Moving from Theory to Practice: An Evaluative Assessment of Social Equity … · 2018-10-31 ·...

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1 Moving from Theory to Practice: An Evaluative Assessment of Social Equity Approaches Brandi Blessett, Ph.D., Rutgers University-Camden Marc Fudge, Ph.D., California State University – San Bernardino Tia Sherèe Gaynor, Ph.D., Marist College June 13, 2017 Submitted to: Center for Accountability and Performance National Academy for Public Administration’s Standing Panel on Social Equity in Governance To cite this report: Blessett, B., Fudge, M., & Gaynor, T.S. (2017). Moving from Theory to Practice: An Evaluative Assessment of Social Equity Approaches. Submitted to Center for Accountability and Performance and National Academy for Public Administration’s Standing Panel on Social Equity in Governance.

Transcript of Moving from Theory to Practice: An Evaluative Assessment of Social Equity … · 2018-10-31 ·...

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MovingfromTheorytoPractice:AnEvaluativeAssessmentofSocialEquityApproaches

BrandiBlessett,Ph.D.,RutgersUniversity-CamdenMarcFudge,Ph.D.,CaliforniaStateUniversity–SanBernardino

TiaSherèeGaynor,Ph.D.,MaristCollege

June13,2017

Submittedto:CenterforAccountabilityandPerformanceNationalAcademyforPublicAdministration’sStandingPanelonSocialEquityinGovernanceTocitethisreport:Blessett,B.,Fudge,M.,&Gaynor,T.S.(2017).MovingfromTheorytoPractice:AnEvaluativeAssessmentofSocialEquityApproaches.SubmittedtoCenterforAccountabilityandPerformanceandNationalAcademyforPublicAdministration’sStandingPanelonSocialEquityinGovernance.

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TableofContentsIntroduction...................................................................................................................................3

DefiningSocialEquity....................................................................................................................6

WhyWeMeasureSocialEquity..................................................................................................11

Theimportanceofmeasurement.............................................................................................14

Theimpactofpoormeasurement............................................................................................14MeaningfulSocialEquity.............................................................................................................19

Usingchoicepoints...................................................................................................................19

Criteriaforsocialequity............................................................................................................21ClassifyingApproachestotheMeasurementofSocialEquity...................................................24

ModelofSocialEquity..............................................................................................................25

Indicators..................................................................................................................................25Outcomeassessments..............................................................................................................32Frameworks..............................................................................................................................36

SocialEquityResources..………………………………………………………………………………………………..………42FutureConsiderations.................................................................................................................49

References....................................................................................................................................54

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Introduction

Fornearlyhalfacentury,socialequityhasbeenviewedasanintegralcomponentof

publicadministration(PA)theoryandpractice.Althoughequality,atleastrhetorically,hasbeen

afoundationaltenetoftheUnitedStates’democraticsystem,itwasnotuntilthefirst

MinnowbrookConferencein1968whensocialequitywasintroducedasapillarandvalueof

publicadministration(Frederickson,2010).Sincethattime,therehasbeenanincreaseof

scholarlyresearchfocusedonexplainingsocialequityanditsimportance(Gooden,2014;GAO,

2011;Pitts,2011;Svara,Watt,&Takai,2014).WhilethepresenceofsocialequityinPA

literaturehasincreased,thereremainsaninconsistentunderstandingofwhatsocialequity

trulyencompasses,asawellasalong-termcommitmenttoaddressequityissuesinpractice.

Thelackofagenerallyaccepteddefinitionofsocialequitybecomesproblematicfor

practitionersandservesasachallengeforpublicadministrationasafield.Thischallengeis

exemplifiedinthefield’sseeminglyslowprogressiontoidentifymethodstoappropriately

measuresocialequity.

Manyorganizationsdonotpromoteequityasavalueformeaningfulconsiderationor

measurement,whichdecreasestheprofessionalimpetusofpractitionerstoacknowledge

equityissuesforunderservedpopulations.Publicinstitutionsandpublicadministratorsneedto

beawareofinequitiesandhowtheyareperpetuatedacrossdemographicgroupsinorderto

minimizeincidencesofdiscrimination,marginalization,anddisparity.Thedevelopmentofa

comprehensiveandinclusiveresponsefrompublicadministrationhelpstomovesthefield

beyondapassiveacknowledgementthatsocialequityisimportanttoaproactiveinvestmentin

infrastructureandtraininginordertoimprovequalityoflifeoutcomesforunderserved

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populations.Achievingsocialequityrequiresmorethananagreeduponoperationaldefinition

andtheidentificationofappropriatemeasurementtools.Courageousleaderswhoarewillingto

prioritizesocialequityoutcomesthroughinvestmentsininfrastructureandhumancapitalare

alsoneededifdiscrimination,marginalization,anddisparitywilleverceasetoexistfor

underrepresentedgroups.

Socialequityindicatorsoftenfallbehind,inlargemargins,toeffectivenessand

efficiency,evenwhenincludedinperformancemeasurement(Charbonneau,Riccucci,Van

Ryzin&Holzer,2009;Charbonneau&Riccucci,2008).Thelackofauniversaldefinitionanda

clearmethodformeasuringsocialequityleavesadministratorswithoutanoperationalguide

forassessment.Asaresult,administratorsaretaskedwithimplementingprogramsandpolicies

thatpositivelyimpactsocialequity,oftentimeswithoutacollectiveunderstandingofwhere

exactlytofocusorhowtoeffectivelymeasure.Thisjuxtapositionofexpectationandreality

createsacontemporaneousissue:howdopublicadministratorsmeaningfullyassesssocial

equity?

Pitts(2011)calleduponPAscholarstosupplementexistingnormativediscussionson

socialequitywithempiricalresearchinordertocreate“theknowledgethatpolicymakersneed

tomakepoliciesandprogramsmoreeffectiveateliminatinginequities”(p.i79).Although

existingsocialequityscholarshipespousestheimportanceandvalidityofsocialequityin

programs,policiesandorganizations,verylittleevaluatesthetoolsthatcanbeusedtoimprove

socialequityoutcomes(Pitts,2011;Collins&Gerber,2008;Charbonneau&Riccucci,2008;

Svara&Brunet,2004,Johnson&Svara,2011).Asthereisnouniversalsocialequity

measurementinfrastructure(e.g.specificindicators,tools,frameworks),aswitheffectiveness,

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efficiency,oreconomy,organizationsarelefttoconceptualize,operationalize,andevaluate

socialequityperformancewithouttheknowledgeandskillsnecessaryformeaningful,rather

thanhaphazardimplementationandassessment.Theimplicationofsocialinequityandthe

consequencesofinactionaretoogreattocontinuetobeignored.Arealcommitmentisneeded

tonotonlyidentifyundueburdens,butalsotoassessorganizationalpractices,policyoutcomes,

andadministrativeactionstoimprovethequalityoflifeforresidents.

Thisreportseekstoachieveseveralgoals.First,theauthorscreateanoperational

definitionofsocialequitywiththeaimofidentifyingacceptedvariablesforthemeasurement

ofdiscrimination,marginalization,anddisparity.Second,weidentifyadecision-making

frameworkandcriteriatoassistinprioritizingsocialequity.Thirdly,weclassifyvarious

approachescommunityandgovernmentorganizationsandutilizetosupportsocialequity

measurementandevaluation.Finally,theauthorsofferstrategiesforlocalandgovernment

organizationstoexceedthelowstandardsforsocialequitymeasurement.

Thediscussionbeginswiththeevolutionofsocialequitydefinitionsandpresentsanew

operationalizeddefinition.Anoperationalizeddefinitionaidsinthedevelopmentofmeaningful

measures.Next,weexplorethebarriersandbenefitstoperformancemeasurementingeneral,

andsocialequitymeasurement,specifically.WethenpresentaModelofSocialEquitythat,

throughtheevaluationofexistingpractices,proposesacategorizationoftheleasttomost

comprehensiveapproachestosocialequitymeasurement.Throughthisevaluation,the

researchersareabletoidentifyreplicableapproachesforsocialequitymeasurement.The

reportconcludeswithfutureconsiderationsforthemeaningfulmeasurementofsocialequity

andrecommendationsforhowadministrationscanengageinsuchendeavors.

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Definingsocialequity

Socialequityisdefinedinvaryingways.ShafritzandRussell(2005)definesocialequity

as“fairnessinthedeliveryofpublicservices;itisegalitarianisminaction–theprinciplethat

eachcitizen,regardlessofeconomicresourcesorpersonaltraits,deserveandhasarighttobe

givenequaltreatmentbythepoliticalsystem”(p.434).In2013,theAmericanSocietyforPublic

Administration(ASPA)reviseditsCodeofEthicsandincludedastatementon“strengthening

socialequity.”IdeallymembersofASPAwillcommitthemselvestostrengtheningsocialequity

bytreating“allpersonswithfairness,justice,andequalityandrespectindividualdifferences,

rights,andfreedoms.Promoteaffirmativeactionandotherinitiativestoreduceunfairness,

injustice,andinequalityinsociety”(ASPA,2013,para7).WhileShafritzandRussellandASPA

offerstatementsthatconnecttoissuesoffairnessandjustice,theyarealsogroundedwithin

notionsofequalityandequaldistribution.Equality,incertaincontextsisconsideredanaspect

ofsocialequity.Yet,adistributionalapproachtojusticethatisbasedonequality,ratherthan

equity,presumesequalfooting.Basedonthisassumptioneveryoneoriginatesfromthesame

startingpoint.ExistinginequitiesintheUnitedStatesinpubliceducation,criminaljustice,

healthcare,amongotherareas,exemplifysystemicinjusticesthatresultindisproportionate

outcomes.Adeeperexaminationofrace,class,andgenderexperiences,withintheseandother

areas,revealconsistentpatternsofneglectandinactionbypublicinstitutionsand

administratorstoaddressthedifferentialrealitiesforunderservedgroups.Intheseexamples,

equaltreatmentorequaldistribution,wouldonlyexacerbatedisparitiesratherthanworkto

eradicatethem.

TheNationalAcademyofPublicAdministration(NAPA)(2000),definedsocialequity

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as,

Thefair,justandequitablemanagementofallinstitutionsservingthepublicdirectlyor

bycontract;thefair,justandequitabledistributionofpublicservicesand

implementationofpublicpolicy;andthecommitmenttopromotefairness,justice,and

equityintheformationofpublicpolicy.

WoolridgeandGooden(2009)assert,“theessenceofsocialequityactivelyconsidershowfairly

administrators,systems,andpoliciesoperatewhendeliveringpublicgoodsandservices”(p.

223).JohnsonandSvara(2011)offeradefinitionsuggestingthat

socialequityistheactivecommitmenttofairness,justice,andequalityinthe

formulationofpublicpolicy,distributionofpublicservices,implementationofpublic

policy,andmanagementofallinstitutionsservingthepublicdirectlyorbycontract.

Publicadministrators,includingallpersonsinvolvedinpublicgovernance,shouldseek

topreventandreduceinequality,unfairness,andinjusticebasedonsignificantsocial

characteristicsandtopromotegreaterequalityinaccesstoservices,procedural

fairness,qualityofservices,andsocialoutcomes.Publicadministrationshouldempower

theparticipationofallpersonsinthepoliticalprocessandsupporttheexerciseof

constructivepersonalchoice(p.282).

Thesedefinitionsmovebeyondthe“startingpoint”assumptionandfocusonequity

(ratherthanequality).Theyalsoincorporate,asdoestheASPAprinciple,theidealoffairness.

Theoretically,thesedefinitionsprovideinsightintounderstandingtheconceptofsocialequity

andtheimpactofinequitablepractices,howevertheyarelimitedintheirpracticalapplication.

Theterm“fairness”issubjective.Whatmayseemfairtooneadministratorinonecontextmay

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nottoanotheradministratorinadifferentcontext.Therefore,measuringfairnessbecomesa

challenge.

AccordingtoDubnickandFrederickson(2010),fairnessissuesare“ladenwith

accountabilityquestions”(p.i147).Consequently,administratorsstrugglewithequitable

application,particularlygivenlimitedresourcesandtime(Maynard-Moody&Musheno,2003).

Discussionsoffairnessoftenrelatetopolicyimplementationandindividualtreatmenti.e.

whetherapolicyisfairinitsapplication,intent,andimpactorifapersonperceivestobe

treatedfairly.Fairnessissubjectiveinitsmeasurabilityasitcanbevieweddifferentlyin

differentcontexts.Definitions,therefore,thatincludesubjectiveconceptslimittheabilityof

administratorsandresearcherstooperationalizeandmeasuresocialequity.Explanatory

discussionsoftheaforementioneddefinitionsmayoffermoreinsightintothemeasurementof

socialequity(seeJohnsonandSvara,2011,Gooden,2015),butthedefinitionsthemselvesdo

notexplicitlyincorporatemeasureableconcepts.

Theexistingbodyofsocialequityresearchfurthercomplicatestheissueofcreatingan

operationaldefinitionofsocialequity.Pitts(2011)argues,“muchoftheresearchoverthepast

20yearshasbecomecomplacentinviewingsocialequityaspartofanambiguousclusterof

conceptsthatdonotneedtobedistinguishedfromoneanother”(p.i78).Publicadministration

scholarshaveneglectedtodedicateampleresearchfocusedondistinguishingsocialequity

fromdiversity,culturalcompetence,andrepresentation(Pitts,2011).Whilerelated,these

conceptsrepresentoverlappingidealshowever;culturalcompetency,diversity,andsocial

equityarealmostalwayslinkedandusedinterchangeably(Lopez-Littleton&Blessett,2015).

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Thelackofdistinctionbetweentheaforementionedconceptscontributestoimprecise

conceptualizationanddifficultiesintheempiricalmeasurementofsocialequity.

Socialequityreflectsactivitiesdesignedtoenhancethepoliticalpowerandeconomic

well-beingofdisadvantagedpopulations(Frederickson,2010),byredressinginjusticesand

remediatingdamagesthatwerepreviouslyincurred,byfullyincorporatingallsegmentsofthe

communityinthepoliticalprocess,andbyestablishingmeasurestopreventfutureinequities

fromoccurring(Johnson&Svara,2011).Therefore,itisthecombinationofthesecollective

actionsthatcanmitigatethemarginalizingeffectspolicydecisions,inadequateservicedelivery,

andalackofengagementhashadwithunderrepresentedconstituents.Theabilityofpublic

administratorstoeffectivelyaddressinequityrequiresnotonlyanuancedunderstandingof

historical,institutional,andstructuralcontextsbutalsotheabilitytoempiricallymeasureand

understandhowapolicylimitsdisparitiesorsupportsthestatusquo.Arealcommitmentto

socialequityrequiresassessingthepervasivenessofdisparities,asitexistsacrossanyandall

marginalizedgroups,andimplementinganintervention.Thefundamentalstartingpoint

thereforeformeaningfulmeasurementisgroundedwithinaresponsibilitytoadvanceequity

throughtheidentificationandremediationofdisparity.

Figure1.RelationshipofSocialEquityDefinition,Conceptualization,andMeasures

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Figure1.Relationshipchartillustratingtheimportanceofanoperationaldefinitionintheassessmentofsocialequity.

“Measurementsbeginwithoperationaldefinitions.Operationaldefinitionsare

instructionsordescriptionsofsetsofactionsoroperationsaninvestigatorcanfollowexactly,

designedtolinkconceptstomagnitudesoftheworld”(Bowen&Bowen,1999,p.53).

Figure1illustratestherelationshipbetweenaconceptualandoperationaldefinitionandthe

measurementofsocialequity.Auniversaldefinitionmustaidintheempiricalmeasurementof

theimpactpoliciesandinitiativeshaveonreducingoradvancingdisparity,otherwise,public

administratorswillbefacedwiththechallengeofassessingstrategieswithoutanadequateway

todetermineifsocialequityoutcomeshaveimproved.Thedefinitionspresentedabove

representanevolutionofthefield’sunderstandingofsocialequity.Eachiterationismore

insightfulandinclusiveofthefactorsrelatedtosocialequity,yettheydonotmeetBowenand

Bowen’s(1999)criteriaasoperationaldefinitions.Refininghowadministratorsunderstandand

measuresocialequitycomeswithanevolveddefinitionoftheconcept.Weofferthefollowing

OperaEonalDefiniEon

ConceptualizedTerms

SocialEquityMeasures

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operationaldefinitionthatincorporatestermsthataidinthedevelopmentofsocialequity

measures:

Socialequity,inpublicadministration,referstopolicyformulationandimplementation,

publicmanagementpractices,theprovisionofpublicgoodsandservices,and

administrator/residentinteractionsthatreduce(andultimatelyeliminate)disparity,

marginalization,anddiscriminationwhileincreasingsocialandpoliticalinclusion.

Thisdefinitionintentionallyavoidstermsthataredifficulttomeasurelike“fairness”and

doesnotsupportanideologygroundedwithinequality.Itdoes,however,incorporate

measureableconceptslikedisparity,discrimination,marginalization,andinclusion.When

assessed,theseconceptsaidagenciesandadministratorsinthedeterminationofpolicy,

program,behavioralandorganizationalimpactasitrelatestoissuesofequity.

Whywemeasuresocialequity

Theimportanceofmeasurement

Extensiveworkhasbeendedicatedtodefiningsocialequityanddescribingwhenitdoes

anddoesnotexist,therehas,however,beenaslowerprogressiontowarditsconceptualization

andmeasurement.GoodenandPortillo(2011)substantiatethispointbyarguingthatthe

advancementofsocialequityinpublicadministrationscholarshipandpracticewouldbe

enhancedby“theneedforconceptualclarityofthetermsocialequity,theneedforincreased

attentiontosocialequityinthepublicadministrationcurriculum,andtheneedforfurther

methodologicaldevelopmentinsocialequityresearch”(p.i63).Withoutsuchholistic

consideration,theoperationalizationandmeasurementofsocialequitywillcontinuetobe

piecemealacrossthespectrumofscholarlyresearch,pedagogy,andpractice.Ultimately,

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impedingadministratorsfromunderstandingandeffectivelymeasuringsocialequity.

Fredericksonargued,“thegrowingacceptanceofsocialequityinpublicadministrationoverthe

pastthirty-fiveyearshasoccurredduringatimewhentheactualstatusofsocialequityin

Americahasbeeninsteadydecline”(p.33).Acceptance,inthiscase,referstotheoreticaland

conceptualconsiderationsofsocialequitymeasurement,ratherthanitspracticalapplicationin

theprofession.Alackofattentionandcommitmenttoaddressingissuesofinequityhascreated

anenvironmentwhereorganizationssymbolicallyemphasizesocialequity.Inthesecases,

publicadministrationtalksocialequitybutdoesnotwalkthesocialequitywalk.

Measuringtheperformanceofgovernmentismoreimportantnowthanperhapsatany

otherpointinpubicadministration’shistory.Nearly20yearsago,Perrin(1998)assertedthat

performancemeasurementisthenewwayoffocusingontheresultsofpublicprograms.

Currently,publicadministration’sfocusonmeasuringperformance,ingeneral,hasnotwaned

butgrown,whilechallengeswiththemeasurementofsocialequitypersists.

Increasingly,alllevelsofgovernmenthaveaimedtoimproveengagementwiththe

publicbyreportingontheservicesitdelivers.Governmentschoosetoutilizeperformance

measuresbecauseitsuseoftenreflectsthedesiretofindbetterwaystoservethepublic(Kelly

andSwindell,2002).Publicreportingisanattemptbygovernmenttoensureresidentsare

providedwithaccesstoinformationinamannerthatiseasilyretrievable,accurate,andtimely.

Anestablishedbodyofliteraturedemonstrateshowmeasurementcanimproveorganizational

performance(Moxham,2010;Ammons,2007;DeLancer-Julnes,2006;Berman,2002;Kennerly

andNeely,2002)inareasincludingdecision-making,serviceperformance,andpublic

accountability(Epstein,1984).Additionally,theuseofperformancemeasuresandthesharing

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ofoutcomeshelpstodemonstratetheeffectivenessofgovernmentworkandtheapplicationof

scientificmethods"promisestofurtherprofessionalizethefieldofpublicadministration"(p.

611).

However,beforereportingperformanceinformationtothepubliccanoccuraneffective

performancesystemmustbeimplemented.Thedevelopmentandmanagementofvaluable

performancemeasurementdataisoftendifficultandmaynotsimplybeachievedbymimicking

whatanotherjurisdictiondoes.CharbonneauandRiccucci(2008)statethatperformance

measurementseekstoachieveresultsbaseduponadevelopmentofquantifiableindicatorsto

trackprogramachievementandoutcomes.Astheprimaryfocusofperformancemeasurement

isachievingspecifiedgoals,itssuccesshingesondevelopingmeasurableindicatorstotrack

programperformanceand,ultimately,results(Callahan,2007).Implementingperformance

measuresthatfocusonoutcomes,andnotjustonoutputs,havethepotentialto

simultaneouslyimproveefficiencyandequity.Thus,onegoalofperformancemeasurementis

toestablishasystemthatcanmeasuretheresultsofindicatorsandusetheinformationto

improvemanagementanddemocraticgovernance(YangandHsieh,2007;Moynihan,2006;

Hatry,2002;Wholey,1999).

Managersthatchoosetoadoptandimplementperformancemeasuresmaydosofora

varietyofreasons.Poister(2003)statesthatperformancemeasurementinitiativesareutilized

bymanagementformonitoringandreporting,strategicplanning,financialmanagement,

programmanagementandevaluation,contractmanagement,benchmarking,communicating

withthepublicandmanagingperformance.Publicmanagerschoosetoutilizeperformance

measuresinavarietyofwaysincluding:formulatingandjustifyingbudgetrequests;making

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internalresource-allocationdecisions;examiningin-depthperformanceissues;motivating

personneltomakeprogramimprovements;formulatingandmonitoringcontractstograntees;

supportingstrategicplanning;evaluatingprograms;communicatingwiththepublictoimprove

trust;andtoprovideimprovedservicesmoreefficiently(Hatry,2007).

Overall,whenconsideringtheimplementationofaperformancemeasurementsystem

keyquestionsmustbeanswered(Hatry,2007).Administratorscanaskquestionslike,whyare

wedevelopingperformancemeasures,whatmeasuresdowewanttotrack,howwillwe

managetheinformation,andwhatdoweultimatelywishtoachieve?Answerstothese

questionshelpdeterminethespecificreason(s)theorganizationisinterestedinmeasuring

performance.Oncedeterminedthatsocialequityistheinterestedmeasure,administrations

shouldthenidentifytheindicatorsassociatedwithdeterminingwhethertheorganizationis

meetingitsgoalsandobjectives.Similarly,iftheorganizationisnotachievingequitable

outcomesthecausesforfailureshouldbeexplored.Theseareimportantconsiderationsfor

administratorsbecausetheorganizationmustdeterminewhowillcollectthedataand

information,howitwillbecollected,andwhoconductanalysis,andhowwilltheresultsbe

disseminated.Performancemeasuresareseenasaninstrumentthatcanincreasethe

accountabilityofpublicmanagers(Hatry,2007)andaddressexistingdisparity.

Theimpactofpoormeasurement

Barrierstoimproveequityexistatvaryinglevels.Amongstthechallengesadversely

impactingthesuccessfulimplementationofperformancemeasuresareinconsistentawards

systems,fragmentationoflocalgovernment,andanabsenceofcostaccountingsystems

(Ammons,1985).Otherobstaclessuchasalackofcreativityandinnovationbypublic

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managers,considerationoftheinterestsandideasofstakeholders,thehighcostof

implementation,andvalidandreliabledataandgoal-congruencebetweentheorganizationand

thepublichaveconsistentlybeenidentifiedaschallengesassociatedperformance

measurement(Holzer&Yang,2006;DeLancer-Julnes,2006;Coe,2003;Hatry,2002;Perrin,

1998;Ammons,1985).Overcomingpublic-sectorbarrierstosocialequitymeasurement

requiresbuildingsupportandcollaborationfrombothorganizationalleadersandfront-line

employees(Holzer,2004).Todoso,thepublicmanagermustfirstfacilitatethebeliefthata

changeisindeedneededtoimproveperformanceandreducedisparity.Therefore,socialequity

mustberecognizedasanorganizationalvalueandadministrativepriority.

Anorganization’svaluesaredirectlylinkedtoitsmission,whichespousesthepurpose

anddirectivesoftheagency.AstheASPACodeofEthicselevatessocialequityasaprofessional

standard,organizationsandadministratorshavearesponsibilitytoraiseissuesofequitytoa

levelofpriority.Theroleofleadershiptoelevatesocialequityasapriorityandsupport

initiativestoreducediscrimination,marginalization,anddisparityiskey!Secondly,managers

andfront-lineemployeesmustbemadeawareoftheadvantageslinkedtoequitableoutcomes.

Inthiscase,themanagermustbepreparedtoanswerthequestion,inwhatwaysdoes

providingequitableservicestoconstituentsimprovethequalityoflifeofresidentsandenhance

organizationaleffectiveness?Relatedly,theorganizationshouldbeinterestedinincreasingits

understandingofwhatdemonstratessuccessandshortcomings.However,evenwhen

consideringtheabove,thecomplexstructureofgovernmentorganizationsanditsresponsibility

tomultiple(internalandexternal)stakeholdersaddstothecomplexityofsocialequity

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measurementandmaybeaprevailingreasonwhyequitymeasurementisnotdone

consistentlyandwithfrequency.

Compoundingtothecomplexityofsocialequitymeasurement(orthelackthereof)are

factorsrelatedtorace.Gooden(2014)poignantlyarguesthatconsiderationsofracewithin

publicadministrationleadtoa“nervousareaofgovernment”(p.4).Anervousnessorfearthat

isnotonlyproblematic,butinterfereswiththedailytaskofpublicagenciestoprovide

governmentalservicesinwaysthatalignwithourguidingdemocraticprinciplesassetforthin

theU.S.Constitution(Gooden,2014).Forexample,WardandRivera(2014)thoroughlyexamine

organizationsandpublicpoliciesintheareasofhousing,education,employment,criminal

justice,andevenreligiousinstitutions.Throughtheiranalysis,theyidentifykeyfactorsthat

werefoundationalinperpetuatingtheinstitutionalizedracismthatplaguespublicagencies,

politicalrhetoric,andpublicdiscourseevennow(Ward&Rivera,2014).Policieslikeracially

restrictivecovenants,redlining,mortgagelendingpractices,andracialprofilingseverely

contributedtotheadverserealitiespeopleofcolorfaceinU.S.society.Suchpracticeswere

sanctionedbythestateandtheuseofadministrativediscretionresultedinburdensomeand

exclusionarypracticesonmanyindividuals,families,andcommunities.Therefore,todiscuss

socialinequity,discrimination,marginalization,ordisparitywithoutprioritizingtheroleofthe

stateinsponsoringracistpracticesisdisingenuous.Injusticeneedstobesituatedwithinits

propercontext,ifequityandinclusionaretoeverbefullyrealizedforallgroups.

Equitymeasuresmustbeclearlycommunicatedfromtheorganization’sleaderstokey

stakeholders,includingelectedofficialswithwhomsupportforsuchanimportantinitiativeis

vital.Understandinghoworganizationseffectivelyorineffectivelyprovidepublicjustice

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requiresanexaminationoftheexternalenvironment,seniorpublicadministrators,public

servants,andorganizationalvalues(Gooden,2014).Ultimately,theseareascontextualizethe

nervousnessassociatedwithattemptstoachieveracialequity.Askingandansweringquestions

impliesacertainlevelofcommunicationbetweenfront-lineemployees,managers,and

decision-makers.Withoutexplainingthebenefitstopersonnelultimatelyresponsiblefordata

collection,entry,andthemanagementofstatisticsandinformation,itcanbedifficulttobegina

performancemeasurementinitiative,letaloneaperformanceinitiativethatinvolvessocial

equity.Poorcommunicationcanultimatelyleadtotop-downpressuresfrommanagementthus

resultingindecreasedemployeemorale,poorservicedelivery,anddistrustandapathyamong

citizens(Kim,2005).Kim(2005)suggeststensionswithinternalstakeholdersmayariseassome

organizationsattempttoremainresponsibletopoliticalandlegalstakeholdersoutsidethe

organization.Toovercomethis,managerscanseeksupportbyforminginformalgroupsthat

discussmethodstoimprovesocialequitybysurveyingstakeholdersand/orresearchingbest-

practicedexamplesfromotherlocalgovernmentagencies.

Representation,diversity,andculturalcompetenceareafewobjectivesthatmanagers

mustacknowledgeandaddressiftheirgoalisimprovedsocialequity.VanWart(2004)asserts

thatvaluesdeterminetheverydefinitionofproductivityaswellasthedefinitionofan

appropriateorganizationalculture,structure,andprocess.Thus,theimplementationofasocial

equitymeasurementsystemmustnotonlymeetthegoalsoftheorganization;butalsoweigh

thevaluesandopinionsofvariousstakeholders.

Theunsuccessfulimplementationofperformancemeasurementstrategiesoftenleads

tonegativeresidentperceptionsofgovernment.Alackoftrustanddecreaseinpublic

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participationarebothpotentialresultsofanineffectiveperformancemeasurementstrategy.

Performancemeasurement,particularlythosefocusedonissuesofequity,canserveasan

effectivewaytostrengthentrust,ifinnovativemeasurementpracticesaredevelopedto

embracefactorssuchasorganization-wideevaluation,institutionalarrangements,resident

involvementandenhancedcommunicationstrategies.

Thecurrentemphasisonperformancemeasurementistheresultofresidents

demandingthatgovernmentsofferevidenceofprogramandorganizationaleffectiveness

(WholeyandNewcomer,1997).Since,anessentialreasontomeasureperformanceistomake

programimprovementstopublicservices(Hatry,2007),itisvitalthatpublicorganizationswork

toengageresidentsinmeasurementinitiative(s).Whileitmaybemoredifficulttoascertainthe

ideasofresidents,itisnonethelesssignificanttoincludetheirperspectiveswhenconsidering

methodstoimproveorganizationalperformanceandprogrameffectiveness.Bynotengaging

residentconstituents,governmentorganizationsruntheriskofdecreasingthewillingnessand

interestofresidentstobeengagedinfutureparticipationefforts.Unproductivegovernment

performanceadverselyimpactsresidenttrustin(YangandHolzer,2006)andwillingnessto

engagewithgovernment.Ifmethodstoassessgovernmentperformanceareineffective,public

agencieswillexperiencecontinuedtrendsindissatisfaction.Ultimately,government

organizationsmustcommitthemselvestodevelopinfrastructuredesignedtoeliminate

inequities.

Collectively,existingbarriershavethepotentialtohaltequitymeasurementinitiatives

priortotheirstart.Thesebarriersareespeciallyimportanttonotewhendiscussinganew

programthatislikelytocauseashiftinorganizationalculture(e.g.,assessingcultural

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competencyamongemployees).Inthiscase,itisimperativeformanagementtoclearlydefine

whatitaimstoaccomplish,theoverallbenefits,andhowstaffandmanagerswillcontribute

beforebeginningtheprocess.

MeaningfulSocialEquity

Usingchoicepoints

Fosteringequity,asaconceptandempiricalmeasure,istheresponsibilityofpublic

servantsandorganizations.Individually,administratorsmustbecognizantofthevariousways

sheorhecancontributetoinequitableoutcomesfortraditionallymarginalizedgroups.

Decision-makingprocessesaretherefore;fundamentalopportunitiestoinfluenceoutcomes

towardachieveequityanddecreasedisparity.Associetycontinuestoevolveandchange,social

equitymustbeprioritizedasavaluealongwiththeprofessionalconsiderationsof

effectiveness,efficiency,andeconomy.Itisimportantforadministratorstoembodythe

necessaryknowledge,skills,andbehaviorstoelevatetheimportanceofequity,fostera

culturallycompetentworkforce,andadvanceanideaofdiversityandinclusionthat

encompassesthoughts,perspectives,andactionswithinandacrosspublicorganizations

(Blessett&Gaynor,2017).

Choicepointsisadecision-makingframeworkthatcanbeusedtoadvanceequityand

counteracttheimplicitandexplicitbiasesthatnegativelyshapedecisionsmadewithinpublic

bureaucracies.Forexample,consciousdecision-making,inotherwords,canbelikenedtoafork

intheroad,wherebypublicadministratorsfindthemselvesstandinginthemiddleofthefork

consideringwhichpathordecisiontofollow.Theadministratormustconsidertheimpactof

eachdecision,whetherthedecisionfostersorobstructsinequity.Thepointatwhichthe

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administratorfindsthemselvesneedingtomakeadecisionisachoicepoint.Inthisspace,

decisionmakerscancriticallyevaluatetheirownbiases,howthosebiasesdirectlyinfluencethe

existenceofinequities,andhowtheirdecisionscanshapeequitableoutcomes.Suchan

approachrecognizesthateachsmallchoicemayproducecumulativeeffectsmoreprofound

thanonelargedecision.Administratorsmustbeequippedwiththeskillsandabilitiesto

interrogatetheshortandlong-termconsequencesofpublicpolicydecisionsorprogram

objectives,particularlyasdisparitiesexperiencedbyunderservedgroupscanbeexacerbated

withoutsuchconsiderations.

Theuseofchoicepointspromotestheinstitutionalizationofequitywithinthe

administrativedecision-makingprocessesofpublicorganizationsbecauseitraisesthelevelof

consciousnesswithrespecttotheneedsofvulnerablegroups(Blessett&Gaynor,2017).The

approachalsobringsmindfulnesstodecision-making,whichelevatessocialequityintothe

forefrontofadministrativepracticesandbehaviors.BroomeandMurray(2002)state

Wedonotmakedecisionsrandomly,butascalculatedresponsestowhatweperceive

asrelevantconditionsatthepointofchoice.Recognizingthecloserelationshipbetween

theseconditionsandourresponsestothemmaybeasteptowardimproving…decision-

making(p.76).

Keleher(2014)recognizesthattoadvanceequityanddecreasediscriminatorytreatment,

individualsinorganizationsmustfocusonthefollowingquestions:

1) Whatarethedecision-makingpointsthataffectoutcomes?

2) Whatdecisions/actionsmaybereinforcingthestatusquo,implicitbias,and

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inequities?

3) Whatalternativeactionoptionscouldproducedifferentoutcomes?

4) Whichactionswillbestadvanceequityandinclusion?

5) Whatreminders,supports,andaccountabilitysystemscanbestructuredinto

routinepracticestokeepequityahighpriority?

Embeddingthesequestionsintotheadministrativedecision-makingstructurewillinitiatethe

processtoinstitutionalizesocialequitywithinandacrosspublicorganizations.

Criteriaforsocialequity

In2004,SvaraandBrunetofferedfourcriteriaofsocialequityforsystemically

measuringitsachievement.NAPA,in2005,institutionalizedthesecriteriaasawaytomeasure

socialequity.Proceduralfairness,quality,access,andoutcomeswereidentifiedasspecific

socialequitycriteriaadministratorsshouldconsiderwhenconductinganequityassessment.

Proceduralfairnessinvolvestheexaminationofproblemsorissuesrelatedtoprocedural

rights(dueprocess),treatmentinaproceduralsense(equalprotection),andtheapplicationof

eligibilityrequirementswithinpoliciesandprograms(Johnson&Svara,2011).Inhealthcare,

disparityinproceduralequityisevidentinthe“separateandunequal”(Smith2005,asquoted

inHug,2011)primarycareprovidedtoBlacksbymanagedcarefacilities.Withincriminal

justice,judicialsystemshavebeenused,asisthecasewithFerguson,Missouri,toaffordWhite

offenderswithopportunitiestoreduceorexpungeminorviolations,whilesimultaneously

forcingBlackoffenderstobeeitherfinanciallyresponsiblefortheiroffenses,maneuverthe

courtsystem,orboth(DOJ,2015).

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Qualityandprocessequityinvolvesa“reviewofthelevelofconsistencyinthequalityof

existingservicesdeliveredtogroupsandindividuals”(Johnson&Svara,2011,p.288).Perhaps

theclearestexampleofinequitiesinqualityistheFlint,Michiganwatercrisis.Duetocity

government’sdecisiontoswitchFlint’swatersourceandMichigan’swillfulignoranceto

remediate,Flintresidents(61.5%ofwhoaremembersofunderrepresentedracial/ethnic

groups)nowhavepublicwaterwithunsafelevelsofleadandbacteria(Lin,Rutter,&Haeyoun,

2016).Inthisexample,thereisvastdisparityinthequalityofserviceofferedtoFlintas

comparedtoothercommunitiesinMichigan.

Accessordistributionalequityinvolvesareviewofcurrentpolicies,services,and

practicestodeterminethelevelofaccesstoservices/benefitsandananalysisofreasonsfor

inequitableaccess.JohnsonandSvara(2011)suggest“severalalternativedistributional

principles”(p.288)thatcanbeusedinpromotingequity:simpleequality(samelevel/amount

ofservice),differentiatedequality(basedonhigherneedorselectioncriteria),targeted

intervention(concentratedonatargetarea),redistribution(redressunequalresources),and

distributiontoachieveequality(equalresults).Publiceducationactivistsandscholarsargue

thateveryschool-agedchildintheUnitedStateshastherighttoaccessaqualitypublic

education.However,accordingtotheU.S.DepartmentofEducation(2016),BlackandLatino

studentshavelessaccesstohighlevelmathandsciencecourses,giftedandtalentedprograms,

andadvanceplacementcourses.Thesedatademonstratethatstudentsofcolor,acrossthe

UnitedStates,donothaveequitableaccesstohigh-levelacademicprograms.

Finally,outcomesinvolveanexaminationofwhetherpoliciesandprogramshavethe

sameimpactforallgroupsandindividualsserved(SvaraandBurnet,2004).JohnsonandSvara

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(2011)state“theanalysisshouldincludeconsiderationofhowsocialconditionsandindividual

behavioraffectoutcomesorlimittheimpactofgovernmentservices,thatis,whatunderlying

conditionscontributetothedifferencesinoutcomes?”(p.288).Administratorsmustbecritical

intheirassessmentofequitableoutcomesinsuchawaythattheyexamineandunderstandthe

contextsthatcreated(in)equitableoutcomes.Accordingtoa2006reportbyUnitedCerebral

PalsyandChildren’sRights,childrenwithspecialneeds(e.g.mentalandbehavioralhealth

problems,fullyhandicapped,receivingspecialeducationservices)experience

disproportionatelypooreroutcomeswhileinthefostercaresystem.Childrenwhoare

differentlyabled“arelesssafe,andmorelikelytobemaltreated,aremorelikelytobeon

psychotropicmedications,havepoorereducationalexperiencesandoutcomes,aremorelikely

tobeinstitutionalized,experiencemoreplacementinstability,andhavelongerlengthsofstay”

(p.5).Administratorsshoulduseequityassessmentstoreviewthepolicies,programs,and

decisionsthatleadtodisproportionateoutcomesandworkwithorganizationalleadersto

remedythem.

Theconsiderationofhistoryandcontextisequallyasimportantasestablishingclear

methodstomeaningfullymeasuresocialequity.Gooden(2015)argued,“socialequity

recognizesthehistorical,political,andeconomicinfluencesthatstructurallyinfluencethe

prospectsforaccess,opportunityandoutcomes”(p.213).Whenassessingsocialequity,

administratorsmustunderstandhistoryandcontextandrecognizehowandinwhatways

publicpoliciesandadministrativedecisionshavecreatedandsustaindiscriminationand

disparity(Johnson&Svara,2011).Havingaclearunderstandingofhowsocialconstruction-the

characterizationofpeopleandplacebasedonarbitraryfactorsofworthanddeservingness

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(Schneider&Ingram,1993,1997)-influencesimplicitandexplicitbiases,andconsequently,

shapesthedevelopmentofprogramandpolicydecisionstoaidintheestablishmentof

programsandpracticesthatfosterequityandreducedisparity.Withoutsuchanunderstanding,

disparitypersists.

Forexample,anassessmentofaccessanddistributionalequityofpublicwaterinFlint,

Michiganwoulddeterminethatsimpleequality(equalreceiptofservices)hasbeenachieved.In

thiscase,allMichiganresidentshaveequalaccesstopublicwaterservices.Importanttothis

assessmenthowever,ishistoryandcontext.UnderstandinghowFlint’stwentiethcentury

segregationandhousingpoliciescreatedmarginalizingandsociallyexclusiveenvironmentsthat

haveshapedthecurrentwatercrisisoffersadministratorsagreaterunderstandingoftherole

publicadministrationhasplayedinthepersistenceofinequitiesacrosstime(Michigan,2003;

Highsmith,2016).Withoutsuchafocus,anadministratormaysimplychoosetoacknowledge

theachievementinequalservicedeliveryordownplaytheseverityofthecontaminatedwater

issue.

Collectively,thefourcriteriaaidinthemeasurementoforganizationalperformance,

program/policyeffectiveness,andmanagementstrategiesaroundtheissuesofdisparity,

marginalization,discrimination,andsocialandpoliticalinclusion.Thesecriteriaofferasolid

foundationtowardthedevelopmentofspecificindicatorstoinitiateaccuratemeasurementof

socialequityandalignwiththemeasureableconceptsofferedintheevolveddefinitionofsocial

equity.

ClassifyingApproachesintheMeasurementofSocialEquity

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Approachesthatseektomeasureandevaluatesocialequityarevastintheirbreadth,

depth,andscope.Someapproachesidentifyspecificindicators,whileothersare

comprehensiveintheirconsiderationofcontextualfactorsthatmayimpactsocialequity.Inthis

study,socialequityapproacheshavebeenclassifiedinwaysthatallowcommunitiesandlocal

governmentstofullyconsiderthevaluesocialequityhasonorganizationaloperations,

programs,andpolicies.

Modelofsocialequity

TheModelofSocialEquity,developedforthisstudy,recognizesthevaryingapproaches

forthemeasurementandevaluationofsocialequityandprogressesfromleasttomost

comprehensive(seeFigure2).Therefore,giventhecontext,priorities,andresourcesavailable

toanorganizationorcommunity,socialequitycanalwaysbeanachievablegoal.

Figure2.ModelofSocialEquity

Figure2.TheModelofSocialEquitydepictsaprogressionofapproachescurrentlyusedforequityassessment.Theseapproachesrangefromtheleastcomprehensive–indicatorstothemostcomprehensive–frameworks.

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Indicators.GAO(2011)definesanindicatoras“aquantitativemeasurethatdescribesan

economic,social,orenvironmentalconditionovertime”(p.57).Socialequityindicators

operationalizesocialequityandareconsideredtobetheleastcomprehensiveapproach

becausetheydonotallowforanunderstandingofcontext(e.g.social,political,economic,or

historical)orincludefeedbackloops.Forexample,unemploymentorpovertycanbemeasured

overtime,butthatmeasurementdoesnotcontextualizehoworwhychangehasoccurred.In

thisregard,afocusonindicatorsissimplytomeasuretheperformanceofkeyvariablesof

interest.Measurementinanycapacityisanimportantconsiderationforresearchersand

practitioners.HuandOlshfski(2008)suggesttheportionoftheworkthatismeasuredisthe

portionofworkthatgetsattendedto;therefore,whatwechosetomeasureillustrateswhatis

valuedinaparticularsituation.

Aspreviouslynoted,socialequityhasnotbeenprioritizedinacomprehensivemanner

acrosslocal,state,andfederalgovernmentsduetoalackofconceptualclarityandtheuseof

inadequatemeasurementindicatorstomonitorandtracksuccess.Previouslydefined

constructsofsocialequity(e.g.justice,fairness,equality)donoteasilylendthemselvesto

specificandmeasurablevariables,whichispartiallywhysocialequityhasneverbeenfully

implementedacrossgovernmentorganizationsorprograms.Identifyingandmeasuring

meaningfulgoalscanaidepublicadministratorsinmovingbeyondasymbolic

acknowledgementthatrecognizessocialequitytowardempoweringthefieldtowalkthesocial

equitywalkthroughreal-worldengagement.Suchengagementrecognizesthatmeasuring

socialequityrequiresandawarenessoftheenvironmentalcontext.Conceptslikepoverty,

unemployment,orinfantmortalityarerelativelystableandcanbeappliedacrossavarietyof

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contexts,whereastermssuchassustainability,trustorsuccessrequireamorein-depth

considerationofthesocial,economic,cultural,andpoliticalcontextsinordertodevelop

meaningfulindicators.

Althoughsocialequityisdifficulttomeasure,itmustbedoneifadvancementsaretobe

madewithrespecttosocialequityoutcomes.Movingforward,moreattentionisneededto

appropriatelyconceptualizeandoperationalizevariablesrelatedtosocialequitybecauseitis

notaone-size-fitsallapproach.Inallrespects,accurateoperationalizationlinkingconstructsto

performanceindicatorsisanimportantfirststepandrequiresacommitmentoftimeand

resourcesifprogressisevertobemade.Forexample,theGovernmentAccountabilityOffice

(GAO)(2011)conductedastudyofnationalandinternationalkeyindicatorssystemsforthe

purposesofdevelopingakeysystemfortheUnitedStates.Suchacomprehensivestudywas

commissionedtoinvestigate(1)howindicatorsystemswerebeingused;(2)howindicator

systemsaredesignedandmeasured;(3)factorsnecessarytosustainasystem;and(4)potential

implicationsforthedevelopmentanduseofaU.S.system(GAO,2011).Keyindicatorsystems

canhelpto“…identifyacountry’ssignificantchallengesandopportunities,informchoices

regardingtheallocationofscarcepublicresources,assesswhethersolutionsareworking,and

makecomparisonswithinthecountryandtoothercountries”(GAO,2011,p.11).

Theidentificationofdisparities.

Despitebeingtheleastcomprehensiveapproachtosocialequitymeasurement,theuse

ofindicatorsareanimportantfirststepbecauseitallowspublicorganizationstoidentify

existingdisparitieswithincommunitiesandamongststakeholdergroups.Ifadministratorsdo

notcollectdata,howwillorganizationsknowtoadjusttheexpectations,priorities,and

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objectivesofpoliciesandprograms?Minimallyhavingbaselineinformationaboutapopulation

orcommunitycanilluminatethewaysinwhichgovernmentofficialscanproceedtoproduce

thebestoutcomeforitsconstituents.DuringtheObamaadministration,theDepartmentof

Justice(DOJ)investigatedseveraljurisdictions,mostrecentlyFerguson,MO(2015),Baltimore,

MD(2016),andChicago,IL(2017),whichrevealedpatternsofpracticethatviolatedtheUnited

StatesConstitutionanditslaws.Theseinvestigationsspecificallywereinresponsetodeadly

interactionsbetweenBlackresidentsandlawenforcementofficers.Whilemanyincidences

werecaughtoncamera,videoevidence(bodycameraorcellphone)didnotresultin

widespreadaccountabilityforharassment,brutality,orevendeath.Infact,videorecordings

authenticatedrealitieslongexperiencedbypeopleofcolor.However,withoutuniformdata

collectionaboutthepervasivenessofdeadlyinteractionsresidentsgenerally,butBlackpeople

specifically,havewithlawenforcementofficers,itisdifficulttodiscernthedepthofdisparity.

Inresponse,websiteslikeTheCountedbytheGuardianandKilledbyPolicedeveloped

infrastructuretokeeparunningtallyofdeadlyresident-policeinteractions.Themethodologies

foreachsitediffered,butsimilardatawascollectedsuchas:race,gender,age,state,and

whetherthepersonwasarmedorunarmed.Thesedatabasesprovidedthepublicwithdata

thatwaseithernotcollectedorsharedpublicallybylawenforcementagencies.Theavailability

ofsuchdataresultedinwidespreadpublicoutragebycommunitiesofcolorandcallsfor

accountabilitywithrespecttotheimplementationofjustpolicingpractices.

Whenindicatorsareused,disparitiesareknownandstrategiescanbeidentifiedto

reduceharm.TheDOJreportsrevealedthatwheredatawascollected,itwasuncoveredthat

policeofficerswereengagedindiscriminatorypolicingpracticesthatresultedin

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unconstitutionalsearches,seizures,andarrests,whichdisproportionatelytargetedpeopleof

color.Forexample,BlessettandBox(2016)examinedthepracticesofFerguson,Missouri’sCity

Hall,PoliceDepartment,andMunicipalCourtsinusingthejusticesystemasarevenuetool.In

otherwords,Blackresidentswerethreatenedwithfines,fees,andjailtimeforminoroffenses,

resultingindependencyandfinancialindebtednesstolocalgovernments.Ultimately,theCity

ofFergusonuseditsBlackresidentsasarevenuesourcetofundlocalgovernment.Collectively,

theseactionsaffecttheperceptionandlegitimacyoflawenforcementagenciestoserveand

protectallfactionsofthepublic.Attheendofeachinvestigation,theDOJoffereddozensof

strategiestoremediatewrongdoingandbuildbridgesbetweencommunitiesofcolorandlaw

enforcementagencies.

Anindicatorsystem:VirginiaPerforms.

VirginiaPerformsisa“performanceleadershipandaccountabilitysystem”forthe

CommonwealthofVirginiathatincludesasystemof“socialindicators”designedtoprovide

citizensandpolicymakerswithahigh-levelassessmentofVirginia’sconditionsandprogressfor

betterstrategicthinkingandperformance-drivendecisionmaking(GAO,2011,p.77).Virginia

PerformswasidentifiedasaComprehensiveKeyIndicatorSystembyGAOandwashighlighted

inthecasestudyprofilepartofa2011report.VirginiaPerforms(2017)alignsspecificstate

governmentoutcomeswithlargerstatewidegoalsandpartnerswithofficesandagencies,such

astheGovernorofVirginia,theVirginiaGeneralAssembly,theCouncilonVirginia’sFuture,the

DepartmentofPlanningandBudget,andtheWeldonCooperCenterforPublicService.Thisisa

collaborativeendeavorwithinputfromdiversestakeholders,whocontributetothestrategic

visionandprioritiesoftheCommonwealth.TheVirginiaPerforms(2017b)websiteidentifies

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indicatorsforseveralareas:Economy,Education,Health&Family,PublicSafety,Natural

Resources,Transportation,andGovernment&Citizens.VirginiaPerformsisawell-developed

indicatorsystemthatalsoincludesascorecardthatenablesaquickoverviewofprogressin

eachareabyindicator(seeFigure3).

Figure3.VirginiaPerformsScorecard

Source.VirginiaPerformsScorecard.Retrievedfromhttp://vaperforms.virginia.gov/Scorecard/ScorecardatGlance.php

IntheareaofGovernment&Citizens,VirginiaPerformsidentifiesanddefinesanumber

ofimportantvariablesdesignedtoincreasethesocialandpoliticalinclusionofitsresidents.For

example,VirginiaPerforms(2017c)providesdefinitionsanddatasourcesforallindicator

variables;definitionsarelistedbelow:

• VotingAgePopulation(VAP)istheestimatednumberofpeople18yearsofageorolder

inanarea.TheVAPestimateincludespeoplewhoareineligibletovote(e.g.non-

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citizens,felons),butexcludesresidentvoterslivingabroad,suchasformilitaryorwork

reasons.

• CitizenVotingAgePopulationsexcludesnon-citizens,butdoesincludeotherswhoare

ineligibletovote,suchasfelonswhosevotingrightshavenotbeenrestoredand

personswhoareincarcerated.

AccordingtoVirginiaPerforms(VirginiaPerforms,2017c)“voterregistrationisastrong

indicatorofcitizencommitmenttotheircommunities,”whichiswhythestatewantsan

informedandengagedcitizenry.

Usingthisdata,graphshavebeengeneratedtocomparevoterparticipationbystate

andbyregion(VirginiaPerforms,2017d).Althoughsuchvoterinformationisimportant,a

limitationofVirginiaPerformsisthelackofdemographicdataavailablerelatedtovoting

registration.VirginiawasoneoftheninepreclearancestatesidentifiedintheVotingRightsAct

of1965.“Preclearance”referstoamandatethatrequiresstatestoseekfederalapproval

beforechangesaremadetovotingprocedures.Thisrequirementwasputinplacebasedonthe

historyofinstitutionalizeddisenfranchisementofBlackvotersbystatelegislatures.Blessett

(2015)arguesfrom2001-2010,Virginia,Texas,andLouisianaadoptedthelargestnumberof

disenfranchisementpoliciesduringthedesignatedtimeframeat31,27,and22respectively.

WhileVirginiaPerformscanbeapplaudedforitseffortstomeasureperformanceacrossa

numberofdifferentsocialfactors,withoutdemographicconsiderations,specificallyrace,

disparitywillneverbefullyunderstoodandtherefore,socialequitynevermeaningfully

addressed.Additionally,withoutbaselinedemographicdatawithrespecttovoterregistration

andturnout,itisdifficulttoknowifdisparitiesexistorthepervasivenessofdissimilarityfor

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peopletryingtoaccesstheballotbyrace,gender,orclassdifferences.Thisisespeciallytruefor

issueslikevoting,wheresystemicdiscriminationbyadministratorshasresultedinBlack

communitiesbeingintentionallytargetedfordisenfranchisement.

Theevolveddefinitionofsocialequityarguesforsocialequitytoincreasesocialand

politicalinclusion,thereforeraceindicatorsarefoundationalvariablesofinquirytoeffectively

discernthelevelofdisparity,marginalization,ordiscriminationthatexistsinacommunity.

Disaggregateddemographicdataisneededtohighlightfactorsthatinhibitsocialandpolitical

inclusionandminimizesocialequityaltogether.Ultimately,measurementisaprocessof

observingandrecordingobservationscollectedaspartofaresearcheffort(Trochim,2001).Yet,

effectivemeasurementrequirescontextualconsiderationsandopportunitiestoimplement

feedback,alongsidewell-developedindicators.Itisimportantthatthetheoreticalconstructsof

apolicyorprogramarealignedwiththeobservableindicatorstomeasureperformance.

VirginiaPerformsreflectstheconceptualclarityanduseofindicatorstocollectandanalyze

statelevelperformancemeasures.Outcomeassessments.Thenextstepintheprogressionof

socialequitymeasurementistheuseofoutcomeassessments.Indicatorsenableorganizations

orcommunitiestoadequatelymeasureperformance,whileoutcomeassessmentsareusedto

evaluateifequitygoalshavebeenachieved.Inotherwords,outcomeassessmentsdomore

thandescribedisparity,italsoexaminesthecausesandconsequencesofdisparityinorderto

identifyandadvocatefortheappropriatesolutionstobepursued.Suchtoolsarewide-ranging

inscopeandincludeafeedbackloop,whichallowcommunitiesandorganizationstolearnfrom

previousactivitiesinordertomaketheappropriateadjustmentsforaction.Socialequity

assessmenttoolsevaluatetheprogressofspecificareasofinterest,suchasenvironmental

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justice,policing,accesstohealthcare–issuesthatalsorevealaraciallydisproportionateeffect

oncommunitiesofcolor.

TheNationalEquityAtlas(2016d),isanassessmenttoolfromPolicyLink,is“…a

comprehensiveresourcefordatatotrack,measure,andmakethecaseforinclusivegrowthin

America’sregions,andstates,andnationwide”(para2).TheAtlascontainsdataon

demographicchange,racialandeconomicinclusion,andthepotentialeconomicgainsforracial

equityforthelargest100cities,largest150regions,all50states,andtheUnitedStatesasa

whole(PolicyLink,2016d).Additionally,indicatorsarespecificallyidentifiedfordemographics,

economicvitality,readiness,connectedness,andeconomicbenefits(PolicyLink,2016e).Using

datafromtheNationalEquityAtlas,Ross(2017)arguedtheaggregationofracespecificdatais

importantforlocalgovernmentofficialsandplannerstounderstand,track,andaddress

disparitiesintheircommunities.Forexample,

PovertylooksdifferentforWhitepeoplethanforpeopleofcolorbecausepeopleof

colorassignificantlymorelikelytoliveinhigh-povertyneighborhoodseveniftheyare

notpoor.Thisnotonlyhighlightsthelonghistoryoffederallysupportedracial

residentialsegregationbutitalsounderscorestheimportanceofinformeddata-driven

planningandpolicymaking(Ross,2017,para3).

Thedevelopmentofrace-basedindicatorstomeasureperformanceisessentialforpolicy

makerstounderstandandaddressthedisparitythatendureswithinracialandethnic

communities.

“AnEquityProfileofNewOrleans”isarecentstudypublishedbyPolicyLinkandthe

ProgramforEnvironmentalandRegionalEquity(PERE)attheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia.

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Thereportusestheequityindicatorsframeworkforcommunities,asdevelopedbyPolicyLink

andPERE,tounderstandandtrackthestateofequityandequitablegrowthlocally.Indicators

anddatasourcesareprovidedfortheareasunderinvestigation,suchas:demographics,

economicvitality,readiness,connectedness,andeconomicbenefits(Langston,2017).Dataand

analysisispresentedtohelplocalleadersdevelopsolutionsgiventhespecificenvironmental

contextoftheirlocalcommunity.TheNewOrleansEquityreportiscomprehensiveandoffers

usefulstatisticalanalysisregardingthewaystoachieveequitableoutcomesacrossthe

community.Intheimplicationspartofthereport,severalobservationsaremadetohelp

organizationsachieveequitableoutcomes:growgood,accessiblejobsthatprovidepathwaysto

themiddleclass;increasetheeconomicsecurityandmobilityofvulnerablefamiliesand

workers;cultivatehomegrowntalentthroughastrongcradle-to-careerpipeline;createhealthy,

opportunity-richneighborhoodsforall;buildresilientconnectedinfrastructure;increaseaccess

tohigh-quality;affordablehomesandpreventdisplacement;andexpanddemocracyand

ensurejustpolicingandcourtsystems.

Givenalloftheinformationprovidedinthisreport,localstakeholdershavean

opportunitytodevelopmeaningfulinterventionstoaddressthevariouschallengesidentified.

“Business,community,andpoliticalleaderscanbuildmomentumbyworkingtoconnect

communitiesofcolortojobs,businessopportunities,qualityeducation,andcareertraining”

(Langston,2017,p.94).Overtime,thebaselinedatacanbeusedtocompareandcontrast

progressmadeonanyoralloftheidentifiedissues.Accordingtothisreport,TheOfficeofthe

Mayorhaslaunchedan#EquityNewOrleansstrategydesignedtoembedequitythroughout

government(Langston,2017).Therefore,whatevercollaborativeinterventionsdevelopedby

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localstakeholderscanbeassessedtodetermineifNewOrleansismovingtowardanequitable

city.

TheNationalEquityAtlasiscutting-edgebecauseofitscomprehensiveness,butalsodue

totheexplicitnaturethatraceisaddressedthroughoutthemodel.Race,unfortunatelyis

inextricablytiedtosocialinequity,aswitnessedacrossanynumberofqualityoflifemeasures.

Gooden(2014)concedesthatstructuralracism(e.g.policies,cultural/norms,laws,social

acceptance,andorganizationalpractices)isatthecoreofracialinequitiesintheareasof

health,education,criminaljustice,economicwell-being,housing,andtheenvironment.

Structuralracismrecognizesthecollaborativeandcooperativewaysinstitutionsworktogether

toproduceracialgroupdisparities(Gooden,2014).Thesecollectiveactionsdemonstratehow

governmentatalllevelshascontributed,unconsciouslyorconsciously,tothedisparitythat

existsandpersistsinracialandethniccommunities.Structuralracismis,therefore,embedded

inthepracticesofpublicinstitutionsandreinforcedbypublicadministratorsusingpublic

resources.Consequently,thelackofconceptualclarityandempiricalquantificationcomesas

nosurpriseconsideringthatsocialequity,asastrategy,hasyettobecomeatoppriorityin

publicadministration.Arguably,thehesitationtosupportissuesofequityrelatetothecreation

ofequalplayingfieldsandvastbenefitsthatempowercommunitiesofcolorattheexpenseof

thoseprivilegedbythecurrentcontext.

Withrespecttotheevolveddefinitionofsocialequity,PolicyLink’sequitytoolscanbe

usedtohelpreducedisparity,marginalization,anddiscriminationacrossanumberofqualityof

lifeissues.PolicyLink’sworkcomprehensivelyseekstoimprovethehealthoutcomes,economic

status,andinfrastructureaccessforunderrepresentedcommunities,whileattemptingto

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improvethequalityofengagementthatoccursbetweenresidentsandtheinstitutionsthat

servethem,suchaslawenforcementagencies.

Frameworks.Socialequityframeworksrepresentthemostcomprehensiveaspectinthe

progressionofsocialequitymeasurement.Frameworksrepresentafullyintegratedapproach

tosocialequitymeasurementbecauseitrecognizestheimportanceofenvironmentalcontext,

understandsthemeasurementconditions,setspolicypriorities,buildsassessmentintopolicy

proposals,requiresadministrativechangestosustaineffortsandusesafeedbacktoadjustto

policyandprogramoutcomes.Truechangehappenswhenallofthesefactorsare

acknowledged,considered,andunifiedasstrategiestoeffectchange.

TheSustainabilityToolsforAssessing&Rating(STAR)CommunitiesRatingSystem

(2017)isrecognizedas“thenation’sleadingcomprehensiveframeworkandcertification

programforevaluatinglocalsustainability,encompassingeconomic,environmental,andsocial

performancemeasures”(para1).STARCommunitiesempowerlocalgovernmentstodetermine

theircurrentlevelofsustainabilitybysettingtargetsandmeasuringprogressalongtheway

(STAR,2017).WithintheSTARCommunitiesRatingSystem,thereareeightgoalareasof

considerationwitheachhavingspecificmeasurementindicators:BuiltEnvironment;Climate

andEnergy;Economy&Jobs;Education,Arts,&Community;Equity&Empowerment;Health&

Safety;NaturalSystems;andInnovation&Process.Eachgoalareaisequallyweightedat100

points,withtheexceptionofEducation,Arts,&Community(70points)andInnovation&

Process(50points).Indicatorswithineachgoalareaalsohaveaspecificnumberofpoints

associatedwiththem,therefore,acommunitycanstrategicallyfocusitseffortsonobjectives

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thatoffersthebiggestreturnoninvestment(seeFigure6).Ultimately,communitieswantto

scoreasclosetothemaximumof720pointsaspossible.

Figure6.STAR’sObjectives.

Source.STARCommunities,2015,STARCommunityRatingSystem(Version1.2),p.11.CopyrightSTARCommunities.

STARCommunitiesoffertwotypesofevaluationmeasures:thecommunity-level

outcomesandlocalactions.Community-leveloutcomesaremeasureable,contextual-level

indicatorsthatshowcommunityprogressonaSTARgoalarea,whilelocalactionsfocusonthe

stepstakentomovetowardachievingdesiredcommunity-leveloutcomes,suchastherangeof

decisions,investments,programs,plans,andcodesalocalcommunityputsinplace(STAR,

2017).Whilehavinggoalareasandspecificindicatorsformeasurementisawonderfulfirststep

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inanyevaluationprogram,theactionsofthelocalactorsarecriticalwithrespecttosustaining

changeovertime.Therefore,STARCommunitiesalsoassignsaportionofthepointswithineach

categorytothoseinitiativesthatfocusonimplementation-basedactions–actionsoractivities

thatdemonstrateacommitmenttoimprovementandprogressovertime(STAR,2015).

Additionally,STAR’sevaluationmeasuresmustmeetthefollowingcriteria:relevant,feasible,

timely,useful,systemic,reliable,andvalid.Aspreviouslymentioned,theappropriate

operationalizationofvariablesiscriticallyimportanttoensureperformanceisbeingmeasured

accurately.EvaluationmeasuresthatmeetSTAR’scriteriahelpscommunitiesbethoughtful,

inclusive,andstrategicaboutwaystoimproveforshort-andlong-termplanning

considerations.Overall,localofficialsarenotlefttofigureouthowSTARcanbeusedintheir

communitiesbecausethereisanabundanceofresourcesavailable,suchasadvisoryassistance,

toolkits,casestudies,andwebinars.

SimilartotheNationalEquityAtlas,STARCommunitieshasaspecificfocusonequity.

Measurementindicatorsfocusoncivicengagement(15points),civilandhumanrights(10

points),environmentaljustice(15points),equitableservicesandaccess(20points),human

services(20points),andpovertypreventionandalleviation(20points)(STAR,2015).Thelast

threeobjectivesareworththemostpointsallowingcommunitiestoprioritizeeffortsinan

attempttosecurethemostpointsavailableforthisgoalarea.Accessisoneofthe4criteriafor

socialequitywithEquitableServices&Accessspecificallyrecognizing“…equitableaccessto

foundationalcommunityassetswithinandbetweenneighborhoodsandpopulations”(STAR,

2015,p.77)areimportantinthedevelopmentofasustainablecommunity.Forexample,within

thisareacommunitiesshould

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demonstrateincreasedaccessandproximitybyresidentsofdiverseincomelevelsand

race/ethnicitytothefollowingcommunityfacilities,services,andinfrastructure:public

transitfacilitiesandservicelevels;publiclibraries;publicschools;publicspaces;

healthfulfood;healthandhumanservices;digitalaccessorhighspeedinternet;urban

trycanopy;emergencyresponsetimes(STAR,2015,p.84).

Low-incomepersonsandfamilies,alongwithracialandethnicgroupsareoftentimesadversely

impactedbynothavingaccesstoqualityservicesduetoproximityorthelackofavailability.

Suchissuescompounddisparityinwaysthatmaybedifficulttoovercome.STARCommunities

offerslocalofficialssuggestionsforavarietyofactionsthatcanmitigatedisparityandincrease

equitableaccessandempowermentforallresidents.Recommendationsinclude,constructing

newfacilitiesandinfrastructuretoreduceexistingdisparities,providingequityanddiversity

trainingforlocalgovernmentstaff,andadoptinganequityplanthatestablishesaclear

commitmenttoequityinlocalgovernmentdecision-making,activities,andinvestments(STAR,

2015).

Socialequityindicatorsandassessmenttoolsalloworganizationsandcommunitiesto

essentiallypickandchoosewheretheywanttofocustheirattention.STARCommunities,on

theotherhand,isacomprehensiveandintegratedapproachthatrequirescommunities(e.g.

town,city,orcountygovernments)tofullycommittoallaspectsoftheprogramifbenefitsare

tobegained.AnadditionalbenefittoparticipationintheprogramistheSTARCertification,

whichdemonstratesthatacommunityhasimplementedcredibleandtransparentprogress

towardthesustainabilitygoalsoutlinedbytheSTARCommunityRatingSystem(STAR,2017b).

Asof2017,therearemorethan40communitiesacrosstheU.S.withSTARCertification:29

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communitieswitha3-STARcertificationlevel(200-399points);24communitieswitha4-STAR

certification(400-599points);and4communitieswitha5-STARcertification(600+points)

(STAR,2017c).Ultimately,STARCommunitiesrepresentsacomprehensivemodelthatenables

measurement,analysisandevaluation,whichempowerslocalgovernmentstoenactpolicies

andprotocolstoachievelong-termchange.CommunitiescommittedtotheSTARCommunities

Frameworkwillarguablydecreasedisparity,marginalization,anddiscrimination,thus

consequentlyincreasingsocialandpoliticalinclusionofunderrepresentedgroups.

TheCityofSeattlehasbeenidentifiedasanexemplarwithrespecttohowithas

integratedanequitylenstoitsmissioninservingitsresidents.“TheSeattleRaceandSocial

JusticeInitiative(RSJI)isacitywideefforttoendinstitutionalizedracismandrace-based

disparityinCitygovernment”(asquotedinGooden,2014,p.79).RSJIhasbeeninexistencefor

overten-yearsandhasworkeddiligentlytobringaboutsystemicchangeinthecity.In2014,

Seattle’sMayorsignedanexecutiveorderaffirmingandexpandingRSJI,whichwillrequireCity

stafftoestablishnewgoals,trackoutcomesovertime,andreportontheCity’sprogress(RSJI,

2015).Seattle’ssuccessstemsfromanunderstandingthatinstitutionalracismandrace-based

disparityarenotquickfixes,butratherrequirethoughtfulactionandalong-termcommitment

toalleviatetheinequitiesthatexistthroughoutthecity.Thisapproachrecognizesthatsuch

institutionalizeddiscriminationdidnothappenovernightandwillrequiretime,resources,and

energytoundothesystemicinjusticethathaveburdenedcommunitiesofcolorforgenerations.

Oftentimes,communitieswanttojumpintosolutionswithoutdoingtheverydifficultworkto

connectpast(institutionalandadministrative)practicestocontemporaryformsof

marginalization,disenfranchisement,anddisparity.Aninterrogationofpolicy,practices,belief

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systems,andbias(consciousandunconscious)arekeyfactorstomovetowardequitable

outcomesinlocalgovernment.

Forexample,theCityofSeattleexplicitlyacknowledgedtheroleinstitutionalracismin

creatingandperpetuatingdisparity;citywidetrainingsonraceandracismwereinstituted;

agencyplanswereupdatedtoreflectaraceconsciouslens;andamajorpublicityeffortensued

toinformthepublicofnewinitiatives,programs,andpoliciesdesignedtoreduceinequityin

thecity(Gooden,2014).Thirty-sevenlisteningsessionswithCityemployeesandcommunity

memberswereconductedtolearnabouttheracialequityissuesthatweremostpressingfor

peopleandtoencourageideasforthebestwayRSJIshouldaddressthem(RSJI,2015b).Lessons

learnedandstrategicstepsforwardsuggestedforRSJIincluded,butwerenotlimitedto:

ensuringracialequityinCityprogramsandservicestomaketangibledifferencesinpeople’s

lives;workingwithcommunity-basedorganizationstosupportthemovementtoendstructural

racism;andhelpingtoleadregionalandnationalnetworksforracialequity(RSJI,2015b).

Seattle’sapproachtowardextendingequityhasresultedina5-starratingfromtheSTAR

CommunitiesFramework–recognitionsharedwithonly3othercities.

Theprogressionofsocialequitymeasurementisanevolutionoftheleasttomost

comprehensiveapproaches.Indicatorsoperationalizesocialequity,butdoesnotoffercontext

toconsidertheimpactofmeasurement.Outcomeassessmentsevaluatetheprogressofsocial

equitymeasurementbecauseitnotonlyrecognizescontext,butmakesadjustmentsbasedon

feedbackthatistrackedovertime.Finally,frameworksarethemostcomprehensivebecauseof

itsfocusontheuseofindicatorsanditssystemicdatacollectionprocesses.Additionally,there

isafocusonbuildingrelationships,engagingstakeholders,andcreatingactionableplansfor

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policymakersandadministratorsforaccountability.TheSTARCommunitiesFrameworkis

definitelyanoverwhelmingprocessifonelooksattheprograminitsentirety.However,

incrementalapproachestoequitycanhelpimproveopportunitiesforsuccess.Asmentioned,

Seattle’sRacialandSocialJusticeInitiativehasbeenon-goingforovertenyears,which

demonstratesafullcommitmentbycommunityleaderstocreateamoreequitablecity,thus

servingasmodelsforitsregionalneighborsandthenationasawhole.Ifsocialequityistoever

beachieved,itneedschampionswhoarecommittedtotheprocessforthelonghaul.

SocialEquityResources

Socialequityrepositoriesarethinktanksandresearchconsortiumsdesignedtogather

informationandofferbestpracticesforsocialequitymeasurement.Repositoriesareresources

forcommunitiesandlocalgovernmentsinterestedinlearningaboutsocialequity,becoming

socialequityconscious,anddevelopingindicatorsandperformancemeasurementtools.Within

thiscontext,repositoriescultivatecollaborativerelationshipsamongstcommunitiesandlocal

governmentsinterestedinvarioustopicsacrossanynumberofareas,includingsocialequity.

Severalusefulsocialequityresourcesarehighlightedinthissection.

TheCommunityIndicatorsConsortium(CIC)(2017)isclassifiedasarepositorybecause

itrecognizesthatthedevelopmentofperformanceindicatorsisnotaonesizefitsallapproach

andworkswithcommunitiestodevelopindicatorsandmeasureperformance.“TheCommunity

IndicatorsConsortiumadvancesandsupportsthedevelopment,availabilityandeffectiveuseof

communityindicatorsformakingmeasurableandsustainableimprovementsinqualityof

communitylife”(CIC,2017b,para4).WhileCICdoesnotdevelopmeasures,ithascreateda

collaborativeenvironmentwherecommunity-basedpractitioners,academicians,planners,civic

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leaders,communityleaders,andmanyotherstakeholdersareabletoengagewitheachother

tobrainstormanddevelopbestpracticestrategiesandindicatorstoimprovecommunity

outcomes.CICprovideswebinars,offersconsultingservices,andhassupplementalresources

availabletohelpcommunitiesdevelopsoundindicatorstoaccuratelymeasureperformance.

CIChasaresourcepagethatisanaccumulationofalloftheIndicatorProjectssubmitted

tothesite.Informationisavailablebygeographiclocationandissuearea.Usersarealsoableto

disaggregateprojectsthatarestillactiveorhavebeencompleted.Collectively,thesereports

enablecommunitiestoidentifybestpractices,consultwithpractitionersandcommunity

leadersaboutchallengesandsuccessesoftheirrespectiveprojects,andultimatelybuild

relationshipsandshareresourcesrelatedtotheirspecificareasofinterest.Theaforementioned

VirginiaPerformsisoneoftheIndicatorsProjectsrecognizedontheCICwebsite.

TheHaasInstituteforaFairandInclusiveSocietyisarepositoryofinformation

groundedinabeliefthatU.S.democracyisinneedofasocialcompactbasedonacoresetof

inclusivevalues(Haas,n.d.).Furthermore,

Thecompactrecognizesthatwemayhavemanydifferentstrategiesforachievingour

goals,butweareunitedbycommonvaluesthatguideouractions.Thevaluesinthis

compactarenonpartisanandreflectourgroundinginamoralitythatrecognizesthe

worthofallpeople.Webelievethesevaluesarecentraltoanylegitimatedemocratic

government(Haas,n.d.,para3).

HousedattheUniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley(UCBerkeley),theHaasInstituteisahubfor

engagedscholars,researchers,andcommunitypartnersworkingtoadvancebelongingforall

membersofsociety(Haas,n.d.).Thisworkisconductedacross6facultyresearchclusters

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(alignedalongdemographicfactors,sucharace,religion,disability,andLGBTQidentity)and11

areasofworkincluding,butnotlimitedtothe:InclusivenessIndex,RacialPoliticsProject,

GlobalJustice,andanEquityMetrics(Haas,n.d.b).

TheEquityMetric,forexample,usesresearch-basedmethodologiestoinvestigatethe

intersectionofspaceandracial/socialinequities,developdiagnostictoolsandother

measurementindicatorstounderstand“othering,”andprovidepolicyrecommendationsto

improvestructuresandinstitutionstoreducemarginalitiesandimproveinclusionand

opportunitiesforall(Haas,n.d.c).OpportunityMapping2.0,theInclusivenessIndex,andEquity

IndicesResearchareoverarchingprojectswithintheEquityMetricdesignedtoenhancethe

collectiveunderstandingofinequityusingmaps,indicators,andresearchfocusedon

understandingandcontextualizingequityandwell-being.

Theexplicitandcrosscuttingfocusondemographicissuesandpolicy,engagement,and

inclusionisimportant.TheInclusivenessIndexisanannualpublication,whichincludesa42-

pageindexofmapsandinfographics,designedtocapturethedegreeofgroup-basedinclusion

andmarginalityexperiencedacrosstheworldandintheUnitedStates(Haas,n.d.d).Thegoalof

theInclusivenessIndexinitiativeistoidentifypolicies,interventions,andotherfactorsthat

haveproventobeeffectiveatamelioratingmarginalityandpromotinginclusivity,belonging,

andequity(Menendian,Elsheikh,&Gambhir,2016).WithintheU.S.,indicatorsfocusonareas

suchasincomeinequity,politicalrepresentation,incarceration,andanti-discriminationlaws

(seeFigure4).WhileFigure4doesnothavemeasuresforeachoftheareasidentified,itisa

goodstartingpointtobeginlinkingdatapointswithrelevantdatasourcesforequity

considerations.

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Figure4.U.S.IndicatorsandDataSources.

Source.U.S.IndicatorsandDataSources.RetrievedfromC.Menendian,E.Elsheikh,&S.Gambhir,2016,InclusivenessIndex:MeasuringInclusionandMarginality,p.39.Copyright2016byHaasInstituteforaFairandInclusiveSociety,UniversityofCaliforniaBerkeley.

TheHaasInstitutehasaplethoraofresourcesavailablefororganizationsandcommunities

interestedinissuesspecifictoequity.TheInstitutesaffiliationwithUCBerkeleyensuresthat

thepublications,presentations,reports,andwebinarsofferinsightgroundedwithincurrent

researchonequityandinclusion.

TheCommunityIndicatorsConsortiumandtheHaasInstituteforaFairandInclusive

Societyarebothexamplesofrepositories.Thescope,breadth,anddepthoftheseapproaches

tosocialequityvary.Itshouldbeunderstoodthatnotallresourceswilladdressallaspectsof

marginalizationthatexistsinacommunity.TheHaasInstituteisdeeplyfocusedonequityissues

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acrossallunderrepresentedgroupsandtherefore,raceconsciousnessisalsounderstoodasa

keyfactorinminimizingthe“othering”andthemarginalityexperiencedbyunderrepresented

groups,globallyandintheUnitedStates.GiventhefocusandtoolsoftheHaasInstitute,ithas

theabilitytoincreasesocialequitythroughincreasedsocialandpoliticalinclusion,which

contributestoareductionindiscrimination,marginalization,anddisparity.Socialequity

considerationswithrespecttopoliticalandsocialinclusionareindirectconsiderationsforCIC.

Inthisregard,theabilitytodecreasemarginalization,disparity,anddiscriminationispossible,

butrequiresthoughtfulengagementbypractitionerstospecificallyaddresssocialequity.Such

actionscouldbeinstigatedbythespecificareasoffocus,thetypesofindicatorsidentifiedor

developed,andtheconsciousapproachtoaddressinequity,asitexistsforunderrepresented

groups.AlthoughCICdoesnotspecificallyfocusonissuesofrace,itisstillausefulresourcefor

communitiesandorganizationsinterestedinperformancemeasurement.TheCommunitiesof

PracticefacilitatedbyCICenablesgroupstointeract,collaborate,andlearnfromeachother’s

successesandfailures.Bothrepositorieshavestrengthsandweaknessesgiventheneeds,

priorities,andresourcesavailabletocreateindicatorsandmeasureperformance.Performance

measurement,generally,andsocialequity,specifically,isnotaone-size-fitsallapproach.

Consequently,itisimportantforcommunitiesandorganizationstobeconsciousconsumersof

theresourcesandtoolsattheirdisposal.

PolicyLink(2016)isa“nationalresearchandactioninstitutionadvancingeconomicand

socialequitybyLiftingUpWhatWorks”(para1).Specifically,PolicyLinkacknowledgesthat

thoseclosesttotheproblemarecentraltofindingsolutions;thereforethewisdom,voice,and

experienceoflocalresidentsandorganizationsarefoundationaltotheirwork(PolicyLink,

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2016).ByLiftingUpWhatWorks,PolicyLinkfocusesitsattentiononhowpeopleuselocal,state

andfederalpoliciestocreateconditionsthatbenefiteveryone.Asaresult,PolicyLink’sworkis

groundedintheconvictionthatequity–justandfairinclusion–mustdriveallpolicydecisions

(PolicyLink,2016).PolicyLinkisdiverseinitsapproach(e.g.research,engagement,and

analysis),whichenableorganizationsandcommunitiestoconsidersocialequityacrossmultiple

areasofinterestandtypesofstrategies.UsingPolicyLink’sGettingEquityAdvocacyResults

(GEAR)(2016b)model,organizationsandcommunitiesbeginbybuildingthebase;namingand

framingequitysolutions;movingtheequityproposal;andbuilding,advancing,anddefending

strategiestoaddressequity(seeFigure5).Equityworkiscomplexandrequiresorganizations

andcommunitiestothoughtfullyconsiderthewaysinwhichallthegearsmovetogether.

Consequently,thedevelopmentofappropriatemeasuresandbenchmarksenableorganizations

andcommunitiestodeterminetheprogressofequityinitiativesovertime.Thisfeedbackloopis

acriticalcomponentofsocialequitymeasurement.

Figure5.PolicyLink’sGEARModel

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Source.PolicyLink’sGEARModel.Retrievedfromhttp://www.policylink.org/book/export/html/282

Equityisanimportantconsiderationinallaspectsoflife.Interactionswiththecriminal

justicesystemrevealadisproportionateimpactforBlackandLatinomen,women,andchildren.

Positiveinteractionsbetweencommunitiesandpolicearefundamentallyimportantto

thesafetyandsecurityofresidents,officers,andsocietyat-large.Inthisview,PolicyLinkhasa

setofequitytoolsforCommunity-CenteredPolicing,whichwasinspiredbytheaftermathof

MichaelBrown’sdeathby,DarrenWilson,awhitepoliceofficerinFerguson,Missouri.Policy

Link(2016c),alongwiththeCenterforGlobalPolicySolutions,andover1,400socialjustice

leaders,congressionalmembers,faithleaders,artists,andactivistssignedanopenletterto

PresidentObama,urgingfederalactionthroughtheJusticeDepartmenttoimprovepolice-

communityrelationshipthroughsevenprinciples.Theprinciplesare:EnsureTransparencyand

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Accountability;InvestinTraining;EnsureDiversity;ProactivelyEngageinCommunities;Reject

Militarization;ExamineandImplementGoodModels;andImplementTechnologyandToolsfor

Oversight.Collectively,theyaredesignedtobuildmutualtrustandrespect,increasesafetyin

communities,andminimizesenselesskillingsandexcessiveuseofforcebypolice(PolicyLink,

2016c).Subsequently,theseprinciplesrepresentsoundareasforassessmentastheyare

conceptuallyclearandappropriateindicatorscanbedevelopedtomonitorperformanceover

time.

Aspertheevolveddefinitionofsocialequitypresentedearlier,investingintraining,

rejectingmilitarization,andcultivatingadiverseworkforcehasthepotentialtoreduce

disparity,marginalization,anddiscrimination.Lawenforcementagenciesactivelyengagein

communitiesthroughtheimplementationofnewmodelsofpolicingandcanincreasethesocial

andpoliticalinclusionofunderrepresentedgroupsinthedevelopmentandimplementationof

newpoliciesandprograms.Ultimately,theseprinciplesworktoimprovethequalityofservice

deliveryincommunities,whichmayproducerelationshipsthatarerootedinthereciprocityof

trustandcommunication.

FutureConsiderations

Thisprojectthoroughlyexaminedexistingpracticesofsocialequitymeasurementby

localgovernmentnonprofitorganizations.TheModelofSocialEquitydemonstratesthewide

varietyofassessmentpracticesthatareusedtodeterminewhetherprogramshavemadeshifts

todecreasedisparity.Althoughvaryinginlevelsofcomprehensiveness,eachapproachto

assessingsocialequityincludesclearlydefinedmeasures.AsBowen&Bowen(1999)surmised,

“measurementsbeginwithoperationaldefinitions”(p.53).Imperativetothescholarshipand

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practiceofsocialequityisanoperationaldefinitionthathas,embeddedwithinit,clearly

conceptualizedconceptsthatcanbeusedtoaidinthedevelopmentofspecificindicators.The

socialequitydefinitionpresentedatthebeginningofthisreport-policyformulationand

implementation,publicmanagementpractices,theprovisionofpublicgoodsandservices,and

administrator/residentinteractionsthatreduce(andultimatelyeliminate)disparity,

marginalization,anddiscriminationwhileincreasingsocialandpoliticalinclusion–offerswhat

BowenandBowendeterminerequiredforeffectivemeasurement.AsshowninFigure7,this

operationaldefinitionpresentsdisparity,marginalization,discrimination,andsocialand

politicalinclusionasmeasureableconcepts.Whenevaluatingtheimpactanagency,its

workforce,orassociatedprogramsandpolicieshavehadonsocialequity,administratorscan

usethisdefinitiontogroundassessmentmeasureswithintheseconcepts.Themeaningful

measurementofsocialequityrequirestheexplicitconnectionbetweenprogramgoals,

expectedoutcomes,andtheoperationaldefinition.

Figure7.CompletedRelationshipofSocialEquityDefinition,Conceptualization,andMeasures

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Figure7.Relationshipchartillustratingtheimportanceofanoperationaldefinitionintheassessmentofsocialequity.Thechartdepictshowtheevolveddefinitionofsocialequitypresentsoperationalizedterms,whichaidsinthedevelopmentofsocialequitymeasures.

Theexaminationofcurrentequityassessmentpracticesconfirmstheoverarching

argumentspresentedwithinthebodyofsocialequityliterature.Themeaningfulmeasurement

ofsocialequityisnotwidespread,infact,itisquitelimitedtofeworganizationsand

governments.Toeffectivelyachievemeaningfulsocialequitypractices,administrators,in

additiontotheuseofanoperationaldefinition,mustconsiderhistoricalandsocialcontext.

Withouttheconsiderationofcontext,datacollectedlacksmeaning.Historicalandsocial

contextshapesassessmentdataandaidsadministratorsinunderstandingwhatshiftsinequity

actuallymean.Anevaluationofdatathatexcludescontextislimitedinitsbreadthanddepthof

understandinghowandwhychangeoccurs.Acontextualunderstandingofequitydata

strengthensadministrators’abilitytomakedatadrivendecisionsthatincorporatefeedback

loops.

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52

Feedbackrootedwithintheassessmentprocessensuresthemostcomprehensive

approachtosocialequitymeasurement.OneofthemostdistinguishingaspectsofSocialEquity

Frameworksistheinclusionoffeedbacksystemsthatuseequitydatatoimpactfuturedecisions

andprograms.Tosimplymeasurepointsofequitywithinaprogram,policy,ororganizationis

notenough.Theincorporationoffeedbackiswhatmakestheassessmentprocessaneffective

one.Usingdatatodevelopstrategies,policies,programs,andinternalprocedurestosupport

areasofgrowthandrectifyareasofweaknessensureseffectivepracticesofsocialequity

measurement.

Moreover,meaningfulsocialequitymeasurementisnotraceblind.Bymostmeasures,

raceplaysasignificantroleindegreesofdisparity,marginalization,andinequity.Acolor-blind

approachtosocialequity“fostersthesystematicdenialofracialsubordinationandthe

psychologicalrepressionofanindividual’srecognitionofthatsubordination,therebyallowingit

tocontinue”(Gotanda,2000,p.35).Byignoringraceinsocialequitymeasurement,

administratorsandorganizationsareconsciouslyperpetuatingsystemsandbehaviorsthat

sustaininequityanddisparity.Vitaltoaneffectivemeasurementofsocialequityisan

understandingofhowpublicadministrativeactionsimpactdifferentracialandethnicgroups.

Themostcomprehensiveapproachtosocialequitymeasurementismissingthemarkifitisnot

arace-consciousapproach.

Inorderforthemeasurementofsocialequitytoriseontheprioritylistof

administratorsspecifically,andorganizationsgenerally,leadersofthoseorganizationsmust

developaculturethatvaluessocialequity(internallyandexternally).Aculturethatvalues

issuesofequitydedicatesresources(humanandfinancial)todevelopsoundstrategiesto

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53

implementhighlycomprehensiveapproachesforsocialequitymeasurementandholdsthe

entireorganizationaccountablefortheprogressiontowardtruesocialequity.Theoretically,

accountabilityshouldbeasignificantcomponentofsocialequitywork.Inordertoensurethat

administratorsandorganizationsareeffectiveintheirsocialequitypracticestheyshouldbe

heldaccountablefortheirbehaviorsanddecisionsandforprogram/policyoutcomes.However,

practically,accountabilitypracticesforsocialequityworkisquitecomplicated.Forequitytobe

anorganizationalpriority,itmustfirstbevalued.Sincethemeaningfulmeasurementofsocial

equityislargelycenteredwithinvalue-basedinitiatives,organizationsmustembodyanequity

cultureforaccountabilitysystemstowork.Ifanorganization’sculturedoesnotvalueand

considerissuesofequityatthehighestlevelsofpriority,accountabilitystructures(evenifin

place)wouldbesymbolicatbestandwouldnot,necessarilybeenforced,norwouldequity

practiceswouldbemorethansuperficialeffortsdesignedtocheckofftheequitybox.

Truesocialequityisreflectedintheidealsoffullsocialandpoliticalinclusionandthe

eradicationofdisparity,discriminationandmarginalizationofthosemostmarginalizedby

publicadministration’s(in)actionsandbehaviors.Itisonlywhenequityisexperiencedbythose

whoaremostmarginalizedinU.S.society,thattruesocialequityisachieved.Forpublic

organizations,thejourneytotruesocialequitybeginswithastrongcommitmenttothegoalof

promotingequity.Achievingsocialequitymustbeacollectiveeffortofallindividualsinthe

organizationandbeattheforefrontoftheiractions.Mostimportantly,thejourneytowards

achievingsocialequityembracesthedevelopmentandimplementationofpolicy,

management,provisionofgoodsandservices,andbehaviorsthatreducedisparity,

marginalization,anddiscriminationandincreasesocialandpoliticalinclusion.Truesocialequity

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canonlybeachieved,however,throughthemeaningfulmeasurementofsocialequity.Once

appropriatemeasuresareidentified,thendeterminingtheextenttowhichsocialequityis

actuallyachieved,ornot,willbecomeeasiertoassess.Thisreportservestooffernumerous

approachestounderstanding,measuring,andconsideringsocialequity.

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