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THE STORY OF SUGAR

SLINLIGHT makes sugar in all green leaves-Dthe green colouring matter called chlorophyl,causes the energy from the sun to fix carbonfrom the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere on towater to form sugar. The oxygen is releasedfor us to breathe, and the plants provide us andthe animals with the food we need. Thisprocoss therefore is the basis of all life.

Sugar in the form of honey was eaten byprimitive man, the'sugar familiar to us onlycoming with the advance of civilisation.

Today sugar is refined and produced in arange of pure, crystal white sugars and goldensyrup, not only good in taste, but high in energycontent.

Runners, Climbers, Channel Swimmers andall those engaged in energetic occupations orpastimes take just that amount more sugar inone form or other, because it gives thgm thatreserve of vital energy which they need.

This book tells briefly the story of sugar-thehistory, geography, botany and chemistry of it,and how the inventive genius of man hascanalised nature's food from the sun to bring itto the homes of millions.

HISTORYf TTTLE is known of the originl-of the use of sugar as we kn6wit, but it is possible that man firstacquired his sweet tooth throughthe acquaintance of honey. Lessstill is known of the beginning ofsugar cane. although there is littledoubt that it grew in the islands ofthe Pacific.

It was the conquering armies ofAlexander the Great in about 3@B.C.,who flrst brought to the westnews of the growing of sugar canein India and China.

Sugar cane, with its sweet juice,soon travelled far beyond the con-flnes of India and China. Itreached Persia, Arabia and Egypt.The Crusaders may have failed tocapture the Holy City of Jerusalem,but they did bring back with themto the European peoples, a know-ledge of the many wise things whichthey had seen and learnt about inthe East. Among these was thesugar cane, and soon a flourishingtrade was built between East andWest. In those days, however, thecost was enormously high, andsugar was a luxury only enjoyed byKings and the very rich.

In 1264 the King of England hadsugar in his household; in 1319there is a record of the importationof cargoes of sugar into London ata price of ls. 9*d. a pound,equivalent to about f,10 today.

There is evidence that a form ofsugar refining was being carried outas early as A.D. 74, when Plinydescribed sugar from the cane as"white and brittle", and it is knownthat about e.p. 600 the boiling ofcane juice to form sugar crystals wasbecoming a common practice.

Marco Polo, the great travellerand adventurer, recorded in abouta.p. 1300 that the Egyptians hadintroduced into China a process ofrefining by means of ashes, andwrote about the sugar mills there asone of the wonders of China.It was undoubtedly due to theinfluence of Marco Polo thatVenice eventually became the centreof sugar refning, but while theVenetians grew rich, so othercountries became envious of theirposition.

Spain and Portugal decided toenter the Eastern Trade, and deter-mined to fnd a shorter and quickerroute to India. Columbus thoughtthe quickest way to the East w'as tosail West. Although he failed toreach India, he did discover, in1492, a new land-the West Indies-and there the first settlementswere made,

The industrious Spaniards soonfound that these new lands weresuitable for the growth of sugarcane. Vast plantations were setup, and slave labour was importedto.sow and reap, and to extract theJUrCeS.In 1655 Jamaica was conqueredby an Expeditionary Force, andbecame a British Possession. It isnow one ofthe largest cane growingareas in the Commonwealth,

The secret of refining spreaddespite all the Venetians' efforts tokeep it to themselves. The firstrecord of refining in England isI 544, but it was a costly business toset up a refinery, and many of themore adventurous went bankrupt,Nevertheless, as the demand forsugar increased, so did the number

CANE CUTTER

of refineries, while cargoes of rawsugar from the West Indies andother producing countries werebecoming a feature of the greatports of England. From 1544 to1644 fifty refineries were built in

England, and in the following 100years the number increased to 120

-mostly small family aflairs. In1750 it is recorded that they refined30,000 toos of sugar a year, anaverage weekly melt, as it is called,of 5 tons each.

Sugar is also obtained from thesugar beet, and the development ofthis side of the industry in Europewas largely brought about by theNapoleonic Wars. Napoleon iscredited with having ordered thegrowing of sugar beet on a largescale to combat the effective block-ade of Europe by the Royal Navy.

Althoueh about one-third of theworld sugar production is obtainedfrom beet, the cost of extraction ishigher than that ofcane sugar. Inmost beet sugar producing coun-tries there has to be some measureof Government assistance.

CHEMISTRY

SUGAR is a substance producedDin all green leaved plants as afood for their own use.

Sugar is formed in the leaves ofthese plants by a chemical action,brought about by the chlorophyl,the green colouring matter, which,when in the presence of sunlight,causes carbon from the carbondioxide in the atmosphere to com-bine with water to form sugar.The chlorophyl remains unchanged

-it is simply the magician ofcatalyst.

This process of the photosyn-thesis of carbon and water is themost important and widespread

chemical action in the world, pro-viding not only plants, and as anatural corollary, animals with theirfood, but also the oxygen from thecarbon dioxide which is releasedinto the atmosphere for us tobreathe. The energy in coal andoil was stored up in the dim past bYthis great basic reaction-the fix-ation of atmospheric carbon.

There are, of course, manydifferent types ofsugar, each havinga different chemical forrnula, butthey all belong to a group ofcompounds called "carbohydrates"because they are formed of carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen.

The type of sugar that we use athome, and is by far the most im-portant, is called "sucrose". Asimple chemical formula for sucroseis Crg Hp O11-i.e. 12 parts ofcarbon (C) to ll parts of water(HoO;.

Sucrose is to be found in theroots and stems of all grasses, insuch roots as parsnip, carrot, turnipand beet, and in the sap of many

trees, notablj the sugar maple, andrnany palm trees.

The plant with the highest con-tent of sucrose is the sugar cane,and the second highest is the sugarbeet-the two main sources of'world sugar supplies.

When fully refined there is nodifference whatsoever between canesugar and beet sugar.

SUGAR cane grows in tropicaltrclimates, and beet grows intemperate areas.

The United I(ngdom re,ceivesmost of her supplies of raw canesugar from the Commonwealthproducing countries - The WestIndies, Australia, Mauritius, SouthAfrica, Fiji and East Africa. Theremainder comes from non-Com-monwealth countries such as Cuba,the Dominican Republic, Brazlland Peru.

GEOGRAPHY

BOTANY

Other cane growing countries arethe U.S.A., India, Mexico, Argen-tina, Formosa and China.

The sugar beet is cultivated inCanada, the U.S.A., andthroughoutEurope.

The major European producersare Russia, West Germany, France,Poland, Italy, Czechoslavakia, EastGermany and the United Kingdom.

In the U.K. sugar beet is mostlygrown in the Eastern counties ofEngland, and in parts of Scotland.

SUGAR Cane is a giant grass,\rwhich looks rather like bamboo.Depending upon the variety andthe country in which it is planted,it reaches heights of between 8 and20 feet, the stem varying in thick-ness, frop half an inch to twoinches. The leaves, which areoften 5 feet long, have a minimumwidth of 2 inches. The stem itself

is a tube of hard rind filled with asofter fibre which contains thesugar.

As the cane ripens a featheryplume of grey flowers, from 2 to4 feet long, grows from the top ofthe stalk. This is called the tassel,which acts as a barometer as far asthe planter is concerned, telling himwhen the sugiu is approaching

maturity.***

The Sugar Beet resembles theparsnip in shape and colour. Ithas been derived from a wild plantcalled Beta Maritima, which can

still be found growing on the shoresof the Mediterranean, and may befound in the south-western parts ofEngland. The strain has been im-proved by plant-breeders until itcan now contain up to 20 per centof sugar in its long tapering root.

process can go on indefinitely, butthe yield of sugar per acre graduallydiminishes, and it pays to startafresh after 3 or 4 years.

The cut cane has a sugar contentof 14 to 17 per cent. and the yieldper acre is 3 to 8 tons of sugar,depending upon the nature of theland, and the irrigation systememployed. Occasionally as muchas 12 tons per acre may be obtained. '

At the factory the cane iscrushed and squeezed in giantroller mills to extract the juice.The remaining pulp mass of flbresis known as bagasse, and is gener-ally used as boiler fuel. Afterchemical treatment to remove someof the impurities, the cane juice isconcentrated by evaporation toform sugar crystals, which continueto grow until the material is like aporridge. The sugar crystals arethen separated from the juice inmachines, to emerge as raw !ilgar,sticky and brown in colour, whichis shipped to England to be refined.

ifrG*OUGAR beet is sown in theDspring. As soon as the seed-lings are large enough they arethinned out, leaving about 9 inches

CULTIVATION ANDEXT RACT IO N

fN the West Indies a few weeksrafter the cane is planted theyoung shoots appear, and 15 to 18months later, when it is between12 and 18 feet high, cane is readyfor harvesting.

The harvesting season is betweenJanuary and May, with naturalrainfall, but with good irrigation itcan go on up to August.

The cane is cut by hand with amachete and must go for processingwithin 24 hours. The roots whichremain in the ground after cuttingare left to grow fresh canes, calledratoons, the following year. This

CANE WORKER

between the plants. After hoeingto keep down-the weeds, the plantiare left to grow during the surrlmer,months. Harvesting usually be-g_ins in late September or earlyOctober.

The foliage is removed by amachine, which also lifts the rootsfrom the soil and loads them fortransport to the factory.

As sunlight plays an essentialpart in the formation of sugar, it isobvious that the plants growing intropical climates have a greatadvantage oyer the beet whichgrows only in lesser sunlit countries.The highest yield of beet sugar is2 tons per acre, as compared with3 to 8 tons per acre for cane sugar.

Apart from the higher cost ofgrowing beet, the process of extrac-lion is also more complicated.rlhey have to be washed and sprayeduntil reasonably cleaned of earthpnd other adhering impurities.ifhe beets are then sliced, diffused[an elaborate souking-out withwater) and go through various otherprocesses of further purif,cationbefore extraction is finally com-pleted.

In the United Kingdom, 35,000farmers grow more than 400,000

BEET HARVESTING

acres of beets, some 26,000 to.35,0C[) plants going to the acre.

Depending upon the weather andother conditions, this producesrover 750,000 tons of sugar, all ofwhich is extracted from the beets infactories of the British SugarCorporation.

The British Sugar Corporationalso refine most of this sugar in aprocess continuous to that of ex-traction, while the remainder, abouti280,000 tons, is transported toReflneries of other companies tobe refined.

DISCHARGE OF

RAW SUGAR

fTP until 1949 all raw sugar was the costs of raw sugar imports byvshipped to the United Kingdom means of bulk shipments, i.e. freepacked in jute bags. Then ex- running in the holds of speciallyperiments were started to reduce . designed ocean-going vessels.

' These experiments Proved sosuccessful that two fleets of thesevessles are now in oPeration, one'of ships averaging 6,000 tons, theother of ships averaging 9,5@ tonsicargo carrying capacitY. Theseralone bring in over 460,000 tons ofraw sugar a yeat to U.K. Ports.Altogether, over 80 Per cent. of allour raw sugar imPorts, totalling,over 2 million tons, now arrivesin bulk.

At one London refinery a sPecialdeep-water berth has been cons-truCted to receive shiPs of uP to8.000 tons capacity. Large cranes,mounted on the jetty, grab the'sugar from the holds of the shiPsan-d pass it on to a comPlicatedsystem of conveyors which carry itinto the refinery.At another London refinery,where facilities are not yet availablefor ships to berth, sugar is-dis-charged in the same wa-Y from

barges, which are loaded at otherriver or dock berths.

Although a comPlete Programmeof shipping is carefully plar:n:d-toensure iegular supplies of sugar forthe home and exPort markets, it isessential that each reflnery is ableto store sufficient sugar to keeP itworking until the next shiPmentarrives.

A storage silo has been built atLiverpoollo hold 100,000 tons ofraw iugar, enough to suPPlY thenearby- refinery for six weeks.fhis silo is among the largest of itstype yet built. Sugar, grabbedfrom the ships, is conveYed over aroad and is

-weighed and samPledbefore entering the silo through therocf. from which it cascades to theflooi at a rate ol many hundreds oftons an hour, When required, thesugar is gathered from beneath thefloor and loaded into trucks fortransport to the reflnerY.

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THE 8,too TONS M.Y. "SUGAR CARRIER"

6

REFINING ANDEFINING; as the word implies,is a process by which the pure

sugar is separated from the im-purities in the raw sugar.It is a long, complicated, andskilful operation, but when com-pleted, the white sugar is 99.9 percent. pure-in fact the purest foodwe eat.

Methods of refining have beenknown for several centuries. For-merly it was done by simply meltingthe sugar in large open pans andadding to the resulting liquid,either bullocks blood or eggs,which coagulated when the liquidwas boiled. The impurities wereentaagled in this coagulate and roseto the surface as scum, which wascarefully removed. The liquid wasthen filtered through woollen clothsand boiled again to evaporate thewater.

The first process in reflningI today, is called affination-a Frenchword meaning refining. The ob-iject of affination is to remove the,f,lm of symp which clings to thesurface of the raw sugar crystals,leaving behind only the hardcrystals.

Ths raw sugar is first mingledwith a wafln raw syrup to softenthis syrup fllm, and the mixture isthen run into centrifugal machines.These are essentially cylindricalbaskets of fine mesh gauge, about4 feet in diameter and 3 feet deep.Each basket is suspended on acentral steel spindle, which, in themost modern machines, is capableofrevolving at 1500 revolutions perminute. This machine was in-vented by Henry Bessemer, of sfeelfame, in 1852, and when practically

DISTRIBUTIONapplied to sugar refining in 1867,rrevolutionised the industry, for itlenabled refiners to produce sugariin large quantities.

As the speed of the machine in-creases, so, by centrifugal forcc, thewann syrup is thrown outwardsthrough the fine mesh, while thehard crystals, being too large, areretained inside the basket. As thesyrup leaves, a spray of water isdirected upon the sugar, washingstill more of the impurities througbthe mesh. The sugar is spun forabout 6 minutes.

The sugar, having now had ahigh proportion of the impuritiesremoYed, is dropped into a mixingreceiver containing water, in whichit is melted and then partiallystrained through a coarse screen totake away larger impurities, likepieces of cane flbre, etc., beforepassing into storage tanks for thenext process-Carbonatation andFiltration.

The raw sugar is now in the form

CRYSTALLISATION

of raw liquor, a brown solution, inwhich impurities still remain. Someof these are insoluble, floating in

. the liquor, and others are in theform of soluble salts mostly pickedup from the soil or fertilisers.

The raw melted liquor is treatedwith milk of lime, and carbondioxide is bubbled though until allthe lime is precipitated as chalk.This entangles most of the gummyimpurities, which are removed withthe remaining chalk in pressurefilters, the liquor emerging as asparkling bright amber liquid.- The next task is to remove thecolour. This is done in whatreflners call the Char House, inwhich there are tanks or cisternsfrom 6 to 10 feet in diameter and20 feet high, each containing uP to40 tons of charcoal.

The amber liquor is passed intothe top ofthese cisterns and slowlytrickles through, the colour andother impurities being absorbed bythe tiny granules of the sPeciallYprepared bone charcoal. Theliquor comes out Pure and crystalc1ear.

The liquor has now becomerefined and is readY to be crystal-lised.

Crystallisation takes Place invacuum pans. These are largeenclosed vessels in which the sugaris boiled under the skilled suPer-vision of a pansman. To avoid thehoat causing destruction and dis-coloration of sugar, boiling is,carried out as rapidly as possible atlow temperatures under vacuum.

Sugarboiling is a highlY skillgdtrade and it is the Pansman who, bYhis technique, controls the Pan tooroduce the size of crystal required,ianging from the large coffee

crystal down to the finest crystal

-Caster.When there are sufficient crystalsof the correct size the boiled sugaris run offfrom the pan.

In modern vacuum pans liquorcan be crystallised into granulatedsugar at a rate ofbetween 50 and 60tons an hour.

The next operation depends onthe type of sugar required.

Tate & Lyle produce, apart fromgranulated sugar, a wide variety ofspeciality sugars. These includefinest granulated, caster, cube sugar,icing, coffee crystals, industrialsugars and golden syrup and darksyrups.

In the production of granulated,finest granulated and caster sugars,the boiled sugar from the vacuumpans is again fed into centrifugalmachines and the adhering syrupis spun off. The syrup spun offtbis first boiling may be boiledagain to produce a second andagain to produce a third crop of,sugar crystals. The syrup remain-,ing after that is boilod again toproduce the moist yellow or brown

l

PACKETING SUGAR

sugars called "pieces" in which thesynrp is left. "Pieces" have acharacteristic flavour of their own,and are largeiy used by confection-ery and biscuit manufacturers.

After spinning there still remainsabout I por cent. of water in therefined white sugar, and this isremoved in granulators, large ro-tating drums into which warmfiltered air is drawn.

Cube sugar is made in two ways.In the first way, boiled sugar is runstraight from the vacuum pans intosmall compartments of a segmentedmould. The mould segments arethen assembled, cooled and spunin a centrifugal machine. Thesmall slabs of sugar formed in themould are then dried and cut intoregular s2ed cubes. This is calledthe "Crystal Cube" process. Inthe second method, boiled sugarfrom the pans is passed flrst intocentrifugal machines and thenpressed into cube or other shapebefore being dried and cut ifdesired. These are called pressedsugar cubes.

Pressed sugar cubes are made inlarge quantities for export to WestAfrica. Packed in special cartons,

PRESSED CUBES

they are sold throughout Ghana,Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and otherareas in West Africa.

Another type of pressed cubo ismanufactured at Liverpool, calledthe Fairrie cube after the originalfirm which made it. These cubesare popular with consumers whopreferasmalersizeofcube. Theyare also wrapped in pairs forhygienic presentation by manycaterers and airline companies.

Tate & Lyle refine about 40,000tons of sugar a week, of whichapproximately two-thirds is soldfor home consumption, and theremainder is for sale on the highlYcompetitive export market.

For the home trade sugar isfilled into 1-1b. and 2-lb. packets,I cwt. paper sacks, and 2-cwt. jutebags, andis also soldinbulk. Theexport trade is mainly in hessianbags.

Packaging of sugar is highlymechanised. One machine makesits own bags, fills and seals them,all at a rate of 200 packets Perminute.

At no time, from the pan boilingto the final bag, is the sugar touchedby hand.(Continued on poge l\

CANE SUGAR p,1w BEET 5UGAR'I.z-Y/WARMRAwSYRUP

THE

RAW SYRUP

WATER

MILK OF LIME

PROCESS

OF

SUGAR

REF'N'NG

LARGEIMPURITIES

CHALK PLUSIMPURITIES

MELTER ANDSTRAINER

CARBONATATIONTANKS

PRESSUREFILTERS

CARBON DIOXIDE

VACUUM

CHARCISTERNS

PURE CLEAR wH11ELIQUOR SUGARCENTRIFUGAL

MACHINES

THE CUBE PROCESS

SYRUP TO BE

SYRUPPROCESS

VACUUMPANS

':,\;

COFFEECRYSTALS

rl-l*

CUBEPROCESSES

ilCUSEPRODUCTS

GMNULATED C'FINEST

GRANULATED

WEIGHING, PACKING AND DISTRIBUTION

11

(Continued from paCe 9)Lyle's Golden Syrup is a specially

refined sryup, not to be confusedwith treacle or molasses. It is amixhre of different sugars andwhat are known as non-sugars.Great care goes into its prepara-tion, which is still a closely guardedsecret.

The famous green, gold, andblack cans in which Lyle's GoldenSyrup is sold, are all made, printedand filled on modern automaticmachines at the Plaistow WharfRefinery in London. About onemillion cans are made each week.

The task of distributing sugar andsyrup to the public to ensure thatthey reach your home speedily andin tip-top oondition is the responsi-bility of Pease Transport Ltd., anassociate company of Tate & Lyle.

A fleet of over 400 lorries is onthe road day and night delivering to10,000 towns and villages in thecountry, each of these places beingvisited at least twice a week.

Among the specialised vehicles inthe delivery fleet are the sugartankers, which aro similar in ap-

pearanc€ to petrol tankers. Thesecarry refiued sugar in bulk, 15 tonsat a time, mostly to manufacturers,who have installed special plaut attheir factories for conveying thesugar from the tanker straight intothe process of sweet making, biscuitmanufacture, or similar industries.

Every day there is a sugar tankerservice to Wandsworth in London,and every night to Keynsham, nearBristol, where Packing Stationshave been established for sugarconsumers in those areas.

Apart from the packing stations,there is a chain of delivery depotsin the country. Sugar and sYruPfrom the Refineries are delivered tothese depots and from the dePotsout to the retailer. There are100,000 erocors to be supplied inaddition to manufacturers.

But that is only one side of thepicture. There are also the refinedproducts for export to bo shipped.These total nearly 600,000 tons ayear, and go to markets throughoutthe world.

BULKSUGAR

TANKER

I

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TJSEFT]tIi\F'ORMATIOI\

WEIGETS AND MEASARES

CONSTANTS

LOGANITHMS

ANTILOGARITHMS

NATURAL SINES

NATURAL COSINES

NATURAL TANGENTS

LogarithmicTables by cwlcsy of Str lssac Pltmm ud Sons Lttl.Conttantt. Noturol Sirtet. Cosines atdTengents b, c.,otes! efThe Cenbtidge Uabettitl hest'

WEIGHTS AND MEASURESUNEAL MEAfl'NT

ITAUTICAL MEAST'RE6 ft. - I fathom (dep&)

500ft.-lcablo6080ft.-lsea-mile

@ land mile - @ sea-miles (approximstcly)t tnot is a speed of I rea-mile per hour.

SQUARE MEASIJRE144 ro. iB. - I so. ft. t0 8q. ch. : I rcrc.

9 si. ft. - I rq. vil 640 acres - I sq' milo',184sq.vdr.- I sq.ch, /[8,rcsq.yds. - I acrq- 3Ol sq. y(s. - I sq. polo.

40 sq. pol€s - I rood4roods - 1 acre.

CT'BIC MEASURElZrS cubic iN. - I cubic ft.

2TcubicfL -lcuUcyd.MEASI]RES OF CAPACITY

tt gills - t pint (pt.)2pts, - I quart(qt)4 qts, : I gallon (gall,)

2 gall, - I peck (pk.)4 pks - 1 bmhel (bustr-)8 bush. : t quarter (gr.)

AYOIRDI'PO$ WEIGHT16 dram : I ounce (oz) 28 lb. - I qurter (qr.)16 oz, - I pound 0b.) 4 qrs. - I hmdredweight (cwl)l{ lb. - I atone (st.) 20 cwt. - I ton.tI2lb.-lcwt.

22401b. - 1 ton.TROY WEIGIIT

24 $ains - I penqyweiebt (dwt)20dwt - I oz.l2oz. : I tb.

TPOTIIECARIES' WEIGIIT20 sralns - t mple (s,)

3 ssuple: I dram (dr.)8drams -loun@(oz.)12 ounces : I pound (lb.)

PAPER, MEASURE24shets - I quire 2m- I bmdls20 quim - 1 rbam 10 ream - I balo.2U quires or 516 sheets - I printers' ram.

CIRCULAR MEASURECircum&rence of circle:2mAre of cidc:zrr

Surfam of sphere : 4rrrYolumo of sphere : 4/3ntr

TABLE OF MOTION50'seconds - l minutc,60'minutes - f degec.30odegres -leign.t2r ri8[r - Tb. cird. d tbr .fiL

tl

12 inchcs (in.) - I foot (ft.)3 ft. - I yard (yd.)

22yds. -lchain(ch.)l0 ch. - I fulong (fu.)8fur. -lmile.ZD yils. - I fw. lfl) linkr - I ch-

1760 yds, - I mile. 5l yds. - I pole or rod or pcrc.L5280ft. -lmile" l()poleserc.: lfur,

CONSTANTS'E : 3.1416 .

Earth's mean radius : 3960 milesA velocity of 60 miles per hour : 88 feet per secondc : 32.2 ft, per second per second.kngth of seconds pendulum (Greenwich) : 39.139 in.I Atmosphere : 760 m.m. or 29.9 n. of mercury : 14.7 lbs. per sq. in.Velocity of sound in air is about 1100 ft. per sec.Velocity oflight in vacuo: 186,300 miles per sec.

SPECIFIC GRAVITYAluminium 2.65Brass (ordfuary) 8.4-8.7Bronzo Coinage (English) 8.96Copper (drawn) 8.9Glass (crown; window) 2,4-2.6Gold (pure) l9'3Iron (wrought) 7,81.9Lead 71.4Morcury 13.6Platinum 21.5Silver 10.5

A gallon of water weighs about l0 lb.,^l^cubic foot of water about 62.3 lb., I c.c.of water at 4"C. weighs I gram.

WORK AND HXATI Watt : l joule per $ec.: 10? ergs per sec.I horsepower : 550 ft. lb. per sec.: 33,000 ft. lb. per min.I kilowatt : 102 kg. metres per sec.I British Thermal Unit (B.T.U.) :252 caloies.1 B.T.U.: 778 ft.lb.;1 calorie : 4.18 x I0, ergs.

SPECIFIC HEATBrass 0'09 Copper 0'094 Glass 0.2

LATENT IIEATIn B.T.U. per lb. Water I,l4 Steam at212"F 97AIn calories per gram Water 79'8 Steam at 100"C 539

coEFx'IcIENTS OF EXPANSION (LTNEAR)

Alcohol 0.8Glycerine l:26Methylated Spirit 0.83Petrol 0.684.72

Ice 0,917Paraffin Wax 0.9Beech, Oak 0.7-0.9Deal 0.5{.7

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Brass l'9x10-nCopper 1.67xlt'

kon (cast) I .02 x l0-'Iron (wrought) l.19xI0-'

15

LOGARITHMS:TMD X.IGURN

28101

t27tll1553 I 1584116r

FoURTH-X'rcuRrDrrrEBENcEg

t 2 3l ,r 5 6l' Lr lrlsle30 3428 3l26 2924 27

2t 2420 2219 2l18 20

t7t6t6

1147113 I0127sL2 1911 I

27l9t71616

L748148 ts7136136004335644

r91611621

777r

60

016101185267

6246s4

77

150314

363626242424242424

17 1916 18t5 t716 t714 16

14 l513 1578 L412 14t2 t3

t5L4t413t2t2111l1110

121111

1010

811810810797S1S7868686?

2S2A2A

3

t1 t3u12lt t2to 1210 11

l0 1110 1191091091091089898989807818?8787a7a6767

67o761

01108t108l e81 9rln7ls7l 871 871 87taul,elzalz6lr6l?J,6t7sl arl oulusl 6sl esl osl orl o

uluol o554t541 5

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1'^l

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al

sl

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2

2

2

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126 I 77l2

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t0l1l2t3l4l5l6l7t8l920alx,2'71

B267l2A29

3oil?2333{3536t73839

401lo1'11

15161f484'505ls25354

5l565f585'

LOGARITHMS

I 2 314 5 617 8 9

566566566556556556556556456466456+55455455455

55655

56556

65444

444

tr'oIIBTE-trtcI,R,EDrrrEBENcEg

44444

44444

4433B

3

3

3

B

3434

23232B232g

2g

232S2S

22

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1111I1I11II11II1II1I

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000

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TEIBD FIGI'af,

49i91540119206

13185

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55565f6859

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8o8ta283a4

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