

members.

Data obtained through various methods revealed that the ASM sector is faced with a lot of

challenges, chief amongst which is the lack of proper legislative framework for the

administration of the sector, poor mineral pricing in the formal sector and lack of institutional

support (lack of capital, training and equipment). Prohibitive conditions for the acquiring of

mining licenses have contributed to a continued failure to register by miners. Although, it was

stated by some respondents that there is institutional support available for mall-scale miners, the

prohibitive conditions for the access to those resources makes it difficult for startup miners to

reach out and get assistance.

The research thus was able to bring to light the nexus between ASM and livelihoods of both

miners and non-miners alike, noting the institutional and operational challenges faced by the

ASM sector.

5.3 Recommendations

Following the above research findings the following are the recommendations:

1. The government should be lobbied to come up with a comprehensive Mines and Mineral

Development policy, taking lessons from China and South Africa amongst other

countries who have managed to put in place policies that regulate and promote the growth

of the mining sector targeting both the LSM and ASM.

62

2. An enabling environment should be promoted for a healthy growth of the sector.

Relevant ministries and institutions should make support (financial and technical)

accessible to all requiring the support. For instance, the conditions/requirements for

accessing loans by small-scale miners should be different from those of large scale

miners as these two institutions have differing operational environments, while LSM has

many assets they can put up as collateral, small-scale miners do not have assets to use as

collateral.

3. Decentralisation of minerals purchasing offices and offering competitive prices so as to

minimise/ eradicate minerals smuggling. Research findings show that ASM is a profitable

endeavour yet its contribution to minerals deliveries to central government is minimal as

most of their produce they sell in the informal sector were prices are attractive.

4. Further to the above recommendations, the researcher would recommend that mining

policy should promote close interaction and empower communities in decision making

on mining as this is of importance in preserving the mining town’s heritage and identity.

Although it is still too early to review the impact of the community ownership scheme in

community development, the researcher recommends that this be adapted for small-scale

mines so that they too can contribute towards the development of the surrounding

communities.

5. It is also recommended that there be further studies on the psycho-social impacts of ASM

on miners and non-miners alike.

5.6 Conclusion

The persistent vulnerability, poverty and dependency in the Gwanda District is largely a direct

result of protracted droughts, economic slump in the country and poor policy framework. The

rise of ASM as an alternative source of livelihood in the country was a direct response to the

above mentioned challenges coupled with massive unemployment. The chapter presented

research conclusions and recommendations for improving the ASM sector and improving its

contributions to the economy and the livelihoods of the rural populations. Also evident from the

research findings were the deep seated and strained political, economic, social, technological,

63

legal and environmental conditions that have become a threat to achieving sustainable ASM

sector.

64

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Ways Forward, The University of Reading, UK

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http://www.ifad.org/sla/, Sustainable livelihoods approach- IFAD accessed 6 June 2013, 11:16am

ANNEX 1: Non-miners questionnaire

Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………

My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development

Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You

have been selected from other villagers to help provide your views about small-scale gold

mining. The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey

is voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will

be quoted on the production of the report document.

Section A: Demographics

Sex:

1=Male, 2=Female

Age:

1=10-15years, 2=16-20years, 3=21-25years, 4=26-35years, 5=36-45years, 6=46years and above

Village:

1=Gwakwe, 2=Sigodo, 3=Ward 26 resettlement

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section B - To what extent has ASM impacted on community?

69

Have the activities of mining been profitable?

1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure

If yes, how has it been profitable

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

In what ways has the community benefited from mining?

1=increased market for downstream businesses, 2=increased infrastructural development,

3=increased negative coping mechanisms (crime/ prostitution), 4=Other

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

How are livelihoods changing as a result of mining?

1=Positively, 2=Negatively, 3=No change

How have the environmental effects of mining affected local livelihoods?

1=Negatively, 2=Positively, 3=No effect

Comment……………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Have you participated in any training or decision making on gold panning?

1=Yes, 2=No

Do you think miners are using proper methods in gold extraction?

1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure

Are there any socio-cultural problems associated with the operations of small scale mining?

1=Yes, 2=No

70

If Yes, can you please state them

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section C - How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy?

Engagement of miners

1=Fulltime, 2=Part-time

If Part-time, what alternative means of livelihood do they undertake?

1=Farming, 2=Crime, 3=Prostitution, 4=Trading, 5=Livestock rearing, 6=Gambling, 7=Other

In your opinion when compared to period before mining, what has been the rate of the

following? (Tick were appropriate)

Item Increased Decreased Comment

Crime

Prostitution

Gambling

Land under crop

Livestock herds

Number of

businesses opened

HIV prevalence

Compared to period before mining, has money from gold mining helped people achieve any of

the following?

Item Yes No

Pay education fees for children

Health (pay health expenses for family)

Purchase enough food at home

Purchase clothes

House construction

Purchase TV

71

Purchase Radio

Pay lobola

ANNEX 2: Miners questionnaire

Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………

My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development

Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You

have been selected from other miners to help provide your views about small-scale gold mining.

The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey is

voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will be

quoted on the production of the report document.

Section A: Demographics

Sex:

1=Male, 2=Female

Age:

1=10-15years, 2=16-20years, 3=21-25years, 4=26-35years, 5=36-45years, 6=46years and above

What was your source of livelihood before mining?

1=Farming, 2=Formal labour, 3=Petty trading, 4=General hand in homesteads, 5=Other

Occupation as a miner:

1=Fulltime, 2=Part time

72

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section B - How effective has ASM been as a livelihood strategy?

Is mining your principal source of livelihood?

1=Yeas, 2=No

If No, what other work do you do?

1=Farming, 2=raising livestock, 3=paid labour, 4=trading, 4=other

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Are you getting more gold now than 5-10 years ago?

1=More, 2=Less, 3=The same as before

What are the reasons responsible for an increase/ decrease in the profits you make?

1=More experience, 2=Good price, 3=Help from family/ hire, 4=New site discovered,

5=Fall in price, 6=No sales, 7=Impoverishment, 8=Overexploitation, 9= Other

How do you see the mining industry in 10-20 years?

1=Same, 2=better, 3=Worse

Give an alternative venture you will undertake if you abandon gold panning

1=Farming, 2=Ranching, 3=Formal employment, 4=Other

(Specify)………………………………

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Compared to period before mining, has money from gold mining helped you achieve any of the

following?

Item Yes No

Pay education fees for children

Health (pay health expenses for family)

Purchase enough food at home

Purchase clothes

House construction

Purchase TV

Purchase Radio

Pay lobola

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Section C - What challenges are being faced by Artisanal and small-scale miners?

In your opinion, what are the major problems faced in mining?

1=Low production, 2=Harsh government laws, 3=lack of detecting/ exploiting equipment, 4=Fall

in prices, 5=Lack of organisation, 6=Closure of buying offices, 7=Lack of capital, 8=Other

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

How do you think these problems can be resolved?

1=Assistance to get working material, 2=legal registration, 3=Assistance to get legal

papers, 4=open sales offices in operational area, 5=train miners in safe mining techniques,

6=create cooperatives, 7= other

………………………………………………………………………………………………...

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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Section D - What institutional support is available to artisanal and small scale miners

getting?

Are there national laws that govern mining practices?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

If there are laws, are they being enforced properly?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

Is there any support available for small scale miners?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

If yes, what kind of support is available?

1= Educational, 2= Technical training 3= Exploration equipment, 4=Marketing, 5=Other

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Is it easy to access the support?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

If No, what are the challenges, and how do you think they can be overcome?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Do you have a mining license?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

Is it easy to obtain a mining license?

1= Yes, 2= No, 3= Unaware

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What are the benefits you receive from having a license?

1=Freedom to exploit and sell, 2=support from government, 3=Funding, 4=Marketing assistance, 5=No

support,

6=Other………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

What other mining cooperatives exists and what support are they offering?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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ANNEX 3: Key informant questionnaire

Questionnaire number: ……………… Date: ……………………

My name is Nhlanhla Mlilo; I am currently studying for a Master’s Degree in Development

Studies at the National University of Science and Technology and carrying out a research. You

have been selected from other miners to help provide your views about small-scale gold mining.

The information that you provide will be used for academic purposes only. This survey is

voluntary and the information you give will be confidential. Please feel free, as no names will be

quoted on the production of the report document.

Topic of inquiry: Artisanal and Small-scale mining in Zimbabwe, a case of Gwanda district.

Respondent: …………………………………………………….. Organisation:

…………………………………………………….

Contact details...........................................................................................................................................

1. Is there a clear government policy on small-scale mining sector?

1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure

If yes, what type of support, education or incentives have miners received after incorporation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Are legislation and regulations effective in the small-scale mining sector?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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3. What entails a successful formalization of the artisanal mining sector?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4. What is your opinion on the application of existing mining laws on small-scale miners?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Are regulations properly enforced?

1=Yes, 2=N, 3=Not sure

6. What local measures are used to encourage/ enforce efficient mining?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. In your opinion, what are the major problems / obstacles faced in artisanal mining?

1=Social, 2=Economic, 3=Environmental, 4=Legal/regulatory, 5=Institutional,

6=Technical

8. How do you think these problems can be solved?

.............................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................

9. Do you know of any projects/ institutions that have helped the ASM sector to become more

efficient? 1=Yes, 2=No

10. If yes, please list the projects and their contributions

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. Are there viable alternative livelihoods for miners?

1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure

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12. If yes, are they being sought out?

.............................................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................................

13. What are the environmental impacts of small scale mining?

1=Biodiversity loss, 2=water pollution, 3=disruption of ranching, 4=soil

depression, 5=Lowering of water tables, 6=air pollution, 6= other (please specify

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. Do you think miners are conscious of the negative impacts of their activities?

1=Yes, 2=No, 3=Not sure

15. If yes, What mitigation measures are they using?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

16. Any other information

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………