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Q.1 Explain the theory of emotion.

Ans: Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological and behavioral changes. Emotion

involves feeling, thinking, and activation of the nervous system, physiological changes, and behavioral

changes such as facial expressions. Different theories exist regarding how and why people experience

emotion. These include -

1. Evolutionary theories.

2. The James-Lange theory

3. The Cannon-Bard theory

4. Schacter and Singers two-factor theory

5. Cognitive appraisal.

1. Evolutionary Theories

More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they had adaptive

value. For example, fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways that enhanced their chances of survival.Darwin believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate (hard-wired). He pointed out that facial expressions

allow people to quickly judge someones hostility or friendliness and to communicate intentions to others.

Recent evolutionary theories of emotion also consider emotions to be innate responses to stimuli. Evolutionarytheorists tend to downplay the influence of thought and learning on emotion, although they acknowledge that both

have an effect. Evolutionary theorists believe that all human cultures share several primary emotions, including

happiness, contempt, surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result fromblends and different intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more intense form of the primar

emotion of fear.

2. The James-Lange Theory

In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, independently proposed an i

that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea, which came to be known as the James-Lange theor

is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies physiological responses to external events.According to this theory, people dont cry because they feel sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and,

likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This theory suggests that different physiological states correspond to

different experiences of emotion.

3. The Cannon-Bard Theory

Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another physiologist, Philip Barin the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard theory states that the experience of emotion happens at the same time tha

physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The brain gets a message that causes the experience oemotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous system gets a message that causes physiological arousal.

4. Schachter and Singers Two-Factor Theory

In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They said that

peoples experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of tharousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of t

arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in their environment.

5. Cognitive Appraisal

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The psychologist Richard Lazaruss research has shown that peoples experience of emotion depends on the way thappraise or evaluate the events around them.

Example: If Tracy is driving on a winding road by the edge of a high cliff, she may be concerned about the danger the road. Her passenger, on the other hand, thinks about the beauty of the view. Tracy will probably feel frightened

while her passenger may feel exhilarated.

Q.2. Discuss the techniques of decision making in groups.

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Ans: Group decision making is a type of participatory process in which multiple individuals acting collectively,

analyze problems or situations, consider and evaluate alternative courses of action, and select from among the

alternatives a solution or solutions. The number of people involved in group decision-making varies greatly, but of

ranges from two to seven. The individuals in a group may be demographically similar or quite diverse. Decision-

making groups may be relatively informal in nature, or formally designated and charged with a specific goal. The

process used to arrive at decisions may be unstructured or structured. The nature and composition of groups, their

size, demographic makeup, structure, and purpose, all affect their functioning to some degree. The external

contingencies faced by groups (time pressure and conflicting goals) impact the development and effectiveness of

decision-making groups as well.

Group Decision Making Technique

There are many methods or procedures that can be used by groups. Each is designed to improve the decision-makin

process in some way. Some of the more common group decision-making methods are:

1. Brainstorming

2. Dialectical inquiry

3. Nominal group technique

4. Delphi technique.

1. Brainstorming

Brainstorming involves group members verbally suggesting ideas or alternative courses of action. The "brainstorm

session" is usually relatively unstructured. The situation at hand is described in as much detail as necessary so that

group members have a complete understanding of the issue or problem. The group leader or facilitator then solicitsideas from all members of the group. Usually, the group leader or facilitator will record the ideas presented on a fli

chart or marker board. The "generation of alternatives" stage is clearly differentiated from the "alternative evaluatio

stage, as group members are not allowed to evaluate suggestions until all ideas have been presented. Once the idea

the group members have been exhausted, the group members then begin the process of evaluating the utility of the

different suggestions presented. Brainstorming is a useful means by which to generate alternatives, but does not of

much in the way of process for the evaluation of alternatives or the selection of a proposed course of action.

One of the difficulties with brainstorming is that despite the prohibition against judging ideas until all group memb

have had their say, some individuals are hesitant to propose ideas because they fear the judgment or ridicule of oth

group members. In recent years, some decision-making groups have utilized electronic brainstorming, which allowgroup members to propose alternatives by means of e-mail or another electronic means, such as an online posting

board or discussion room. Members could conceivably offer their ideas anonymously, which should increase the

likelihood that individuals will offer unique and creative ideas without fear of the harsh judgment of others.

2. Dialectical inquiry

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Dialectical inquiry is a group decision-making technique that focuses on ensuring full consideration of alternatives

Essentially, it involves dividing the group into opposing sides, which debate the advantages and disadvantages of

proposed solutions or decisions. A similar group decision-making method, devil's advocacy, requires that one mem

of the group highlight the potential problems with a proposed decision. Both of these techniques are designed to try

and make sure that the group considers all possible ramifications of its decision.

3. Nominal group technique

The nominal group technique is a structured decision making process in which group members are required to

compose a comprehensive list of their ideas or proposed alternatives in writing. The group members usually record

their ideas privately. Once finished, each group member is asked, in turn, to provide one item from their list until a

ideas or alternatives have been publicly recorded on a flip chart or marker board. Usually, at this stage of the proce

verbal exchanges are limited to requests for clarificationno evaluation or criticism of listed ideas is permitted. O

all proposals are listed publicly, the group engages in a discussion of the listed alternatives, which ends in some fo

of ranking or rating in order of preference. As with brainstorming, the prohibition against criticizing proposals as t

are presented is designed to overcome individuals' reluctance to share their ideas. Empirical research conducted on

group decision making offers some evidence that the nominal group technique succeeds in generating a greater

number of decision alternatives that are of relatively high quality.

4. Delphi technique.

The Delphi technique is a group decision-making process that can be used by decision-making groups when the

individual members are in different physical locations. The technique was developed at the Rand Corporation. The

individuals in the Delphi "group" are usually selected because of the specific knowledge or expertise of the problemthey possess. In the Delphi technique, each group member is asked to independently provide ideas, input, and/or

alternative solutions to the decision problem in successive stages. These inputs may be provided in a variety of way

such as e-mail, fax, or online in a discussion room or electronic bulletin board. After each stage in the process, othe

group members ask questions and alternatives are ranked or rated in some fashion. After an indefinite number of

rounds, the group eventually arrives at a consensus decision on the best course of action.

Q.3 Elaborate the different stages in process of conflict.

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Ans: The conflict process can be seen as comprising five stages:

1) Potential opposition or incompatibility.

2) Cognition and personalization

3) Intentions

4) Behavior

5) Outcome.

1. Potential opposition or incompatibility:

The first step in the conflict process is the presence on conditions that create opportunities for conflict to rise. Thes

cause or create opportunities for conflict to rise. These causes or sources of conflict have been condenses into threegeneral categories - a) Communications b) Structure c) Personal Variables.

a) Communications: Different words connotations, jargon insufficient exchange of information and noise in

communication channel are all antecedent conditions to conflict. Too much communication as well as too lcommunication can rely foundation for conflict.

b) Structure: The term structure is used, in this context to include variables such as size, degree of specializati

in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, members/ goal compatibility, leadership style

reward systems and the degree of dependence between groups. The size and specialization act as forces tostimulate conflict. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the greater the likelihood of

conflict. Tenure and conflict have been found to be inversely related. The potential for conflicts tends to be

greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity in defininwhere responsibility for action lies, the greater the potential for conflict to emerge. Such Jurisdictional

ambiguity increases inter group fighting for control or resources and territory.

c) Personal Variables: Certain personality types- for example individuals who are highly authoritarian anddogmatic- lead to potential conflict. Another reason for conflict is difference in value systems. Value

differences are the best explanations of diverse issues such as prejudice disagreements over ones contribut

to the group and rewards one deserves.

2. Cognition and personalization:

Conflict must be perceived by the parties to it whether or not conflict exists is a perception issue. If no one is awar

a conflict, then it is generally agreed that no conflict exists. Because conflict is perceives does not mean that is

personalized. For e.g. A may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreements but it may not make A tense ornations and it may have no effect whatsoever on As affection towards B It is the felt level , when individuals beco

emotionally involved that parties experience anxiety , tension or hostility. It is the place in the process where the

parties decide what the conflict is about and emotions plays a major role in shaping perception.

3. Intentions:

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Intentions are decisions to act in a given way intentions intervene between peoples perception and emotions and thovert behavior. Using two dimensions cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other

partys concerns)and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy his or her own concerns)- fiv

conflict handling intentions can be identified.

a) Competing: when one person seeks to satisfy his or her own interests regardless of the impact on the other

parties to the conflict, he is competing.b) Collaborating: A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all th

parties. In collaborating, the intention o the parties are to solve the problem by clarifying differences rather

by accommodating various points of view.c) Avoiding: a person may recognize that a conflict exists and want to withdraw from it or suppress it. Avoid

included trying to just ignore a conflict and avoiding others with whom you disagree.

d) Accommodating: The willingness of one partying a conflict to place the opponents interest above his or he

own.

e) Compromising: A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something. Intentions

provide general guidelines for parties in a conflict situation. They define each partys purpose. Yet peopleintention is not fixed. During the course of conflict, they might change because of reconceptualization or

because of an emotional reaction to the behavior of other party.

4. Behavior:

This is a stage where conflict becomes visible. The behavior stage includes the statements, actions and reaction

made by the conflicting parties. These conflict behaviors are usually overt attempt to implement each partys

intentions.

5. Outcomes:

The action reaction interplay between the conflicting parties result in consequences. These outcomes may befunctional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the groups performance, or dysfunctional in that it

hinders group performance. Conflict is constructive when it improves the quality of decisions simulates creativ

and innovations encourages interest and curiosity among group members provides the medium through whichproblems can be aired and tensions released and fosters an environment of self evaluation and change. Conflic

dysfunctional when uncontrolled opposition breeds discontent, which acts to dissolve common ties and eventu

leads to the destruction of the group. Among the more undesirable consequences are a retarding ofcommunication, reductions in group cohesiveness and subordination of group goals to the primacy of infightin

between members.

Q.4 Write a note on GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome).

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Ans: In 1926, a young medical student named Hans Selye noticed that patients in the early stages of infectious

diseases exhibited similar symptoms, regardless of the type of disease they had. He later observed a set of three

common responses that occurred whenever any organism was injected with a toxic substance: (1) the adrenal gland

enlarged, (2) the lymph nodes and other white blood cell producing organs swelled at first then shrank, and (3)

bleeding appeared in the stomach and intestines.

He called these three common responses the General Adaptation Syndrome and proposed that certain changes take

place within the body during stress that disrupt normal physiologic mechanisms and trigger an array of diseases. A

no matter what type of organism he looked at, from rats and monkeys to humans, he noticed that physical and

emotional stress induced a pattern that, if left untreated, always leads to infection, illness, disease, and eventually

death.

Stage1. Alarm Reaction: Any physical or mental trauma will trigger an immediate set of reactions that combat the

stress. Because the immune system is initially depressed, normal levels of resistance are lowered, making us more

susceptible to infection and disease. If the stress is not severe or long-lasting, we bounce back and recover rapidly.

Stage2: Resistance: Eventually, sometimes rather quickly, we adapt to stress, and there's actually a tendency to

become more resistant to illness and disease. Our immune system works overtime for us during this period, trying

keep up with the demands placed upon it. We become complacent about our situation and assume that we can resis

the effects of stress indefinitely. Therein lies the danger. Believing that we are immune from the effects of stress, w

typically fail to do anything about it.

Stage3: Exhaustion: Because our body is not able to maintain homeostasis and the long-term resistance needed to

combat stress, we invariably develop a sudden drop in our resistance level. No one experiences exactly the same

resistance and tolerance to stress, but everyone's immunity at some point collapses following prolonged stress

reactions. Life sustaining mechanisms slow down and sputter, organ systems begin to break down, and stress-fight

reserves finally succumb to what Selye called "diseases of adaptation.

Q.6 Explain the characteristics of organizational development.

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Ans: Organizational Development (OD) can be described as the systematic process to change the culture, system

behavior of organization. It is process that helps in solving organizational problems and achieving organizational

objectives. Organizational Development works as important mechanism that helps in impressing the organization a

its employee through planned and established system. It concentrates on people dimensions like norms, values,

attitudes, relationships, organizational culture etc. The strategies of Organizational Development focus on

enhancement of organization effectiveness and solving organizational problems. It includes structural and

technological changes and focuses on working relationships of employees with the organization. Organizational

Development is the modern approach to management of change for human resources development.

The characteristics of Organizational Development are as follows:-

1. Organizational Development is an educational strategy that attempts to bring about a planned change.

2. Organizational Development relates to real organizational problems instead of hypothetical cases.

3. Organizational Development uses sensitivity training methods and lay emphasis on the significance of

experiment based training.

4. Its change agents are almost external consultants outside of the organization.

5. The external change agents and internal organization executives establish a collaborative relationship that

involves mutual trust, influence and jointly determined goals.

6. The external change agents are humanists and seek to establish a social and altruistic philosophy within an

organization.

7. The goals that the change agent seeks to achieve through OD tend to reflect human approach and aims for

better conflict resolution, increased understanding and more considerable leadership.

8. The required changes in the organization are usually the result of some immediate problems but it is a long

term approach covering three to five years.

9. It is used to describe variety of change programmes and intends to change the organizational philosophies,

attitudes and skills of people.10. It is a dynamic process that involves considerable investment of money and time

11. It is research based activity and aims at conducting surveys, collection of data and evaluation of the situatio

12. It works on open and adaptive system concepts and believes that organizational design and managerial

performance are mutually interdependent.