Morphology & SyntaxConstituents

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Mapping between syntax and semantics Simple clauses show the mapping between syntax

and semantics. (clause ↔ event) Prototype of a transitive verb and a transitive

clause Pat hit Sam.

Subject Object

Agent Patient

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Sentences Are sentences simply strings of connected words?

A black cat is on a red mat.

No! –phrases (heads + dependents)

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How do we identify constituents? Constituent: a structural unit, a set of words that

forms a phrase

A black cat is on a red mat.a black cat is, cat is on, on a red?

How do we know (and test) that “a black cat”, “a red mat”, “on a red mat”, and “is on a red mat” are constituents?

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Ambiguous sentences Lexical ambiguity

bank, ตา Structure ambiguity

Pat said that Sam cried yesterday. ร้�านน��ขายหน�งสื�อพิ�มพิ�และน�ตยสืาร้เก่�าๆ

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Caution You can’t tell whether a string of words is a

constituent out of context.cheap textbooks

The students wondered how [cheap textbooks] could be obtained.

The students wondered how cheap textbooks could be.

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Morphological test NP constituents English possessive –’s

[a black cat]’s owner

The boy and the girl’s uncle stayed to dinner.

[The boy and the girl]’s uncle

The boy and [the girl]’s uncle

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Phonological test Negative contraction -n’t

She could not go to the party.

She [could not] go to the party.

She could [not go to the party].

She couldn't go to the party.

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Syntactic tests Sentence fragment Echo question Cleft construction Preposing/postposing ‘do so’ test for VP

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Sentence fragment A string of words that can be a sentence fragment must be a

constituent.

A black cat is on a red mat.What is on a red mat?A black cat./ *Black cat./ *A black.

Kim bought that book with her first wages.What did Kim buy?That book./ *That book with her first wages.

Kim wrote that book with the blue cover.What did Kim write?That book with the blue cover.

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Echo question In an echo question, a wh-word (what, which, who,

when, why, where and how) replaces a constituent.

A black cat is on a red mat.A black cat is on what?

Kim bought that book with her first wages.Kim bought what with her first wages?

Kim wrote that book with the blue cover.*Kim wrote what with the blue cover?

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Cleft construction It be FOCUS clause:

It is Sue that I like.

A string of words in the focus position must be a constituent.

Kim bought that book with her first wages.It was [that book] that Kim bought with her first wages.It was [with her first wages] that Kim bought that book.*It was that book with her first wages that Kim bought.

Kim wrote that book with the blue cover.It was [that book with the blue cover] that Kim wrote.

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Preposing/postposing Preposing: a phrase is positioned at the front of the

sentence for emphasis. A phrasal constituent can be preposed.

I like yellow flowers.Yellow flowers, I like. (but, red flowers, I hate.)*Flowers, I like yellow.

He ran up the hill.Up the hill, he ran.

He rang up his mother.*Up his mother, he rang.

Phrasal verb vs. Prepositional verb

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Preposing/postposing Postposing: a phrase is positioned at the end of the

sentence due to its length. A phrasal constituent can be postposed.

He put an apple in his basket.?* He put in his basket an apple.

He put a dozen of eggs, two bottles of water, four pairs of sandwiches, and six apples in his basket.He put in his basket a dozen of eggs, two bottles of water, four pairs of sandwiches, and six apples.

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‘do so’ test for VP A VP constituent can be replaced by ‘do so’.

I thought that Mel [bought that book] (with some of her inheritance).

No! Kim [did so] with her first wages.

I thought that Mel wrote that book with the blue cover.

*No! Kim did so with the blue cover.

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Tree diagram A cat is on a mat.

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Tree diagram Nodes

Phrasal nodes S node Lexical nodes

Terminal nodes (lexical items) Branches

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Tree diagram Tree diagrams exhibit constituency, hierarchy,

category labels of nodes, and linear order. There are aspects of sentence structures that

cannot easily be shown in tree diagrams.

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Relationship Dominance

A node immediately dominates the next node below it if 1) they are connected by a branch, and 2) no other node intervenes.

Mother: a node that immediately dominates another node or set of nodes

Daughter: a node or set of nodes that are immediately dominated by another node

Sisters: set of daughters that share the same mother A node dominates the nodes below it if there is an

unbroken series of branches connecting them. X c-commands Y iff the first branching node of X

dominates Y, and X does not dominate Y, nor Y dominate X.

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Relationship Precedence

A node immediately precedes another node if it occurs immediately to the left of it.

A node precedes another node if it occurs to the left of it, and neither node dominates the other.

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A constituent A set of elements forms a constituent in a tree

diagram if and only if there is a single node that dominates just these elements, and no other items.

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Tree diagrams John drove his car into a tree. Many parents give chocolate and cookies to their

children. Chefs from developing countries competed in a

difficult contest.

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Phrase structure rules (PS rules)S NP VP PP

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More tree diagrams Pat said that Sam cried yesterday. Sam saw a bear with a telescope.

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More syntactic tests Proform Ellipsis Co-ordination

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Proform Proform (replaces a constituent)

[A black cat] is on a red mat.

It is on a red mat.

Kim [ate hotdogs], and Sue did so, too.

Mary went [to London], and Mike went there, too.

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Ellipsis An omitted string is a constituent.

Pat can [swim 20 miles per hour]. Sam can [ ], too.

*Kim likes cats. Sam likes [ ], too.

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Co-ordination Only constituents of the same syntactic category can

be conjoined (e.g. NP + NP, VP + VP).Sam ate [a duck] and [a rabbit].Pat [cooked] and [cleaned the house].*John wrote [down the address] and [down the phone number].

Co-ordinating conjunctions

When two constituents of the same category are conjoined, they form one larger constituent of the same category.

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Shared constituent co-ordination Right node raising

John likes – but Mary hates – [apples].

*John rang – but Mary picked – [up the teacher].

The shared string is a constituent in each of the conjuncts.

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Bar notation NP – N’ – N

I admired [the director’s treatment of the issues].

Sue likes [cats].

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Bar notation Proform ‘one’ for N’

This [black cat] is smarter than that [one].

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Complement and adjunct N + Complement N’ N’+ Adjunct N’ Spec + N’ NP

A student of physics A student with long hair A student of physics with long hair *A student with long hair of physics

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Complement and adjunct The investigation of the case after lunch Mom’s favorite daughter The handsome prince of Egypt

N + XP N’ N’+ XP N’ Spec + N’ NP

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AP She is [rather fond of fruit].

A + XP A’ A’+ XP A’ Spec + A’ AP

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PP She ran [right across the bridge].

P + XP P’ P’+ XP P’ Spec + P’ PP

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VP They [all read the letter].

V + XP V’ V’+ XP V’ Spec + V’ VP

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X-bar theory Phrase structures are generated by

X + YP X’

(X’+ YP X’)

Spec + X’ XP

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ExerciseThe walk through the park was very pleasant. Dominate Immediately dominate