Motivation Incentive and Performance 152

8/6/2019 Motivation Incentive and Performance 152

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Motivation,

Incentive &

Performance


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Motivation Some components

Inclination what I feel I want to do active/passive,conscious/sub-conscious Direction what I am trying to do Action what I do do Effort how hard I try Persistence how long I keep trying

How we construe expectations, needs, drives, efforts and results(actual & 'rationalised'/felt) - self & others

The employment concerns? How to "motivate people to give theirall"

Effort, performance, retention, loyalty, membership, commitment, trust,empowerment, participation, work design

Extrinsic & intrinsic rewards Expectancy & equity

Rhetoric vs. reality of management practice

Self-awareness & delusion "Mirror, mirror on the wall".

Motivation & "normal" behaviour vs. the well-motivated criminal.


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Who wants what from motivation?

The person Health & well-being, safety/order, social affiliation/acceptance,recognition & rewards (extrinsic/intrinsic, stimulus & incentive.Feelings of self-worth/value, command of destiny, realisation ofpersonal aspirations/expectations. Equity. Power. Affiliation

The employer

Trusted, reliable employees who give their all, Ability to construe employee motivation, needs & drives + relate to:

effort, economic efficiency, performance, retention, loyalty &commitment, membership culture, empowerment, obligation-duty,participation & contribution, work design, better teams

Others

Interpersonal confidence, liking and rapport, mutual confidence andcollaboration, shared values, not to be let down.

What is the problem?


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Idiosyncrasies and patterns

Idiosyncracies & perceptions of work, personal position andentitlements

Individual differences - the unique self - my construction Common patterns of cognition, behaviour, attitude

Group and cultural influences Me - myself, you

"you scheming, conniving, persistent, grabbing, selfish,

resentful person .. you . and .. you are a capitalist toboot...... one of 'them' ... a typical Lilliputian ...... I've read

all about you in Cosmopolitan."


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Pay-offs in the Employer-Employee Relationship(after Mumford 1972)

Task structureWork within firms policy, procedure & technical constraints. Jobroles, work arrangements & relationships

Knowledge & skillEmployer wants know-how, competence, experience. Employee

wants to be put to good use & be developed

PsychologicalManagement & co-workers want committed, loyal, motivated staff.

Individual wants satisfaction

Efficiency/rewardsEmployer wants performance & output to a quality standard.

Employee wants equitable, felt-fair rewards & opportunity

EthicalValues & ambiguities/inconsistencies in right/wrong behaviour


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Evaluate the following propositions:

Good pay helps to diminish problems of high absenteeism.

The buzz of high morale & emphasis on teamwork means thatthere is moral pressure not to let workmates down. This isreinforced by prominently displaying

costs of absenteeism

discussing reasons for absence with absentees saying how fellow team members are hurt by absenteeism.

There is no direct way motivation can be measured. Indicatorscan be obtained thru

observation, conversation and the stories people tell

attitude surveys

productivity data

absenteeism, retention

moans & gripes

analysis of performance reviews


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Role modelling theory Maier 1959

Role ambiguity may result from uncertainty about How one's work is evaluated Scope for advancement

Scope of responsibility

Others expectations of one's performance

It can cause Insecurity, lack of confidence,tension, irritation and even anger amongst

members of a role set

These will be communicated more often than satisfaction / feelings of beingwell motivated.

Natural critical/evaluative tendencies, blaming others, disgruntlement

Also consider

role underload/overload capacity & stress

demands, choices & constraints

conflict & ambiguity


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Examination Question

Evaluate the truth of the following proposition. How well does itpoint the way to robust, theoretically sound principles that guide

our understanding of employee motivation?

Proposition

"The acquisition and development of employee skills through

sophisticated and systematic selection, induction, training and

appraisal has a positive impact on quality & productivity. It will

lead to better motivation within the company"


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Would I really work for you without reward?

fundamental to employee contract traditional economic exchange model. Pay-effort

determinism

"rate for the job" occupational norms, expectations and choices

expediency - "suitable for my life package at the moment"

Etzioni & organisational membership Systems employers use

Coercive - Remunerative - Normative Employee responses

Alienated - Instrumental - Moral involvement


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The person-as-economist expects........

ROI - time, effort, commitment

"What's in it for me?" calculation Conscious subconscious (self image and comparisons)

Fairness (equitable socio-economic exchange) interpret rewards/pay-offs of others

judge what is fair/unfair

satisfaction if each party achieves a balance (relative equality)

Psychological extension to neutral, economic model Construing the value & importance of input-output

Social, psychological - individual & group Validation of personal perceptions & comparisons clear/distorted

internal/external


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Design Features of Reward Systems

Monetary

Time-based (not directly related to performance)

Performance-linked

Output, %, PRP, merit pay, commission, skill-based

collective-output schemes

Corporate performance-related bonuses + profit sharing

Monetary-equivalent

Car, phone, holidays, loans, accommodation, fees, vouchers

Deferred (promotion, pension)

Non-monetary / intrinsic benefits - safety, status, recognition,

plaques, contribution and empowerment

Negatives pressure, penalties, harassment, side-lining, dismissal


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Pay by time schemes - Components

simple to administer

defined time F/T, P/T, mixed-time, casual

no attendance, no pay? Hourly, weekly, monthly

premiums 1.5T, 2T, nights

Flexi-time schemes

Door knob syndrome

job grading/evaluation - evaluate the job not the person doing it

control mechanisms & tools clocks, supervision, time sheets?

performance assumptions

trust, competence, diligence, fidelity, care, good-will, cooperation

work forErin Er time vs ...in your time?

supervision & monitoring - When the cats away?

Is actual presence necessary? Off-site working.

life increments - pay & career progression, security?


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PRP, merit pay, skill-based schemes

Requires

targeting, information & measurement

manager appraisal & judgement

problems of "big scheme" rules and controls

Pay linked to individual merit (behaviours, traits & competencies:

flexibility, cooperation, punctuality, effort, skills/abilities).

concrete individual or group targets

Staff appraisal criteria, rating, and exchange/intervention

process


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Performance-Related Pay (PRP)

extensive but partial & sectoral

little research data on effectiveness

pay linked to specific aspect of performance intensity of MbO approach

problem of defining the group + outputs what if key results not achieved?

how is control and consistency achieved?

fairness + validation of "the manager's judgment"

merit pay or bonus addition to salary for this appraisal roundonly?

The neurosis of "targetitis"

"Fat cat bonuses" envy + "global market for stars" +formulae + intervention?


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Defining jobs

how can a manager operate effectively if he/she does notunderstand & cannot define staff jobs?

shared understanding about what the job is reliable, factual definition of scope of job & responsibilities

useful for organisational design & analysis of change?

help to clarify role & provide a reference point for induction,recruitment, performance assessment & grading?

a basis for the job advert & recruitment literature?

indicates competence required - generic + job specific

confining, time consuming, out-of-date in a flexible organisation

Contractual?"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em"

Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation

"Job descriptions - - Burn the lot of 'em"

Robert Townsend, Up the Organisation


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Job definition elements

Job definition Title, reporting relationships (up, down, sideways, external) job summary, responsibilities, duties, scope of authority

MbO/R: key result areas, yardsticks of performance, evaluation data

contractual provisions

Competence specification levels, range of situations, performance indicators,

knowledge/wisdom, experience, skills (psycho-motor, technical,

analytical, literary, spoken, numeric, social & emotional)

The competences this organisation values

Role & performance analysis

Personnel specification (person profile) characteristics of ideal candidate Essentials - desirables - disqualifiers. Motivators

Psychometric-objective selection - fit person to job Biodata, interviews, various tests, references


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MbO Record

Name Job/Role Date

Key Job Area Objective/Target to beAchieved

Data for

Monitoring

Training/LearningNeeds

1.

2.

3.

4.

Progress Review Dates

Notes on Achievements/Progress

Signed: (Post-holder)Signed: (Post-holder) Signed: (Manager)Signed: (Manager)


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Emotional & social dynamics & expectations

Important for employee belief & commitment Impact of rules-of the-scheme (formal contract) on

individual sensitivity (psychological contract).

personal expectations

+ formal/informal exchange Er Ee

my manager as

employer (by proxy)

as a person I like/dislike, respect?

How I "see" what others are getting - internally & externally


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Organisational "Culture" Problems

conscious calculation & instrumentality? Take-it or leave it + "9-5" sub-optimisation rangible over non-tangible rewards organisational rationalisation of effort-reward

relationship

structural inflexibility of reward packages constructing & controlling the performance review and

PRP system

genuine involvement & participation delegation, reliance & confidence


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How well has work-motivation theory dealt with this?

Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg- hygiene & motivators, job redesign

Concern with individual needs/goals

emphasis on what motivates

general, universal

Needs & satisfactions

Content (What it is & its elements)

Maslow, Alderfer, McClelland - Herzberg- hygiene & motivators, job redesign

Concern with individual needs/goals

emphasis on what motivates

general, universal

Needs & satisfactions

Content (What it is & its elements)

Attribution theory

Adams - Equity theory

Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory

Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics

McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y

"on managing . this approach is better"

dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs

prescriptive responses

Process

Attribution theory

Adams - Equity theory

Vroom, Lawler - Expectancy theory

Hackman & Oldham - job characteristics

McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y

"on managing . this approach is better"

dynamic, emphasis on process - how it occurs

prescriptive responses

Process

Behavioural

Focus on behaviour

Responses to stimuli - external

Avoidance learning & punishment

reinforcement & behaviour modification theory(operant conditioning)

Behavioural

Focus on behaviour

Responses to stimuli - external

Avoidance learning & punishment

reinforcement & behaviour modification theory(operant conditioning)

Cognitive

Consciousness/rationality

Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting

Known & calculable

e.g. homo economicus

Learning

Cognitive

Consciousness/rationality

Goals & behaviour e.g. Locke - goal setting

Known & calculable

e.g. homo economicus

Learning


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Abraham Maslow 1954 - Need Satisfaction

Needs

Behaviour/

Action

Goals

achievedrive

satisfy

teleology

goal-orientation


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Abraham Maslow - Hierarchy of Needs

Influential Content of motivation (needs that

motivate) theory - not personality

Classified needs lower needs must be satisfied

before higher needs are activated

Chronic need deficiency (neurosis?)motivations action

gratified needs - equilibrium

snakes and ladders or lower needs mediated by higher

order consciousness?

simple descriptive, partial nb: Alderfer ERG - existence,

relatedness, growth)

cognitive & developmental


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What is Self Actualisation?

difficult to define

uniquely human motive? a way of life > a goal. not a need but on-going

growth/development process.

Example characteristics

accurate perception of reality.

accept selves & others.

spontaneous, open & natural

problem centred > self centred pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.

dont take things for granted.

peak experiences.

affection & regard for others

capable of deep satisfying relationships

democratic, ethical

creative, sense of humour.

independent of enculturisation

Example characteristics

accurate perception of reality.

accept selves & others.

spontaneous, open & natural

problem centred > self centred pacific calm, serene in nasty situations.

dont take things for granted.

peak experiences.

affection & regard for others

capable of deep satisfying relationships

democratic, ethical

creative, sense of humour.

independent of enculturisation

Becoming Self-Actualised?

Be willing to change. Take responsibility.

Examine your motives. Experience honestly & directly. Use positive experiences. Be prepared to be different.

Becoming Self-Actualised?

Be willing to change. Take responsibility.

Examine your motives. Experience honestly & directly. Use positive experiences. Be prepared to be different.


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Self-actualised? Human like everyone else..

displays frailty & failings, ups & downs. emotional, critical attitudes towards others urge to decide for themselves

may say "NO" & be unpredictable - own destiny.wants reasons without always wishing to conform. accepts need for conformity most of the time to serve

their interests

avoids being selfish & ego-centred (denying space toothers).


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wholeness (unity, tendency to oneness,interconnectedness)

perfection (just-right-ness, suitability) completion (fulfilment, finis & telos) justice (fair, orderly,ought-to-be-ness)

alive (process, self-regulation, full-functioning) richness (differentiation, complexity,

intricacy)

simplicity (honesty, openness, essentials)

beauty (rightness, form, wholeness,perfection, honesty)

goodness (rightness, ought-ness,benevolence)

uniqueness (individuality) effortlessness (ease, at-one-ness graceful)

playfulness (joy, humour, exuberance) truth, honesty, reality (open, clean,

unadulterated, essential)

self-sufficiency (autonomous, self-determining, transcendence)

Much to live up to

Maslow on (B)eing values - qualities of "ethical, virtuous person

Toward a Psychology of Being (1968)


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Critique of Maslow

simple, plausible, general useful descriptive value? fudgey, vague, nave, nice but untestable concepts hydraulic assumption : satisfy needs to boost bigger &

better "motivated" tendencies

pressures on people to Limit scope for self-actualisation

Be self-actualised (self-development movement)

cant predict behaviour in given situations. self actualisation : a positive, attractive, humanist concept We would all like to see ourselves as self-actualised.


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Eric Trist - what people want from their jobs

Reasonably demandingwork with some variety

Opportunity to learn Some decision making

Social support andrecognition Significance & meaning Some desirable future

Job design principlesAt the level of the individual

Respect

Contribution to product

Quantity & quality - feedback results

quickly Meaningful whole task

A whole job - plan, do, evaluate

Variety

Optimum cycle times

At the level of the group? Whole, meaningful task

Set standards, feedback on results

Ways of discussing jobs

Attractive future possibilities


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Work restructuring

Workgroup

empowerment

job enrichment

as enlargement

role of supervisor

rewardsystems

role of service

functions?

information

systems

technology

consultation unionisation?

management

style organisation

structure

organisation

culture

membership

commitments

out sourcingplace

matrix

Core - peripheral


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Job restructuring

Tasks

Add new & different tasks

Increase cycle time

Add ancillary & preparatory tasks

Work organisation

Job enrichment

Empowerment

Own work method

Planning/organising

Problem-solvingGoal setting

Flexible pace and hours

Flexible location

Information feedback

Opportunities

Flexible rewards

Further skills/learning

Challenge

Self supervision

Networking

Work/job attributes

Work variety

Use of skills/abilities

Meaningful/worthwhile

ContributionAdvancement prospects

Accountability &

responsibility

Discretion & decisions

Autonomy

Implications

Benefits

Disadvantages

Outsourcing?

Call centres?

Virtual teams?

Teleworking?Social impact


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Expectancy theory (the process of motivation)

Motivated to perform because ofexpectations relating to perceivedpayoffs from the performance.

______

Desirability of payoffs (valence),perception of expectancy + force ofexpression - intrinsic to the person.

______

Personal view of what is challengingor interesting, important to self +valuation of extrinsic payoffs - pay &

material rewards

expectancy - If I tried could I doit? Get away with it?

Instrumentality - if I did it will Iattain the outcome?

valence (subjective valuation) -do I really value what's

available?

Expressed as probabilities.

Path-goal relationships whichexplain motivation

performance.

assoc.. with Vroom & Lawler/Porter


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Expectancy Theory - Vroom et al

valence

A robust explanatory, predictive model?

How the individual construes it all?


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Adams & Equity - an impossible ideal?

Felt-fairness - how I am treated in relation to others

Equity balance sheet & "the last straw "What you gain on the swings.." Trust/good-will

No more thats it for me!

Internal & external comparisons (groups & individuals)

Feelings & perceptions - not synonymous with equality

Proposition better motivated if treated equitably & consistently

distributive equity

how I perceive I am treated & rewarded in comparison to others procedural equity

how I see organisational procedures being applied


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Equity and Justice

Distributive justicehow rewards are distributed in accordance with

my contribution & need

what was promised.

Procedural equityhow reward decisions are made & managed

adequate consideration of employees viewpoint

no personal bias

consistent application of criteria

early feedback on outcome of decisions adequate explanation of decisions made


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Organisational initiatives

job design & flexibility - matching people to jobs MbO - defining expectations and feedback teams & semi-autonomous groups, empowerment concern for staff development, competencies and accreditation

effort to refine & deliver reward packages that "motivate" -PRP managerial behaviours constant organisational vigilance & sensitivity a rewarding, supportive climate and cultures that foster confidence & identification (one-ness with the firm)

meaningful, practical commitment?

Motivation Incentive and Performance 152

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