Motivation: Implications for Performance and Satisfaction.

Motivation: Implications for Performance and Satisfaction

Learning Questions:

• What is motivation to work?• How are reinforcement theories linked to motivatio

n?• What do the content theories suggest about indivi

dual needs and motivation?• How can satisfaction and its linkage with performa

nce help tie together insights of the motivational theories into an integrated motivational model?

What is Motivation?

The willingness to exert high levels of effort t oward organizational goals, conditioned by th

e effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

Where ‘’need’ is some internal state that mak es certain outcomes appear attractive.

What is Motivation?

The individual forces that account for the direction, level, and persistence of a person’s effort expended

at work.

Where ‘direction’ refers to an individual’s choice wh en presented with a number of possible alternative

s(e.g. whet her t o exer t eff or t t owar d pr oduct qual i ty or toward product quantity

What is Motivation?

“Level” refers to the amount of effort a person puts forth (e.g. a lot or a little).

“Persistence” refers to the length of time a person sticks with a given action (e.g. to try to achieve product quality and give up when it is found difficult to attain.

Reinforcement, Content, and Process Theories:

The theories of motivation can be divided into 3 broadcategories.

Reinforcement theories - emphasize the means throughwhich the process of controlling an individual’s behaviorby manipulating its consequences takes place.

Content theories - focus primarily on individual needs - the physiological or psychological deficiencies that we feel a compulsion to reduce or eliminate.

Reinforcement, Content, and Process Theories:

Process theories - focus on the thought or cognitiveprocesses that take place within the minds of people and that influence their behavior.

Motivation Across Cultures

The determinants of motivation and the best ways todeal with it are likely to vary across different regions.

Individual values and attitudes - both important aspectsof motivation - have strong cultural foundations.

Early Theories of Motivation:

• Hierarchy of Needs Theory• Theory X and Theory Y• Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Contemporary Theories of Motivation:

ERG TheoryMcClelland’s Theory of NeedsCognitive Evaluation TheoryTask Characteristics TheoriesThe Job Characteristics ModelSocial Information - Processing ModelGoal-Setting TheoryReinforcement TheoryEquity TheoryExpectancy Theory

Implications for Performance and Satisfaction:

- Need Theories These were Maslow’s hierarchy,- motivation hygiene, ERG, and McClelland’s need

theories.

- Task Characteristics Theories address all four d ependent variables: skill variety, task identity a

nd significance, autonomy, and feedback.

- - Goal setting Theory Clear and difficult goals lea d to higher levels of employee productivity.


- Reinforcement Theory predicts factors like q uality and quantity of work, persistence of eff

ort, absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.


- Equity Theory deals with all 4 dependent variables. But it is strongest when predicti

ng absence and turnover behaviors and we ak when predicting differences in employe

e productivity.

- Expectancy Theory proves to offer a relati vely powerful explanation of employee pro

ductivity, absenteeism, and turnover. But expectancy theory assumes that employee

s have few constraints on their decision discretion.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory:

Abraham Maslow hypothesized that withi n every human being

there exists a hierarchy of five needs:

1 . Physiological. 2. Safety. 3 . .Social 4 . Esteem. -5 . .Self actualization

Maslow then categorized these 5 needs int - - o lower order needs and higher order need

.

- Lower order needs are needs that are satis fied externally: physiological and safety n

eeds.

H HHHHH-HHHHH HHHHH HHH HHHHH HHHH HHH HHHH sfied internally (within the person): social,

- esteem, and self actualizationneeds.

Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor:

McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of th e nature of human beings is based on a certain g

rouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward subordinates

according to these assumptions:

Theory X and Theory Y:

• Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it;

• Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals;

• Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.

• Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.

• Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play;

• People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives;

• The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility;

• The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.

Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

According to Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are separate and distinct from those th

at lead to job dissatisfaction.

Hygiene factors include factors such as: company pol i cy and administration, supervision, interpers

onal relations, working conditions, and salary.

Motivator factors include factors such as: achieve ment, recognition, the work itself, responsibility a

nd growth.

Two-Factor Theory

• Hygiene Factors– Company policy and

administration;– Supervision;– Relationship with

supervisor;– Work conditions;– Salary;– Relationship with peers;– Personal life;– Relationship with

subordinates;– Status;– Security

• Motivator Factors:– Achievement

– Recognition;

– Work itself;

– Responsibility;

– Advancement;

– Growth


ERG Theory proposed by Clayton Alderfer of YaleUniversity: Alderfer argues that there are three gr

oups of core needs:

1) existence 2) relatedness 3) growth


Existence group is concerned with providing o ur basic material existence requirements. (Th ey include physiological and safety needs)

Relatedness group is the desire we have for m aintaining important interpersonal relationshi

ps.

Growth group is the intrinsic desire for person al development.

ERG Theory (contd.)

The ERG theory demonstrates that:

1) more than one need may be operative at the same time; - 2) if the gratification of a higher level need i

- s stifled, the desire to satisfy a lower level ne ed increases.

McClelland ‘s Theory of Needs:

McClelland’s theory of needs focuses on thre e needs:

1) achievement 2) power 3) affiliation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory:

- Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had b een previously intrinsically rewarded tends to decre ase the overall level of motivation. (This concept wa

s proposed in the late 1 9 6 0 s.)

The interdependence of extrinsic and intrinsic rewar ds is a real

phenomenon.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory:

Observations:

1. In the real world, when extrinsic rewards are stopped, it usually means the individual

is no longer part of the organization.

2. Very high intrinsic motivation levels are strongly resistant to the detrimental impact

s of extrinsic rewards.

3. On dull tasks, extrinsic rewards appear tH HHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHH MHHHHHHHHH

Task Characteristics Theories:

These theories seek to identify task characteristics of jobs, how these characteristics are combined to f

orm different jobs, and their relationship to employ ee motivation, satisfaction, and performance. The t ask characteristics approach began with the pionee ring work -of Turner and Lawrence in the mid 1 9

6 0 .s

Task Characteristics Theories:

There are at least 7 different task Hharacteristi cs theories. Three H HHH HH HHHHHHH HHHH HHHHHH

teristics theories are:

1. Requisite task attributes theory 2. Job characteristics model, and - 3. Social information processing model.

Requisite Task Attributes Theory:

Turner and Lawrence predicted that employees w ould prefer HHHH HHHH H HHH HHH HHHH HHH HHHHHHHHHH

HHH HHHH HHHH H HHHH HHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHHHHH HH; , d result in lower absence rates. They defined job c

omplexity in terms of six task characteristics:

Requisite Task Attributes Theory:

1. Variety; 2. Autonomy; 3. Responsibility; 4 . Knowledge and skill; 5. Required social interaction; and 6. Optional social interaction.

Turner and Lawrence’s requisite task attributes theory was important

for at least 3 reasons:

Turner and Lawrence’s requisite task attribut es theory was important for at least 3 reason

s:

1. They demonstrated that employees did r espond differently to different types of jobs.

2. They provided a preliminary set of task a ttributes by which jobs could be assessed.

3. They focused attention on the need to co nsider the influence of individual differences

on employees’ reaction to jobs.

Job Characteristics Model:

From the foundation laid by Turner and Lawre - nce in the mid 1 9 6 0 s, Hackman and Oldh am proposed a Job Characteristics Model (JCM

).

According to JCM, any job can be described in terms of 5 core job dimensions, defined as fo

llows:

1. Skill variety. 2. Task identity. 3. Task significance. 4 . Autonomy. 5. Feedback.

The more that the psychological states are p resent, the greater will be the employee’s m

otivation, performance, and satisfaction, HH d the lower his or her absenteeism and likeli

hood of leaving the organization.

For individuals:

--- High growth need > experience psychologi cal states,

given that their jobs are enriched than are th eir counterparts, with a low growth needs.

Job Characteristics Model:

The core dimensions can be combined into a singl e predictive index, called the motivating potential

score (MPS).

Most of the empirical evidence supports the gener --al framework that is, there is a multiple set of job

characteristics and these characteristics impact b ehavioral outcomes.

Given the current state of evidence, the followin g st at ement s can be made with relative confide

nce:

- 1. People who work on jobs with high core job d imensions are generally more motivated, satisfie

d, and productive than are those who do not.

2. Job dimensions operate through the psychol ogical states in influencing personal and work ou tcome variables rather than influencing them dir

ectly.

Core Job Critical Personal and Dimension Psychological work outcomes States

Skill variety Experienced High internal work motivationTask identity meaningfulness Task significance

Autonomy Experienced High quality work performance

responsibility for outcomes of the work

High satisfaction with the work

Feedback Knowledge of Low absenteeism and turnover

the actual results of the work activities

Employee growth- need strength

Computing a Motivating Potential Score:

MPS = skill + Task + Task X autonomy X feedback

variety identity significance

Social Information-Processing Model:

Employees adopt attitudes and behaviors in response to the social cues provided b

y others with whom they have contact.

According to this model, the objective ch aracteristic of a job does not change, but

the job incumbent reconstructed reality b ased on messages he/she has gotten fro

m others, i .e. peers, coworkers, etc.

Goal-setting theory:

Specific and difficult goals lead to higher Herfor mance.

Feedback leads to higher performance than do -es non feedback.

2In addition to feedback, other factors have b een found to - influence the goals performance r

elationship. These are: 1. Goal commitment. -2. Adequate self efficacy.

Goal-setting theory:

- Self efficacy refers to an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

- Individuals high in self efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and

motivation, whereas those - low in self efficacy ar e likely to lessen their effort when given negativ e feedback.

Reinforcement Theory:

Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior. Managing reinforcement properly

can change the direction, level, and persistence of an ind ividual’s behavior.

- This is a counterpoint to goal setting theory.

- While goal setting theory is a cognitive approach proposi ng that an individual’s purposes direct his or her action; r

einforcement theory is a behavioristic approach which ar gues that reinforcement conditions behavior.

“ -- What controls behavior are reinforcers any consequence that, when immediately following a response, increase

s the p robability that the behavior will be repeated.

Classical and Operant Conditioning:

Classical conditioning is a form of learning throughassociation that involves the manipulation of stimulito influence behavior. (Ivan Pavlov) This learning occurs through conditioned stimuli.

A stimulus is something that incites action and drawsforth a response (the meat for the dogs).

Operant conditioning - is the process of controlling behavior by manipulating, or “operating” on, its consequences. Learning occurs through consequences of behavior. (B.F. Skinner, 1948, 1953, 1969)

Classical and Operant Conditioning:

Classical and operant conditioning differ in two important ways.

First, control in operant conditioning is via manipulation of consequences.

Second, operant conditioning calls for examining antecedents,behavior, and consequences.

In operant conditioning, if a behavior is to be repeated, the consequences must be manipulated. The basis for manipulating consequences is E.L. Thorndike’s law of effect. (The behaviorthat results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely

to be repeated.

Reinforcement Strategies:

The integration of the notions of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, reinforcement, and extrinsic rewards can lead to changes in the direction, level, and persistence of individual behavior. This is known as OB Mod” or organizational behavior modification.

OB Mod is the systematic reinforcement of desirablework behavior and the non-reinforcement or punishment of unwanted work behavior.

Reinforcement Strategies:

• Four strategies of OB Mod include: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement (for avoidance), punishment, and extinction.

Equity Theory:

Individuals make comparisons of their job inputs andoutcomes relatives to those of others and then respo

nd so as to eliminate any inequities.

J. Stacy Adams proposed that this negative tension st ate

provides the motivation to do something to correct it.

Referent chosen is an important variable in equity th eory. There are 4 referent comparisons that employee can

use: -1. Self inside. -2. Self outside.

- 3. .Other inside - 4. Other outside.

Equity Theory (contd.)

When employees perceive an inequity they can be predicted to make one of six choices:

1. Change their inputs . 2. Change their outcomes. 3. Distort perceptions of self. 4 . Distort perceptions of others. 5. Choose a different referent. 6. Leave the field.

Equity Theory: (contd.)

Specifically, the theory establishes 4 proposition s relating to inequitable pay:

- 1. Given payment by time, over rewarded emplo yees will produce more than will equitably paid em

ployees. 2. Given payment by quantity of production, ove

-r rewarded employees will produce fewer, but higher quality, units than will equitably paid employe

es. - 3. Given payment by time, under rewarded empl

oyees will produce less or poorer quality of output.


. Given payment by quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.


While most research on equity theory has focus ed on pay,employees seem to look for equity in t he distribution of other organizational rewards.

Equity theory demonstrates that, for most empl oyees, motivation is influenced significantly by r elative rewards as well as by absolute rewards.

Expectancy Theory:

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that an a

ct will be followed by a given outcome and on the a ttractiveness of that outcome to the individual. (Th

is is first proposed by Victor Vroom)

Thus, it includes 3 variables or relationships:

1. Attractiveness (of the outcome). - 2. Performance reward linkage. - 3. Effort performance linkage.

Expectancy Theory:

The key to understanding of an individual’s goals and the linkage between effort and pe

rformance, between performance and rewa rds, and finally, between rewards and indivi dual goal satisfaction.

Expectancy Theory: (contd.)

Some of the issues expectancy theory brought forward:

1. It emphasizes payoffs or rewards. (It is a th eory based on -self interest. “ Expectancy theor

y is a form of calculative, psychological hedonis m in which the ultimate motive of every human

HHH is asserted to be the maximization of pleas ure and/or the minimization of pain.”

Expectancy Theory: (contd.)

2. The attractiveness of rewards.

3. Expectancy theory emphasizes expected behaviors.

Ability and Opportunity:

Performance = f ( A, M, O)

Ability = intelligence and skills

O = Opportunity to perform

Ability

Performance

Motivation Opportunity

Matching Achievers and Jobs:

Achievers prefer jobs thatoffer

Feedback

Moderate Risks

Personal Responsibility

Motivation:

From Concepts to Applications

1. Management By Objectives 2. Behavior Modification. 3. Participative Management. - 4 . Performance based Compensati

. 5. Flexible Benefits. 6. Comparable worth. 7 . Alternative Work schedules. HHH HHHHHHHH8 .

Management By Objectives:

- HHHHHHH HHHH HHHHH HHHHHH HHHHHHHH HHHHHH HH,HHHHHHHHHHHHH set, for an explicit time period, with f

eedback on goal progress.

Behavior Modification:

- OB Mod A program where managers identif -y performance

related employee behaviors and then imple ment an intervention

strategy to strengthen describe behaviors a nd weaken undesirable

behaviors.


• Participative Management:– A process where subordinates share a signific

ant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.

Quality Circles:- A work group of employees who meet regula

rly to discuss their quality problems, investiga te causes, recommend solutions, and take co

rrective actions.

- Performance Based Compensation:- Paying employees on the basis of some perfo

rmance measure.- - Piece rate Pay Plan.


• Flexible Benefits:

- Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal needs by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options.

Comparable Worth:- A doctrine that holds that jobs equal in value to an organization should be equally compensated, whether or not the work content of those jobs is similar.

Alternate Work Schedules:- Compressed Workweek- Flextime

Job Redesign:- Job rotation- Job enlargement- Job enrichment

- Self Managed Work Teams: = Groups that are free to determine how the goals

assigned to them are to be accomplished and how tasks are to be allocated.


1. Recognize individual differences. 2. Use goals and feedback. 3. Allow employees to participate in

decisions that affect them. 4 . Link rewards to performance. 5. Check the system for equity.

Motivation: Implications for Performance and Satisfaction.

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