Morphology lecture

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2Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Ëåêöèéí àãóóëãà

1. Noun & Articles2. Adjective & Adverbs 3. Pronouns4. Prepositions5. The verbs To Be, To Do, To have6. Modal Verbs Can, Could, Be able to be, 7. May, Must, To have + infinitive , Have to8. To be + infinitive , Need, Should, Ought to, 9. Should, Ought to, Would, Dare


10. Present Indefinite & Present Continuous Tenses.

11. Present Perfect Continuous & Present Perfect Tenses.

12. Past Indefinite & Past Continuous Tenses.13. Past Perfect Continuous & Past Perfect

Tenses. 14. Past Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect & Past

Continuous Tenses. 15. Future Indefinite & Future Continuous Tenses.16. To be + infinitive, Future Perfect & Future

Perfect Continuous Tenses.


LECTURE 1

NOUN, ARTICLES & ADJECTIVES


Classification of Nouns1. Nouns can be simple, derivative and

compound.1. Simple nouns have neither prefixes nor

suffixes. E.g.: chair, table, room, map2. Derivative nouns have prefixes or suffixes. E.g.: reader, childhood, socialism3. Compound nouns built from two or more

stems. E.g.: apple-tree, bedroom, newspaper


2. Noun forming suffixes are:- er: teacher - ship: friendship - ist: scientist - or: visitor - ess: actress - ism: heroism - ment: movement - ness: darkness – ance: importance - ant: assistant - ion: operation - ence: conference - ation: examination – ty: property - ity: majority - ure: structure - ian: politician - dom: freedom - hood: childhood - ee: employee - age: marriage - ssion: submission


The most common noun prefixes are:re -: reconstruction over –: overestimation mis –: misconduct in –: information co –: coauthorunder –: undersecretary dis –; disarmament counter –: counteraction ex –: exchampion anti –: anticyclone sub –: subdivision un –: unemployment inter –: interaction


2. SemanticsAccording to their meaning nouns are divided

into concrete nouns and abstract nouns1. Concrete nouns refer to definite objects in

which you use at least one of your senses (physical things).

E.g.: The United States Constitution stresses the legal equality of all citizens.

E.g.: All people are endowed with right to pursue happiness.


Concrete and abstract nouns are divided into: Proper nouns & Common nouns

Proper Noun Common Noun

Austin philosopher person

Minnesota State place

Peace Bridge Bridge thing

The Four Freedoms Freedom idea


1. Proper noun is a noun denotes a particular thing. E.g.: Moscow, London, February

2. Common nouns refer to any and every objects of the same kind.

E.g.: a man, a dog, a river.To the class of common nouns belong also

material nouns.

Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 11

Collective NounCollective nouns denote a number of things

collected together or names a group and unit. E.g.: family, team, people, nationThey are usually singular and are used with

singular verbs. E.g.: Soviet hockey team was playing very well.According to their lexical meaning English

nouns are divided into three classes: 1. Masculine (for male beings) - father, boy 2. Feminine (for female beings) - mother, girl


3. Neuter (for lifeless thing) – room, flowerMany English nouns have the same form for

both masculine and feminine. E.g.: parent, singer, child, and pupilTo indicate the gender one must use a

compound. E.g.: woman doctor, man servantSome nouns form the feminine from the

masculine by adding - ess (words ending in – er or – or often drop – or-)

E.g.: poet – poetess, actor - actress


Articles A and an are indefinite articles that can be

used only before singular countable nouns, the can be used before uncountable nouns and before countable plural nouns.

a ( an ) – indefinite article the - definite article No article, often called the zero article,

identifies certain indefinite meanings of nouns.

Articles are determiners and come before the nouns they modify.


The indefinite article A and An A comes before a consonant sound but

sometimes before a vowel: a book, a table, a university An – before a vowel sound but sometimes

before a consonant: an author, an arm, an old man, an hour The Indefinite article is used: 1) Before a countable noun in the singular when

it is mentioned for the first time. E.g.: I see a man. A house has a roof.

15Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph

2) Before a countable noun in the singular when this noun is used as an individual representative of a class of things or beings.

E.g.: A dog is a domestic animal. 3) With nouns denoting professions: E.g.: I am a teacher. He is a doctor. 4) In certain numerical expressions: E.g.: a couple, a dozen, a hundred 5) In expressions of price, speed, ration, time:

E.g.: a penny, once a year, 4 times a day, 6) In exclamations before countable nouns:

E.g.: What a day! Such a pity! 16Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

The Definite articles the used: The definite article the can be with all nouns.

Use the to identify a noun that shows: 1) reference backward to a noun already

mentioned. E.g.: A dog has been barking all day and here

is the dog now, standing outside the gate.

2) reference forward to an identification soon to be made, often by modifiers following the noun. E.g.: The man at the door wants to speak to you.


3) when we give definite or particular information in answer to the questions “ which?”, “ what?” or “ whose?”

E.g.: Where is the key? Which key? 4) before such nouns as: the earth, the sun, the

moon, the world, the North Pole 5) with collective nouns expressing political and

social notions. E.g.: the Labour Party, the proletariat 6) before superlatives and before ordinal

numbers. E.g.: This is the best cake I have ever eaten.


7) identification of a class, especially in a generalization.

E.g.: The child is a hope of the future. 8) for a family name in the plural: E.g.: The Smiths came this evening. 9) when the article is accepted as part of a

geographical names. Countries: E.g.: the Netherlands, the USA,

the Philippines Seas and oceans: the Black Sea, the Pacific

(ocean), the Atlantic (ocean), the Red Sea19Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Rivers & Mountains: the Amazon, the Mississippi, the Nile Colleges & universities: the University of

Michigan, the University of Southern California

Newspapers: the Times, the UB post, the Morning news, the New York Times

Hotels : the Hilton, the Marriott, the UB hotelOther organizations: the United Nations, the

National Gallery, the Historical Museum


THE ZERO ARTICLEUse zero article:- to refer to all members of a class: E.g.: Dogs are domestic animals.(all dogs)- to distinguish one class from another: E.g.: Mike likes dogs not cats.- to refer to an indefinite number but not

necessarily to all members of a class: E.g.: Leaves are beginning to fall. (many)- with plural nouns after be: E.g.: Most of my friends are students.


- with institutions and practices felt to be unique: E.g.: School begins Monday. (a particular

Monday)- with set phrases, usually pairs, such as: E.g.: man and wife, father and son, brother and

sister, sun and moon- with set prepositional phrases, such as: at war in danger on sale by design at peace in reply on time by bus


at rest in love on vacation by mistake out of control out of date out of danger

- with nouns used in headlines in newspapers, captions in books, signs, labels and like:

prisoner freedom, entrance to parking, beware of dog


Adjective-forming suffixes are:- ful: careful, beautiful- less: careless, homeless- able: eatable, readable- ible: accessible, impossible- ant: important, distant- ent: defendant, dependent- ous: famous, dangerous- ary: ordinary, revolutionary- like: childlike, ghostlike


- ish: childish, foolish- ed: blue-eyed, strong-willed - al: natural, formal- ing: disappointing- y: speedy, dirty- some: troublesome- ive: impressive, directive- ic: poetic, nihilistic- ist: communist, materialist


a) Suffixes – ian and – ish are used to form adjectives denoting nationalities.

E.g.: Russian, Ukranian, Polish, Englishb) Some adjectives are the same as the

nouns: silk, gold, cotton. Their forms with suffix – en have different

meanings. E.g.:silk–silken, gold–golden, wax - waxen


The most common prefixes are:anti -: anti-fashistpost -: post-war, post-revolutionaryun -: unhappy, unable pre -: prewar, prerevolutionaryin -: incorrect, independentim -: impossible, immoraldis -: discouraginginter -: internationalsub -: subconsciousultra -: ultra-short, ultra-violet


LECTURE 2 DEGREE OF COMPARISON, ADVERB, PERSONAL, POSSESSIVE, REFLEXIVE & RELATIVE PRONOUNS


Degrees of Comparison There are two degrees of comparison of

adjectives: the comparative and superlative.1. One – syllable and some two – syllable

adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees by adding – er and – est.

E.g.: dark – darker – (the) darkest clever – cleverer – (the) cleverest2. Adjectives of two or more syllables form the

degrees of comparison using more or most: careful – more careful – the most careful interesting – more interesting – the most interesting


3. Some adjectives have irregular forms of comparison: good – better – the best

little – less – the least4. A few adjectives have two forms of

comparison. The second form has a special meaning:

far – further – the furthest (for distance and time) far-farther–the farthest (for distance only)


old–older–the oldest (for people and things)old–elder–the eldest (for people and things)The definite article the is used before

adjectives in the superlative degree.5. The is not used with superlatives which

have the word most in the meaning “very”.E.g.: It is the most interesting book. It is a very interesting book.


Constructions with ComparisonsAs … as is used with the positive form of the

adjective: E.g.: He is as tall as his brother. Not so … as is used in the negative sentences: E.g.: He is not so tall as his elder brother. Than is used with the comparative degree of

the adjective: E.g.: He is taller than his brother. When than or as are followed by the personal

pronouns ( he, she, it, they ) the verb is usually repeated: E.g.: I am taller than he is.


Substantivization of Adjectives Adjectives can be substantivized, having acquired

some or all of the characteristics of nouns (namely, the plural form, the Possessive Case, they can be used with articles) they are called wholly substantivized adjectives:

E.g.: a Russian - Russians Some adjectives acquire only some of the

characteristics of the noun, they are used with the definite article. They are called partially substantivized adjectives: E.g.: the English, the unemployed, the beautiful, the singular, the plural.


ADVERBAdverbs are divided into:

simple, derivative and compound.1. Simple adverbs:E.g.: fast, soon, here, then, now, still2. Derivative adverbs are formed from

adjectives by adding suffix - ly. E.g.: slow – slowly, careful - carefullyA few adverbs are formed from nouns: E.g.: hourly, daily, ashore, besides, sideways,

backwards, namely.


3. Compound adverbs are built from two or more stems:

E.g.: sometimes, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere.

Mind some exceptions :1. The adverb of the adjective good is well.2. Some adjectives and adverbs have the

same form: high, low, deep, near, far, fast, hard, early, late, much, little.

E.g.: That is a fast train. (adj) It goes very fast. (adv)


3. The forms highly, lowly, nearly, hardly, lately exist, but have other meanings than their corresponding adjectives:

E.g.: This mount is very nigh. (adj) The wind blows high. (adv) He is highly talented person. (adv) The place of Adverbs in the Sentence 1. Adverbs of time: yesterday, then, yet, now,

today, tomorrow – are placed at the end of the sentence or at the very beginning of it.

E.g.: I went to the theatre yesterday. Yesterday I went to the theatre.


2. Adverbs of repetition or frequency: never, often, always, seldom, sometimes, usually, still precede the principal verb.

E.g.: They never do this. I often go there. But with the verb to be they follow the

verb. E.g.: She is still in bed. The girl is often ill.


3. Adverbs of manner answer the question How? or How well? kindly, badly, well and of place here, there – are usually placed after the direct object or after the verb.

E.g.: Mr. Black’s wife plays the piano well.4. If an adverb of time and an adverb of

place are used together the latter precedes the former.

E.g.: I’ll go there tomorrow.


5. The adverbs of degree - almost, nearly, quite, just, too, very are generally placed before adjectives or other adverbs.

E.g.: I find him very clever. We know him quite well.Mind that enough comes after the adjective.E.g.: This hat is good enough for me.


The personal pronouns

I have a book, it was given to me.He has a book, it was given it him.She has a book, it was given to her.It has a book, it was given to it.We have a book, it was given to us.You have a book, it was given to you.They have a book, it was given to them.


Possessive pronouns

It is my book, this book is mine.It is his book, this book is his.It is her book, this book is hers.It is its book, this book is its.It is our book, this book is ours.It is your book, this book is yours.It is their book, this book is theirs.


Mind: The possessive pronoun of mine, of his, of yours etc. is frequently used.

E.g.: A friend of mine, that brother of hers. Reflexive Pronouns Singular Plural First person: myself ourselvesSecond person: yourself yourselvesThird person: himself, herself, itself themselves E.g.: I hurt myself. They burnt themselves.


Some reflexive pronouns are used emphatically and are called Emphasizing Pronouns.

Both have the same form but their functions are different. Compare:

E.g.: He washed himself. (reflexive pronoun). He himself washed the child. (emphasizing pronoun)


Relative Pronouns Who, whom are used for persons or animals. E.g.: The man who came in was my father.Whose is mainly used for human beings or

animals but it may be applied to things too. E.g.: He wore a coat whose collar almost reached

his ears. Which as a relative pronoun is used only for

things or animals.E.g.: He showed me the letter which he had got

from his friend.


My dog which was lost, is found.That is mainly used both for animals and

things. E.g.: This is the house that Jack built.After ordinal numbers, the words all, any,

only and combinations of nouns with adjectives in the superlative degree only that is used.

E.g.: Shakespeare is the greatest poet that England has ever had.

What is used to replace the noun.E.g.: Tell us what you know.


As is used as a relative pronoun after same and such and may refer to living beings and things.

E.g.: I haven’t the same opinion as you have. It’s not such an interesting film as we thought.

Mind : With collective nouns, denoting person, which is used with the verb in the singular and who with the verb in the plural.

E.g.: The London team which played so well last season has bad results this summer.


E.g.: The team, who are just getting their tickets, will meet on the platform at 2.30.

The Relative pronoun is often omitted. E.g.: I’m going to the picture you told

me about.


LECTURE 3 DEMONSTRATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, INDEFINITE, NEGATIVE PRONOUNS & ONE ANOTHER, EITHER, NEITHER, SOME, ANY,



Demonstrative Pronouns Singular: this , thatPlural: these, those E.g.: This is my brother, these are my brothers.Mind: When there is some idea of comparison

or selection the pronouns one / ones are often placed after these demonstratives.

E.g.: I don’t like this hat, I’ll buy that one.Such is used to mean “so great” or “of that

kind”. E.g.: Such is the power of the man. It is such a funny film!

The former is used for the first of the two, the latter for the second of the two.

E.g.: Shakespeare and Pushkin were both great poets, the former lived in the sixteenth, the latter in the nineteenth century.


Interrogative Pronouns The interrogative pronouns who, whom,

whose, what, which are used to form questions.

1. Who, whom, whose are used in reference to persons.

E.g.: Who is this woman? Who are these people? Whom did you speak to? Whose bag is this?


2. Which has a selective meaning.E.g.: Here are three books. Which

would you like to read? 3. What can be used instead of a noun ( What do you mean? ) and an

adjective ( What picture are you going to see? )


Distinguish between:a) Who is he? (What is his name?) - He is Jason. What is he? What is his profession?- He is a worker.Which Jason do you mean? - I mean my neighbor.What shall we read ? - We’ll read

Shakespeare’s plays. Which of Shakespeare’s plays shall we

read? - Macbeth.54Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Indefinite Pronouns1. Much and little are used with uncountable

nouns and demand the verb in the singular. E.g.: I have much (little) time. Much (little) can be said about.2. Many and few are used with countable

nouns and demand the verb in the plural. E.g.: Many (few) students of our group passed

the exams well.


In spoken English instead of many and much in affirmative sentences such expressions as a lot of…, lots of…, plenty of…., a great deal of… are often used. E.g.: I’ve got a few books on literary criticism. I’ve got a little time.

3. Other may be used both in the singular and in the plural. It can be used with the definite article or indefinite article.

E.g.: Give me another example. Give me the other example of these two. Give me other examples. This example is not very good, read me the others on page five.


4. One is often used in the sense of any person or every person.

E.g.: One must observe the traffic rules.One or ones are used as word-substitutes to

avoid repetition of nouns. E.g.: I don’t like this blue hat. I’ll buy the red one.

Mind: Besides one pronouns that and those can be used as word-substitutes.

E.g.: The price of gold is higher than that of silver. Our computing centre got some new computers similar to those described in this magazine.


5. All takes a group of things or persons as a whole and can be used both in the singular or in the plural.

E.g.: All are present today. All is lost.Before singular nouns the whole is more

often used. Compare:E.g.: All books were interesting. I read the

whole book with great interest. 6. Both is used when two persons or things

are regarded together. E.g.: we both, they both


7. Every and each refer to the members taken one by one. Every is mostly used when the members of a group have something in common. Each is used when there is some point of difference.

E.g.: It was a rush – hour and every bus was full. Helen gave each of the guests a cup of tea.

8. Each other is used when there are two persons concerned.

E.g.: Tom and Helen loved each other.


One another is used when there are morepeople concerned. E.g.: They all looked at one another. Either means “ one or the other of two” or“both of two”. E.g.: There are two books, youcan take either of them. Neither means “ none of two”. E.g.: Neither of them came. Neither and Either take singular verbs. E.g.: Neither of my friends has seen this film.


E.g.: Either of my two friends is going to thelecture. Some is chiefly used in affirmativesentences. Any is used in negative andInterrogative sentences and in conditionalclauses. E.g.: Have you any news? Yes, I havesome. In special and general questions expressingsome request or proposal some (not any) isused. E.g.: Haven’t you got some work to do?


Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the meaning of “every”. E.g.: You can take any book you like. Compounds with – body, -one, ( somebody,

anybody, someone, anyone) are used when speaking of persons; compounds with – thing refer to things.

Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in affirmative sentences.

Anyone, anybody, anything are used in negative and interrogative sentences and in conditional clauses.


Somebody, someone, something are usedin special and general questions if theyexpress some request or proposal. Anyone, anybody, anything may be used in

affirmative sentences. Anyone, anybody are used with the meaning

of “everyone”. Anything is used with the meaning of

“everything”.


Negative PronounsNo and none are the negative forms of any.

The pronoun no is used only before a noun both in the singular and plural.

E.g.: I have no time to do this today. He had no friends there.

The pronoun none is the absolute form used without no accompanying noun. It can be used both for human beings and things.

E.g.: None of us knew the answer.


Compounds nobody, no one, nothing are the negative forms of anybody, anyone, anything.

Nobody and no one refer to human beings. E.g.: There was nobody in the room. No one knew the stranger. Nothing refers to things. E.g.: He could do nothing about it.


LECTURE 4 PREPOSITIONS & SOME USEFUL PREPOSITIONS


Prepositions1. Prepositions can be simple (at, in, on

etc.,), compound (into, out of, upon etc.,) and phrase prepositions (in front of, by means of, etc.,). Some prepositions coincide with the adverbs. We can tell one from the other if we regard the role which they play in the sentence.

Compare: We shall go home after the lecture. (prep.) I didn’t meet him after. (adverb)


2. Prepositions are usually placed before the word with which they are connected. But some prepositions are very often used at the end of the sentences. They are usually prepositions that are closely associated with verbs.

E.g.: I study at the University. But : What are you looking at? (in interrogative sentences). The factory she works at is very large. (in attributive clauses).


At, On and In At, on, in generally express the idea of position.

E.g.: I am at home. I met him at the party.At, on, and in are used in expressions of time

and date. At – for moments of time. E.g.: at eight o’clock, at half past fourOn – for days and dates. E.g.: on Sundays, on August 30th

In – for weeks, months, seasons and years. E.g.: in 1970, in summer, in the morning, in the

afternoon, in the first week of July.69Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Some combinations with at, on and in. On time – “ at the arranged”. E.g.: The 10 a.m. train started on time.In time –“ not late”. E.g.: They never come in

time. In time can also mean “in the end”. E.g.: You’ll get used to it in time.In a year, in two days, in an hourE.g.: He will come in two hours.At the beginning (of), at the end (of). E.g.: at the beginning of the book, at the end of

the bookLecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 70

In the beginning –“at first”; in the end–“at last”. In is used for countries, big towns, provinces and

regions or any enclosed space. E.g.: The delegation will arrive in Moscow on

Monday.At is used for small towns, villages, suburbs,

certain points (e.g., a cross-road, a bridge, a bus-stop).

Where either in or at can be used, there is a slight difference in meaning.

At means “inside”, “outside” or “beside” the building. In means “inside” only.


In, Into and To In is used for position as shown above. E.g.: He is in the room.Into (and to) express movement and are used

with verbs of motion. E.g.: He came into the room. I go to my office by train.


To and Till / UntilTo can be used for place and time. E.g.: We work from 8.00 to 6.00 or from 8.0

till 6.00. till / until for time only. E.g.: let’s start now and work till dark.Till is often used with a negative verb to

emphasize lateness. E.g.: I shan’t get there till 5o’clock.


During and For During is used before known periods of time,

such as: winter, vacation, holidays etc. It’s therefore usually followed immediately by the name of a period or by the, this, that, these or those. E.g.: during the summer, during the 1960, during that time, during his childhood

For is used for a period of time, definite in length but otherwise indefinite. It is usually followed by a singular noun preceded by a, a plural noun, an adjective of quantity, or ever.

E.g.: for a long time, for a year, for five days74Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Either for or during can be used before the whole. Neither is used before all.

E.g.: He worked for the whole day.But: He worked all day. As it has been pointed out, for is used with a

period. Since is used with a point of time and always with a Perfect Tense. E.g: I haven’t seen him since five o’clock. (the beginning of the month; last year, we

came back).Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 75

By and With By in connection with a noun is usually used for

the doer of the action in the Passive Voice and with for the instruments with which the action is done.

E.g.: His hair was cut by his mother with the scissors.

There are many other uses of both prepositions. E.g.: Come and sit by the window. She said she would have returned home by nine o’clock. He came in with his friend.


Beside and Besides Beside means “near by”, “close by”, “by the side

of”. E.g.: Come and sit beside me. Besides, as a preposition, means “in addition to”,

or “other than”. E.g.: Some other people besides Peter will go

there. Besides is also a conjunction meaning

“furthermore”.


Between and Among Between is used for only two things or

persons. E.g.: A new agreement was signed between the two countries.

Among is used for more than two persons or things. E.g.: Come and sit among us.


Some other useful prepositionsOf expresses grammatical relations. E.g.: The leg of the table. The end of the day.Of can be used to mean “consisting of”

or “containing”. E.g.: A chest of drawers, a suit of clothes, a book of essays


Of is used in many different combinations. E.g.: It was kind of you to do that. We are tired of all this.Also : on account of, on behalf of, for the

sake of, in the hope of, to the left of Up and down have the basic function of expressing motion or position in the vertical direction. E.g.: To go up the hill, go down the hill


Up and down can also express horizontal movement or position. E.g.: He has gone up the road. He has gone Down the road. Same: He has gone along

the road.When Englishmen use up and down for rivers

they mean either towards the source of the river. (“upstream”) or towards its mouth (“downstream”).

Over and under are used both for motion and for position.


E.g.: The bird flew over the house. He climbed over the wall. The bus went under the railway bridge. The village is over the hills (the other side of the hills)

Sometimes over is used with a vague meaning of “away somewhere”.

E.g.: She has just gone over to the shops. Above and below correspond in meaning to

over and under, but they are generally used to express position and only seldom to express motion. They are often used as adverbs.


E.g.: The airplane was flying above the sea, but when we looked down we saw only clouds below. He looked at the sky above.

There is not much difference between below and beneath, but the latter is perhaps rather more precise, meaning “immediately below”.

Beyond is used to express both position and motion. E.g.: The house is beyond the school.

The word “beyond’ is often used figuratively. E.g.: It is beyond all belief – incredible. We

succeeded beyond our hopes and dreams–much better than we expected. This is beyond me.


Against is a synonym of “beside and touching it”. E.g.: The bookcase is against the wall.

Against is also the opposite of for, when for means “in favor of”.

Towards is used figuratively, meaning “as a contribution to” and in the expressions

towards the end of the month, towards the middle of the year, meaning “nearly at the end of” and “about the middle of”.


After is used to denote time and place.E.g.: I came home after two o’clock. He entered the room after me.Before is contrary in meaning to “after”.E.g.: Before lunch I had a walk. I was in Kiev a

fortnight before I was in Minsk. Don’t mix up before and ago, after and

afterwards (later). E.g.: I was in Kiev a fortnight ago. Before I

came to Kiev I had been to Leningrad. I came home after they had left. I came home. Afterwards they left.


LECTURE 5

THE VERBS “TO BE”,“TO DO”

“TO HAVE” & CAN, COULD


Verb To be I. To be as a notional verb is used to express:1. Information about persons or things.E.g.: He is a student. He was at the library.

She will be at home. 2. Mental or physical condition. E.g.: I am ill. He is a cheerful.3. Age. E.g.: She is twenty years old. 4. Price, time and date, distance, size and so

on. E.g.: It is late.


To be used in there is, there are– constructions. E.g.: Under the window there is a radiator. Is there a bookcase in the room? There isn’t any milk in the jug. II. To be as an auxiliary verb is used to form

the Continuous Tenses and the Passive Voice.

E.g.: 1. I am writing a letter. (Pres.Cont) 2. The letter was written by me. (Pass.Voi)


III. To be + infinitive is used to express: 1) some action which is planned. E.g.: He is to come at oneo’clock.2) orders and instructions. E.g.: He is to stay at home till his mother

comes.


IV. To be is also used in question – tags.

I am late , aren’t I? I am not late, am I?I was late, wasn’t I? I was not late, was I?I shall be late, shan’t I? I shan’t be late, shall I?We are late, aren’t we? We are not late, are we?We were late, weren’t we? We were not late, were we?We shall be late, shan’t we? We shan’t be late, shall we?



THE VERB “TO DO”

Tense Affirmative Interrogative NegativeSingular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Present indef-inite

I do.He does.She does.It does.

We do.You do.They do.

Do I ?Does he ?Does she ?Does it ?

Do we ?Do you ?Do they ?

I do not (don’t ).He does not (doesn’t).She does not (doesn’t).It does not (doesn’t).

We do not (don’t).You do not (don’t).They do not (don’t).

Past indef-inite

I did.He did.She did.It did.

We did.You did.They did.

Did I ?Did he ?Did she?Did it ?

Did we ?Did you ?Did they ?

I did not (didn’t).He did not (didn’t).She did not (didn’t).It did not (didn’t).

We did not (didn’t).You did not (didn’t).They did not (didn’t).

Future indef-inite

I shall do.He will do.She will do.It will do.

We shall do.You will do.They will do.

Shall I do ?Will he do ?Will she do? Will it do ?

Shall we do?Will you do?Will they do?

I shall not (shan’t) do.He will not (won’t) do.She will not(won’t) do.It will not (won’t) do

We shall not (shan’t) do.You will not (won’t) do.They will not (won’t) do.

I. As a notional verb to do is used in the meaning of make. In this case it has the negative and interrogative forms with do.

Tense Affirmative Interrogative NegativePresent Indefinite

You do it well.

Do you do it well ?

You don’t do it well.

Past Indefinite

You did it well.

Did you do it well ?

You didn’t do it well.

Future Indefinite

You will do it well

Will you do it well ?

You won’t do it well.


Note the difference in the meaning of do and make. E.g.: “What are you doing ?” “ Reading a newspaper.” (It concerns actions.)

“What are you making ?” “ An apple tart.” (It concerns things.)

II. As an auxiliary verb to do is used:1) to form the interrogative and negative forms of the

Present and Past Indefinite Tenses. Interrogative NegativeDo you work ? You don’t work on Sunday.Does he work ? He doesn’t work on Sunday.Did they work ? They didn’t work yesterday.


2) To avoid repetition of a notional verb in:a) Short answers. E.g.: Do you swim? Yes, I do. No, I don’t.b) Question-tags.E.g.: He speaks English, doesn’t he?c) Short agreements or disagreements.E.g.: She reads a lot. Yes, she does. You talk at the lesson. No, I don’t.

3) To emphasize something. E.g.: I did speak to him. I did go there.


4) Before imperative requests. E.g.: Do help me please.III. To do is used in formal greetings after

introductions. Ann: Nick, I want to introduce Mike to you.Mike: How do you do?Nick: How do you do?I. To have as a notional verb means

“possess “ E.g.: I have a brown coat. She had a nice hat. He will have this text-book next week.


The interrogative and negative constructions are formed with do or without it:

Affirmative Interrogative NegativeI have a book.He has a book.

Have I a book ?Do I have a book ?Has he a book ?Does he have a book ?

I have no book.I don’t have a book.He has no book.He doesn’t have a book.


Verb To have 1. There is a tendency at present to use do constructions except Perfect Tenses the forms without do are practiced as well. E.g.: Do you have to go there each Sunday?2. Very often have got is used in the meaning of have. The negative and interrogative forms of have got are used with do as well as without it.



Affirmative Interrogative NegativeWe have got a garden.

Have you got a garden?Do you have got a garden?

We haven’t got a garden.We don’t have got a garden.

II. As an auxiliary verb to have is used to form the Perfect Tenses.III. As modal verb to have is used to express obligation in the present, past and future.E.g.: He has to come. He had to come. He will have to come.

IV. To have is also used in question-tags:I have time to spare, haven’t I?I have no time to spare, have I?I had time to spare, hadn’t I?I had no time to spare, had I?V. To have can also be used in some other meanings,

denoting process.1) in the meaning of “take”. He has a bath every day.2) in the meaning of “encounter”. She has a lot of trouble.


3) in the meaning of “give”. We are having a party tonight.4) in the meaning of “enjoy”. He is having a very pleasant time there. VI. Had better + Infinitive without to is used

in the meaning of it would be better. E.g.: You had better go to the doctor.VII. To have is used in have-something -

done construction. E.g.: I have my shoes cleaned.(I made someone to clean my shoes).


Modal verbs are : can, may, must, need, ought to, should, would, dare, have to + Infinitive, to be + Infinitive.

Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:1) they require no to with the infinitive followed

(except ought, need and dare)2) they do not take – S in the 3rd person singular; 3) they require no do in the interrogative and

negative forms (except dare, need, have + Infinitive)

4) they have no future form;101Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

5) they have no verbals ; Modal verbs have different meanings and

express obligation, moral duty, permission, possibility, advisability, necessity, ability, probability, non-performance of an action

Can I. The modal verb can has two forms: can for the Present Tense and could for the Past

Tense.


Present TenseAffirmative Interrogative NegativeYou can swim.He can swim.

Can you swim ?Can he swim ?

You cannot (can’t) swim.He cannot (can’t) swim.


Past TenseAffirmative Interrogative NegativeYou could swim.He could swim.

Could you swim ?Could he swim ?

You could not swim.He could not swim.

II. Can is used to express: 1. Physical or mental ability. In this meaning can has the substitute to be able (to), which is used in the Present, Past and Future Tense for all persons. Thus, for the Future Tense only the form to be able (to) is true. E.g.: He can speak several languages. I am glad you are able to come.(were able to come, will be able to come)

2. Permission or possibility. E.g.: 1. He can put the suitcase in the hall.

You can’t stay here. (permission) 2. You can get the tickets easily. You can get to town by bus. (possibility)3) Surprise: In this meaning can (could) +

Indefinite or Perfect Infinitive in negative and interrogative sentences is used.

E.g.: Can (could ) she have done it? She can’t (couldn’t ) have done it.


Can, could and be able to: talking about abilityWe sometimes use be able to instead of can and

could to talk about ability. However, we avoid be able to –

When we talk about something that is happening as we speak:

Watch me, Mum; I can stand on one leg. (not ... I’m able to stand on one leg.)

Before passives: CDs can now be copied easily. (rather than CDs are now able to be copied ...)


When the meaning is ‘know how to’:Can you cook? (rather than Are you able to

cook?)If we talk about a single achievement, rather

than a general ability in the past, we usually use be able to rather than could. Compare:

Sue could play the flute quite well. (or ...was able to ..., a general ability)and

She swam strongly and was able to cross the river easily, even though it was swollen by the heavy rain. (not She swam strongly and could cross..., a specific achievement)


However, could is usually more natural –in negative sentences:I tried to get up but I couldn’t move. (rather

than .... I wasn’t able to move.)With verbs of the senses – e.g. feel, hear, see,

smell, taste – and with verbs of ‘thinking’ – e.g. believe, decide, remember, understand:

I could remember the crash, but nothing after that. (rather than I was able to remember ...)


After the phrases the only thing /place/ time, and after all when it means ‘the only thing’:

All we could see were his feet. (rather than All we were able to ...)

to suggest that something almost didn’t happen, particularly with almost, hardly, just, nearly:

I could nearly touch the ceiling. (rather than I was nearly able to...)


LECTURE 6

MODAL VERBS: CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO,

BE ALLOWED TO &

MAY, MUSTLecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 109

Can and could: talking about possibilityTo talk about the theoretical possibility of

something happening we use could, not can. However, we use can, not could, to say that something is possible and actually happens. Compare:

It could be expensive to keep a cat. (=if we had one, it could or it may not be expensive) and

It can be expensive to keep a cat. (=it can be, and it sometimes is)


We use can’t, not couldn’t, to say that something is theoretically or actually impossible:

There can’t be many people in the world who haven’t watched television.

The doctor can’t see you this morning; he’s busy at the hospital.

We use can to indicate that there is a very real possibility of a future event happening. Using could suggests that something is less likely or that there is some doubt about it. Compare:


We can stay with Jim in Oslo. (=we will be able to stay) and We could stay with Jim in Oslo. (=it’s possible; if he’s there)

Could and be allowed to: talking about permissionTo say that in the past someone had general

permission to do something – that is, to do it at any time- we can use either could or was/were allowed to. However, to talk about permission for one particular past action, we use was/were allowed to, but not could. Compare:


Anyone, was allowed to fish in the lake when the council owned it. (or ... could fish ...) and Although he didn’t have a ticket, Ken was allowed to come in. (not ... could come in.)

In negative sentences, we can use either couldn’t or wasn’t/weren’t allowed to to say that permission was not given in general or particular situations:

We couldn’t/weren’t allowed to open the presents until Christmas morning.



Meaning English forms Usage

AbilityCanam( is, are) able to + Infinitive

Present

CouldWas (were)able to + Infinitive

Past

ShallWill be able to + Infinitive

Future

Meaning English forms UsagePermission Can

May + InfinitiveCan is more often used in spoken English.

Possibility of an action (under some condition)

Can + infinitiveCould + Infinitive

In affirmative sentence.

Possibility of an action (which may or may not take place)

ShallWill be able to + Infinitive

In the Present or Future.

Non-performance of an action

CouldMight + infinitive

When expressing reproach or regret about the non-performance of an action

Modal Verbs Expressing Ability, Permission, Possibility

MayThe modal verb may has two forms: may for

the Present Tense and might for the Past Tense.


Present TenseAffirmative Interrogative NegativeI may come.He may come.

May I come in?May he come in?

I may not come.He may not come.

May is used to express: Permission:E.g.: May I take your dictionary? May I come in? In this meaning may has the substitute to be

allowed (to), which is used in the Present, Past and Future Tense for all persons: E.g.: You stay here until you are allowed to go

away. He was allowed to come later. He will be allowed to use these papers.

Probability. The adverbs maybe is adequate in this use. E.g.: They may arrive today.

It maybe rain tonight.116Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

Might is used in the first and second meanings in Indirect Speech.

E.g.: They might arrive today or tomorrow. MustThe modal verb must has only one form. For the missing tense forms must is

substituted by to have to. Must is used to express: 1. Obligation and necessity:

E.g.: I must stay at home today. I had to stay at home yesterday. I shall have to stay at home tomorrow.


In this meaning must has the affirmative, negative and interrogative forms.

E.g.: Must he write the report? He must write report but it mustn’t be very concise.The absence of necessity is expressed by the

verb need not.E.g.: Must I stay here? Yes, you must. No, you needn’t.


2. Command. In this meaning must has no substitute ( but to have to in the Past Tense ). E.g.: You must read this text once more. You must go out at once.

3. Probability. In this meaning must is used in the affirmative sentences only.

E.g.: He must be the captain of the ship.4. Must + Perfect Infinitive denotes the action

in the Past. E.g.: They must have read this newspaper article.


Must and have (got) to We use must and must not in formal rules and

regulations and in warnings:E.g.: Bookings must be made at least seven

days before departure. The government must not be allowed to appoint judges.

In spoken English we often use must and mustn’t (=must not) to propose a future arrangement, such as a meeting or social event, without making detailed plans:

E.g.: We must get together more often. We mustn’t leave it so long next time.


We can also use I must ... to remind ourselves to do something: E.g.: I must phone Steve when I get home. I said I’d call him last night, but I forgot.

To draw a conclusion about –* Something that happened in the past we use

must + have +past participle: E.g.: That’s not Kate’s car. She must have borrowed it from her parents.

* Something happening at or around the time of speaking we use must be +-ing: I can’t hear anyone moving around upstairs. You must be imagining things.


* Something that is likely to happen in the future we use must be going to or must be + -ing:

‘What are all those workmen doing?’ ‘I think they must be going to dig up the road.’

I was wrong about the meeting being today. It must be happening next Friday.

* A present situation we use must be, or have (got) to be in informal speech:

Their goalkeeper has got to be at least two metres tall! (or ...must be ...)


We can use must have to to say that we conclude something based on what we know about a present situation and must have had to to conclude something about a past situation:

E.g.: I can’t start the computer. You must have to know a password. (=a password is necessary)

E.g.: John wasn’t at home when I went round. He must have had to go out unexpectedly.


Note that we can’t say ‘must’ve to’ or ‘must have got to/ must’ve got to’ (but we can say must’ve had to).

In questions that hope for or expect a negative answer we prefer have (got) to, although in formal contexts must is sometimes used:

Do we have to answer all the questions? (or Have we got to ...?; Must we ...? is also possible but rather formal)


We use have to in questions that imply a criticism. Must can also be used, although some people think this is rather old-fashioned.

We usually stress have and must in sentences like this:

E.g.: Do you have to play your trumpet here? It’s deafening me! (or more formally Must you play ...?)


Sometimes we can use either have to or have got to. However –

* We use have to with frequency adverbs suchas always, never, normally, rarely, sometimes,

etc: I often have to work at the weekend to get everything done.

* With the past simple we use had to especially in questions and negative sentences:

E.g.: When did you have to give it back?(not When had you got to give it back?) We didn’t have to wait too long for an answer. (not We hadn’t got to wait too long ...)


* If have is contracted (e.g. I’ve, He’s, It’d) then we must include got: The experiment has failed twice before, so it’s got to work this time. (not ... so it’s to work this time.)

* We don’t use have got to with other modal verbs: Employees will have to accept the new conditions or be dismissed. (not Employees will have got to accept...)

Notice also that have got to is often preferred in informal speech.



Meaning English forms UsageObligation and commands (from the speaker’s viewpoint)

MustShould + infinitiveOught

Present

Obligation and necessity (from outside)

MustShould + infinitiveHave (has )Am (is, are )

Present

HadWas, were + infinitive

Past

Shall haveWill have +infinitive

Future

Non-necessity of an action Need notDon’t (doesn’t have to) + infinitive

Present

Didn’t have to + infinitive PastShall (will) not have + infinitive Future

Prohibition of an action Must notShould not + infinitiveAm (is, are) not

Present,Future

Non-performance of an action

Was (were ) + Perfect InfinitiveOughtShould + infinitive

Modal Verb, Expressing Obligation, Necessity,

Prohibition, Non-necessity and Non-performance

LECTURE 7

TO HAVE + INFINITIVE,HAVE TO, NEED,

OUGHT TO&

SHOULD


To have + Infinitive To have + Infinitive as a modal expression, is

used in the Present, Past and Future Indefinite Tense and expresses

an obligation or necessity imposed from outside. E.g.: I have to get up early. I had to get up early

yesterday. I shall have to get up early tomorrow morning.



TenseAffirmative Interrogative Negative

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural

Present Indef-Inite

I have.He has.She has.It has.

We have.You have.They have.

Have I?Has he?Has she?Has it?

Have we?Have you?Have they?

I have not haven’t).He has (hasn’t).She has (hasn’t).It has (hasn’t).

We have (haven’t).You have (haven’t).They have (haven’t).

Past Indef-Inite

I had.He had.She had.It had.

We had.You had.They had.

Had I?Had he?Had she?Had it ?

Had we ?Had you ?Had they?

I had not (haven’t).He had not (hadn’t).She had not (hadn’t).It had not (hadn’t).

We had not (haven’t). You had not (hadn’t).They had not (hadn’t).

Future Indef-Inite

I shall have.He will have.She will have.It will have.

We shall have.You will have.They will have.

Shall I have?Will he have?Will she have?Will it have?

Shall we have?Will you have?Will they have?

I shall not (shan’t ) have.He will not (won’t) have.She will not (won’t) have.It will not (won’t) have.

We shall not (shan’t) have.You will not (won’t) have. have.They will not (won’t) have.

The negative and interrogative forms of to have +infinitive are formed with do.


Interrogative Negative

Do you have to get up early?Did you have to get up early?

I don’t have to get up early?I didn’t have to get up early?

To be + Infinitive, as a modal expression is used in the Present and Past Indefinite Tenses and expresses:

1. Planned action or an arrangement:E.g.: We are to meet near the Moscow

University. We were to meet at 5. 2. Possibility: In this meaning to be +

Passive Infinitive is used. E.g.: These newspapers are to be found

everywhere in the bookstalls.


Need 1. The modal verb need has only the Present

Tense form and is mostly used in the negative and interrogative forms.

Interrogative NegativeNeed I go there?Need he go there?

You need not (needn’t ) go there? You needn’t go there ?


E.g.: You needn’t go to school as you feel ill today.

2. In short negative answers need is used, in short affirmative answers must is used.

E.g.: Need I be present here today? No, you needn’t. Yes, you must.3. The notional verb need means to be in want

of and has all the forms, which any other notional verb has.

E.g.: He needs help. Does he need help?

He doesn’t need help.


Need (n’t), don’t need to and don’t have to We can use need as an ordinary verb or as a

modal verb (followed by a bare infinitive). As a modal verb it doesn’t change its tense and

doesn’t add ‘-s’ for the third person singular. Compare:

I needed to leave early. Or She’s thirsty. She needs a drink. (=ordinary verb) and You needn’t speak so loudly. (=modal verb)


When it is a modal verb need is most commonly used in negative sentences, often with verbs like bother, concern, fear, panic, worry:

E.g.: I’ve already cleaned the car so you needn’t bother to do it.

E.g.: Judges in England need not retire until they are 75.

E.g.: I was very nervous before the interview, but I needn’t have worried. Everyone was very friendly and I got the job.


It is sometimes used in questions, but we prefer to use need as an ordinary verb or have to: Need you go so soon? (=modal verb; less common and rather formal)

Do you need to go so soon? (=ordinary verb)or Do you have to go so soon?

It is rarely used in affirmative sentences (that is, not questions or negatives), but is sometimes found in written English, particularly in fiction: We need have no fear for Nicole, she can take care of herself.


In other styles of formal written English it is used in this way with negative words such as hardly, never, nobody/ no-one, and only:

E.g.: The changes need only be small to make the proposals acceptable. (less formally The changes only need to be...)

Nobody ever need know about the money. (less formally Nobody ever needs to know...)

‘I don’t want my parents to know.’ ‘They need never find out.’ (less formally They never need to find out.)


To give permission not to do something we can use either needn’t or don’t need to:

You needn’t cut the grass, I’ll do it later. (or You don’t need to cut the grass...)To talk about a general necessity, we prefer don’t need to: You don’t need to be over 18 to get into a disco.(rather than You needn’t be...)We can often use either needn’t or don’t have to

with little difference in meaning to say that it is unnecessary to do something:You needn’t whisper. Nobody can hear us. (or

You don’t have to ...)Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 140

However, some people prefer needn’t when it is the speaker who decides the lack of necessity, and don’t have to when external rules or somebody else’s actions make something unnecessary. Compare:

As you worked late yesterday you needn’t come in until 10.00 tomorrow morning. (the speaker’s decision) and

We’ve been told that we don’t have to be at work until 10.00 tomorrow. (reporting someone else’s decision.)


We can use needn’t (or don’t have to) to say that something is not necessarily true. We don’t use mustn’t in this way:

Volcanoes needn’t erupt constantly to be classified as ‘active’. (or Volcanoes don’t have to erupt...; not Volcanoes mustn’t erupt...)

Nowadays it needn’t cost a fortune to own a powerful computer. (or Nowadays it doesn’t have to cost ...; not Nowadays it mustn’t cost ...)


Should and Ought to I. Ought to expresses moral duty or obligation

and has the affirmative, negative and interrogative forms. In contrast to other modal verbs ought is followed by the to + Infinitive.


Affirmative InterrogativeYou ought to write this exercise.

Ought I to write this exercise ?

Negative You ought not ( oughtn’t) to write this exercise.

II. Should expresses moral duty obligation and is used in the affirmative, negative and interrogative forms.

Practically ought to and should can be used in the same meaning. It ought to be noted that should has the same form for all the persons.



Affirmative InterrogativeI should stay here.HeShe We should stay here.YouThey

Should I stay here ? he sheShould we stay here ? you they

Negative I should not ( shouldn’t ) stay here. He She We should not ( shouldn’t )stay here. You They

III. Should and ought to + Indefinite infinitive are referred to the action in the Present and Future.

E.g.: You should (ought to) help her. Should and ought to + Perfect Infinitive

gives an idea of an unfulfilled action, referred to the Past.

E.g.: You should (ought to) have done it better.


IV. Should / Would + infinitive are used to express wish in phrases I should like, She would like.

E.g.: I should like to know all about him. I should like to listen to this nice song

once more. He would like to stay here for some time.


LECTURE 8

SHOULD, OUGHT TO, WOULD, DARE &

PRESENT INDEFINITE, PRESENT CONTINUOUS

TENSESLecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 148

Should, ought to and had betterWe can often use either should or ought to

to talk about obligations and recommendations (e.g. You should/ought to finish your homework before you go out) and probability (e.g. it should/ought to be ready by now) although in general should is used more frequently.

Ought to is used particularly in speech and most often to talk about obligation rather than probability.


Notice also the following details – * We prefer should when we say what an

outside authority recommends:The manual says that the computer should

be disconnected from the power supply before the cover is removed. (rather that ... ought to be disconnected ...)

* We use should (or would), not ought to, when we give advice with I...:

I should leave early tomorrow, if I were you. (or I would leave...; or I’d leave...)


* We prefer should in questions, particularly wh-questions: What should I do if I have any problems? Should I ring you at home?

* Some people might use ‘What ought I to do ...?’ and ‘Ought I to... ?’, but this is rather formal.

Note that when we conclude, on the basis of some evidence we have, that something is certain or very likely we can use must but not should/ought to:

It’s the third time she’s been skating this week. She must really enjoy it.


We use should/ought to +have + past participle to talk about something that didn’t happen in the past and we are sorry that it didn’t:

E.g.: We should/ought to have waited for the rain to stop. (I’m sorry we didn’t)

We often use this pattern to indicate some regret or criticism and the negative forms shouldn’t/oughtn’t to have are almost always used in this way.


We also use should/ought to +have +past participle to talk about an expectation that something happened, has happened, or will happen:

E.g.: If the flight was on time, he should/ought to have arrived in Jakarta early this morning.

E.g.: The builders should/ ought to have finished by the end of the week.

We can use should in questions that are offers or that request confirmation or advice:

E.g.: Should I phone for a taxi for you?Who should I pass the message to?


Note that in sentences like these we can also use shall with a very similar meaning, and ought to is also used in questions, although less commonly.

Compare the use of shall and should in sentences such as the following, where ‘I shall’ means ‘I intend to’ and ‘I should’ means ‘I ought to’: E.g.: I shall read the script on the train tomorrow. (or I’ll read...)

I shall read the script on the train tomorrow but I know that I’ll be too tired.


We can use had better instead of should/ ought to, especially in spoken English, to say that we think it is a good idea to do something:

If you’re not well, you’d better ask Ann to go instead. (or ... you should/ought to...) although we don’t use it to talk about the past or to make general comments:

You should/ought to have caught a later train. (not You had better have caught...)

I don’t think parents should/ought to give their children sweets. (not I don’t think parents had better give their children sweets.)


We prefer had better if we want to express particular urgency and in demands and threats:

E.g.: There’s someone moving about downstairs. We’d better call the police, quickly.

Notice that the negative form is had better not. In question forms the subject comes after had, although many people avoid questions with had better:

E.g.: He’d better not be late again or he’ll be in trouble. Hadn’t we better get a taxi?(or Shouldn’t we get ...?)


Would The modal verb would has the same form for

all persons and is used to express different meanings. It expresses:

1. Volition. E.g.: I would be happy to exchange letters

with you. I said that I would go to the museum.

2. Persistence to do something. E.g.: I asked him to tell the truth, but he

would not.157Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D

3. A customary action in the Past.E.g.: Sometimes they would visit him. They would often talk about their life.4. Polite requests.E.g.: Would you mind giving me the pencil? Would you pass me the bread, please?5. Would rather is used to express

reference.


Dare The modal verb dare means to be brave enough to do something. It is mostly used inthe negative and interrogative sentences. E.g.: How dare you speak to me so rude? He daren’t ask me the question again.


Sometimes the modal verb dare can take doto form the negative and interrogative formsboth in the Present and in the past IndefiniteTense, but it is followed by the indefinitewithout to.E.g.: How did you dare give me orders? He didn’t dare give me orders. In the affirmative sentences the phrase daresayis common. It is used in the first person singular

only. E.g.: I daresay he is late.


General Tense Scheme

Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D161

Active Voice

PresentPresent IndefinitePresent ContinuousPresent Perfect ContinuousPresent Perfect

PastPast IndefinitePast ContinuousPast Perfect ContinuousPast Perfect

Future Future IndefiniteFuture ContinuousFuture Perfect ContinuousFuture Perfect

Passive Voice

PresentPresent IndefinitePresent ContinuousPresent Perfect

PastPast IndefinitePast ContinuousPast Perfect

FutureFuture IndefiniteFuture Perfect

The Present Indefinite Tense The Present Indefinite Tense is formed from

the infinitive without to. 3rd person singular –s or –es is added. E.g.: he works [s], he writes [s], he learns [z], he teaches [iz], he goes [z].The interrogative and negative forms of the

Present Indefinite Tense are formed with the verb do. E.g.: Do you study English? Yes, I do. No, I do not. (don’t). Does he study English? Yes, he does. No, he does not. (doesn’t).


The Present Indefinite Tense is used: 1. To denote the action which is permanent or

habitual. E.g.: Nick goes to school every day. I usually get up early.

In this case the adverbials always, often, usually, sometimes, over, normally, occasionally, on Monday and so on, every day, every week, each year, every summer and so on can be used.

2. To denote general truths. E.g.: My friend studies at Moscow University.

The sun sets in the West.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 163


Present Indefinite Tense

Affirmative

I read.He / She reads.It rains.We / You / They read.

InterrogativeDo I read?Does he / she read?Does it rain?Do we / you / they read?

NegativeI do not (don’t) read.He / She does not (doesn’t) read.It doesn’t rain.We / You / They do not (don’t) read.

The Present Continuous Tense I. The Present Continuous Tense is formed of

the verb to be in the Present Indefinite + Participle I of the notional verb.

E.g.: I am writing an exercise now.For the interrogative form the auxiliary verb

is placed before the subject. For the negative form the particle not is added after the auxiliary verb.

E.g.: Are you writing an exercise?I am not writing an exercise.



Present Continuous Tense

Affirmative

I am reading.He / She is reading.It is raining.We / You / They are reading.

Interrogative

Am I reading?Is he / she reading?Is it raining?Are we / you / they reading?

Negative

I am not reading.He / She is not (isn’t) reading.It is not (isn’t) raining.We / You / They are not (aren’t) reading.

II. The Present Continuous Tense is used:To denote an action in progress, duration at

the definite present moment. E.g.: What are you doing now? I am writing a

report.The Present Continuous Tense occurs in

speech more often than the Present Indefinite Tense.

E.g.: Do you read this book? is used less frequently than Are you reading a book?


Certain verbs are usually not used in the Continuous Tenses. They are : be, have, appear, believe, become, expect, feel, forget, forgive, like, hate, hear, know, see, seem, think.

Sometimes they are found in the Continuous Tenses, if they have certain color in meaning.

E.g.: How are you feeling? (in the medical sense) How are you liking it?(in the meaning of ‘enjoy’) I’m seeing you tomorrow. (I shall visit you tomorrow)


He is expecting the news today. (in the meaning of ‘await’)

Are you hearing from him? (in the meaning of ‘having a news’)

I am thinking it over. (someone asks about my opinion.)

To denote one’s plans in the nearest future (the time of action must always be mentioned).


E.g.: Are you doing anything special tonight? Yes, I am going to the Club. Instead of a future action in duration in

adverbial clauses of condition and time.E.g.: If he is smoking when I am absent, I

shall blame him.

The Present Continuous Tense is never used with the question word when, except when the immediate future is to be expressed.


LECTURE 9 PRESENT CONTINUOUS AND PRESENT SIMPLE

& PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, PRESENT PERFECT TENSES


PRESENT CONTINUOUS AND PRESENT SIMPLE 1. We can use the present continuous tense

with some state verbs (e.g.: attract, like, look, love, sound) when we want to emphasize that a situation is temporary or for a period of time around the present.

Compare: Jean stays with us quite often. The children love having her here. and Jean’s with us at the moment. The children are loving having her here.


2. Some verbs have different meanings when they are used to talk about states and when they describe actions. With their ‘state’ meanings, they usually take simple rather than continuous forms. With their ‘action’ meanings, they may take simple or continuous forms, depending on context. Compare:

The new treatment for influenza doesn’t appear to work. (appear: state = seem) and Madonna is currently appearing in a musical on Broadway. She is often appears in musicals. (appear: action = take part.)


3. With some verbs describing mental states(e.g.: find, realize, regret, think, understand)we can use the present continuous toemphasize that we have recently started tothink about something or that we are not sureabout something. Compare: I regret that the company will have to be sold.(=I have made the decision and I am sorry about it) and I’m regretting my decision togive her the job. (=I am increasingly aware thatIt was the wrong decision)


When it means ‘think carefully about’ the verbconsider is only used with the presentcontinuous: E.g.: He is considering takingearly retirement. (not He considers taking earlyretirement.)4. We use present simple with verbs whichperform the action they describe: E.g.: I admit I can’t see as well as I used to. We apologize for not replying earlier.


5. We often use the present simple and present continuous in stories and jokes in informal spoken English to create the impression that events are happening now. This can make them more direct and exciting and hold people’s attention:

E.g.: She goes up to this man and looks straight into his eyes. He’s not wearing his glasses, and he doesn’t recognize her ….

This man’s playing golf when a kangaroo bounds up to him, grabs his club and hits his ball about half a mile …


The main events are usually described in sequence using the present simple and longer background events are described using the present continuous.

6. We also use the present simple and present continuous in live commentaries (for example, on sports events) when the report takes place at the same time as the action:

King serves to the left-hand court and Adams makes a wonderful return. She’s playing magnificent tennis in this match …


I. Present Perfect Continuous Tense is formed of the verb to be in the Present Perfect

Tense + Participle I of the notional verb. E.g.: He has been writing the exercise for two

hours.For the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is

placed before the subject. For the negative form the particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb.

E.g.: Has he been writing the exercise for two hours? He has not been writing the exercise for two hours.



Present Perfect Continuous Tense

AffirmativeI have been reading.He / She has been reading.It has been raining.We / You / They have been reading.

InterrogativeHave I been reading?Has he/ she been reading?Has it been raining?Have we / you / they been reading?

NegativeI have not been reading.He / She has not (hasn’t)been reading.It has not (hasn’t)been raining.We / You / They have not (haven’t) been reading.

II. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to denote an action which began in the Past, was in duration up to the present moment and is still in duration or has only just finished. E.g.: I have been studying English for three years.

III. The difference between the Present Continuous Tense and the Present Perfect Continuous Tense is as follows: the Present Continuous Tense denotes an action in process, an action which is going on at the present moment.


There is no referring to the duration in thepast; the Present Perfect Continuous Tensedenotes an uninterrupted action with thereferring to the duration in the past. E.g.: It is raining now. (Pres. Cont. Tense) It has been raining for two hours. (Pres. Per. Cont. Tense)


The Present Perfect Tense I. The Present Perfect Tense is formed of

the verb to have in the Present Indefinite + Participle II of the notional verb.

E.g.: I have read this novel. She has worked hard this week.

For the formation of the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject; in the negative form the negative particle not is added after the auxiliary verb.



Affirmative Interrogative I have read this book.He has read this book.

Have you read this book?Has he read this book?

Negative I have not (haven’t) read this book. He has not (hasn’t) read this book.

Affirmative Interrogative I have read this book.He has read this book.

Have you read this book?Has he read this book?

Negative I have not (haven’t) read this book. He has not (hasn’t) read this book.


Present Perfect Tense

AffirmativeI have read.He / She has read.It has rained.We / You / They have read.

Interrogative

Have I read ?Has he / she read?Has it rained?Have we / you / they read?

Negative

I have not (haven’t ) read.He / She has not (hasn’t) read.It has not (hasn’t) rained.We / You / They have not (haven’t) read.

II. The Present Perfect Tense is used:1. To express the completion of an action by

now. That’s why we are not interested in when the action took place, we are interested in the completion of an action by now and its effect on present events. This is probably the commonest use of the Present Perfect Tense. E.g.: I have seen this film. (I know it at present) He has gone out. (He is not here at present)

2. With the adverbials of indefinite time, such as: never, ever, just, always, yet, often, seldom, already.


2 The adverbial is placed between have and the notional verb.

E.g.: She has never been to this town before.The adverbial yet can be placed at the end of

the sentence. E.g.: He hasn’t translated this text yet.

3. With a word or phrase which denotes an incomplete period of time such as: today, this week, this month, this year etc.

E.g.: I have been this town twice this year. He has read about it in the newspaper today.


4. With the prepositions since and for; for means “length of time up to now”, since means “from some definite period in the past till now”.

E.g.: I haven’t seen you since last week. I haven’t seen you for a week. The Present Perfect Tense is never used:1. if a definite time in the past is suggested. E.g.: I was in Leningrad two years ago.2. in questions beginning with when. E.g.: When did the class begin?


LECTURE 10 PAST INDEFINITE, PAST CONTINUOUS, PAST PERFECT & PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES


The Past Indefinite Tense I. 1. The Past Indefinite Tense of the regular

verbs is formed by adding –ed or –d to the infinitive without to.

E.g.: to open–opened, to ask–asked The pronunciation of –ed or –d is as follows: [ t ]-after voiceless consonants: liked, worked[d ]-after voiced consonants and vowels:learned, stayed. [ id ]-after t and d: visited, demanded


The formation of the Past Indefinite Tense of some verbs is as follows:

1. If a verb ends in a consonant preceded by a short stressed vowel, the consonant is doubled. E.g.: to stop – stopped

2. Final y is changed into i. But if the final y is preceded by a vowel it remains unchanged.

E.g.: to study – studied, to play - played 3. Final r is doubled if it is preceded by a

stressed vowel. But if the vowel is unstressed r is not doubled. E.g.: to refer – referred, to answer – answered, to cover - covered


II. The Past Indefinite Tense of the irregular verbs is formed by a vowel change, the change of the consonant, or sometimes irregular verbs have the same form for the Infinitive and the Past Indefinite Tense.

E.g.: to come – came, to spend - spent The interrogative and negative forms of the

Past Indefinite Tense of both regular and irregular verbs are formed by means of the auxiliary verb to do (did).



Affirmative InterrogativeHe asked a question.He read a book.

Did he ask a question ?Did he read this book?Negative

He did not (didn’t) ask a question.He did not (didn’t) read this book.

Past Indefinite Tense

AffirmativeI / He / She asked, read. It rained. We / You / They asked, read.

InterrogativeDid I / he / she ask, read? Did it rain? Did we / you / they ask, read?

NegativeI / He / She did not ask, read. It did not rain.We / You / They did not ask, read.

II. The Past Indefinite Tense is used:1. To denote an action in the past, the past

time may or may not be mentioned. E.g.: He visited me yesterday. 2. To denote a succession of actions in the

past. E.g.: He sat down at the table, opened the

copy-book and began to write.3. To denote past habit. E.g.: He never smoked.


III. The difference between the Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect Tense is as follows. The Past Indefinite Tense is not connected with the present, it entirely belongs to the past, while the Present Perfect Tense is connected with the present.

E.g.: I have been to Kiev twice this year. I was in Kiev last year.


Past simple and present perfectA. Time expressions that refer to the present,

such as this morning /week / month and today, can be used with either past simple or present perfect verbs. If we think of this morning (etc.) as a past, completed time period, then we use the past simple; if we think of this morning (etc.) as a time period which includes the present moment, then we use the present perfect. Compare: E.g.: I didn’t shave this morning. (=the morning is over and I didn’t shave) and I haven’t shaved this morning.(=it is still the morning and I might shave later)


B. In a sentence which includes a time clause with since, we generally prefer a past simple verb in the time clause and a present perfect verb in the main clause. The time clause refers to a particular point in the past:

E.g.: Since Mr Hassan became president, both taxes and unemployment have increased. (rather than … has become…)

She hasn’t been able to play tennis since she broke her arm. (rather than…has broken…)


Notice, however, that we use the present perfect in the time clause if the two situations described in the main clause and time clause extend until the present: E.g.: Have you met any of your neighbours since you’ve lived here?(not…you lived…)

C. After the pattern It/This/That is/will be the first time… we generally use the present perfect in the next clause: E.g.: That’s the first time I’ve seen Jan look embarrassed. (reporting a past event) E.g.: It won’t be the first time she has voted against the government in her long career. (talking about a future event)


D. With time clauses introduced by after, when, until, as soon as, once, by the time and the time expressions the minute/second/moment the past simple refers to past, completed events and the present perfect refers to future events.

Compare these examples:E.g.: After she left hospital (past), she had

a long holiday. and After Dominic has left school (future), he

will be spending six months in India.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 198

The Past Continuous Tense I. The Past Continuous Tense is formed of

the auxiliary verb to be in the Past Indefinite Tense + Participle I of the notional verb.

E.g.: We were waiting for him from 5 till 6 o’clock.

In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is added after the auxiliary verb.



Affirmative InterrogativeI was writing the composition.He was driving a car.They were reading a newspaper.

Was I writing the composition ?Was he driving a car?Were they reading a newspaper?

Negative I was not (wasn’t ) writing the composition. He was not (wasn’t ) driving a car. They were not (weren’t ) reading a newspaper. Past Continuous Tense

AffirmativeI / He / She was reading.It was raining.We / You / They were reading.

InterrogativeWas I, he, she reading? Was it raining? Were we / you / they reading?

NegativeI / He / She was not reading.It was not raining.We / You / They were not reading.

II. The Past Continuous Tense is used to denote an action in duration in some definite period of time in the past. The past time can also be expressed by another past action.

E.g.: I was writing the composition from 6 till 9 o’clock yesterday.

He was driving a car at 5 o’clock yesterday. They were reading a newspaper when he came in.


Sometimes two past actions are in duration at the same time. E.g.: He was reading a newspaper while

she was watching TV.III. Some verbs are very rarely used in the

Past Continuous Tense. Certain verbs are usually not used in the Continuous Tenses. They are: be, have, appear, believe, become, expect, feel, forget, forgive, like, hate, hear, know, see, seem, think.


The Past Perfect Continuous Tense 1. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is

formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Past Perfect Tense + Participle II of the notional verb.

E.g.: She said that by the end of June she had been studying English for 2 years.

For the formation of the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. For the formation of the negative form the negative particle not is added after the first auxiliary verb.



Affirmative InterrogativeHe had been driving the car. Had he been driving the car? Negative He had not (hadn’t ) been driving the car. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

AffirmativeI / He / She had been reading.It had been raining.We / You / They had been reading.

Interrogative Had I / he / she been reading? Had it been raining? Had we / you / they been reading?

NegativeI / She / He had not been reading.It had not been raining.We / You / They had not been reading.

II. The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to denote an action which was in duration in the past before another past action or past time.

E.g.: He had been driving his car for several hours before he reached this town.

Jack explained swiftly what he and Dick had been working at for the whole day.

He was smoking, and he had been obviously smoking a good deal because the air of the room with its closed windows was hazy.


The Past Perfect Tense I. The Past Perfect Tense is formed by means

of the auxiliary verb to have in the Past Indefinite Tense +Participle II of the notional verb.

E.g.: They had finished their work by 6 o’clock.

For the formation of interrogative form the auxiliary verb to have is placed before the subject. For the formation of the negative form

particle not is added after the auxiliary verb.



Affirmative InterrogativeThey had been finished their work.

Had they finished their work?

Negative They had not (hadn’t ) finished their work. Past Perfect Tense

AffirmativeI / He / She had read.It had rained.We / You / They had read.

InterrogativeHad I / he / she read? Had it rained? Had we / you / they read?

NegativeI / He / She had not (hadn’t) read.It had not (hadn’t ) rained.We / You / They had not (hadn’t ) read.

II. The Past Perfect Tense is used to denote an action which is completed before a past moment or a past action.

E.g.: I had written the exercise by 5 o’clock. I read the book after I had finished my work.


LECTURE 11

PRESENT AND PAST SIMPLE, CONTINUOUS &

PERFECT TENSES


Past Perfect and Past Simple1. When we give an account of a sequence

of past events we usually put these events in chronological order using the past simple. If we want to refer to an event out of order – that is, an event which happened before the last event in the sequence we have written or spoken about – we can use the past perfect.


2. When we understand that we are talking about events before another past event, we don’t have to continue using the past perfect:

E.g.: We bought a new car last month. We’d driven my parents’ old car for ages, but it started (or had started) to fall apart. We put (or had put) a new engine in it, but that didn’t solve (or hadn’t solved) the problems we were having.


3. If the order of past events is clear from the context (for example, if time expressions make the order clear) we can often use either the past perfect or the past simple:

After Ivan had finished reading, he put out the light. (or… Ivan finished…) They were given help and advice before they had made the decision. (or… they made…)

The two leaders agreed to meet, even though earlier talks had failed to reach an agreement. (or … talks failed…)


4. The past perfect is often used in reporting what was originally said or thought in the present perfect or past simple:


Talking about a past event Reporting this past event ‘I have met him before.’ ‘The village hasn’t

changed much.’

I was sure that I had met him before. (not… I met him…)

On my last visit to Wixton I found that the village hadn’t changed much. (not… the village didn’t change…)

‘Smithers drowned in the recent floods.’

‘She stole the watch.’

Police were convinced Smithers had drowned in the recent floods. (or … drowned …)

She admitted that she had stolen the watch. (or .. stole …)

5. We can use either the past perfect or past simple (and often past continuous and past perfect continuous) when we talk about things that we intended to do, but didn’t or won’t now do in the future:

I had hoped to visit the gallery before I left Florence, but it’s closed on Sundays. (or I hoped …, I was hoping …, I had been hoping…)


Bill planned to retire at 60, but we have persuaded him to stay for a few more years. (or Bill had planned …, Bill was planning…, Bill had been planning…)

Other verbs used like this include: consider +-ing; expect to; intend to; mean to; think about +-ing / of + -ing; want to.


Past Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect and Past Continuous1. We use the past perfect continuous to talk about

something that was in progress recently before or up to a past point in time, and the past perfect when we talk about a finished activity before a past time: I’d been finishing some work in the garden when Sue arrived, so I didn’t hear her come in. (not I’d finished some work in the garden when Sue arrived, so I didn’t hear her come in.) and I’d finished all the ironing so I started cleaning the windows, (not I’d been finishing all the ironing so I started cleaning the windows.)


Sometimes we can use either the past perfect continuous or the past perfect with a very similar meaning: I’d been working/I’d worked hard all year, so I felt that I deserved a holiday.

2. If we talk about how many times something happened in a period up to a particular past time, we use the past perfect, not the past perfect continuous: How many times had you met him before yesterday? (not How many times had you been meeting …) I had stayed in the hotel twice in the 1980s. (not I had been staying in the hotel twice…)


3.The past perfect continuous can be used to talk about a situation or activity that went on before a particular past time and 1) finished at that time, 2) continued beyond it, or 3) finished shortly before it:

1) We’d been driving for about an hour when the engine suddenly stopped.

2) She felt terrible during the interview because she had been suffering from flu since the previous day.

3) When I last saw John, he’d been running and was out of breath.


If we are not interested in how long the activity went on, we can use the past continuous instead of the past perfect continuous. Compare:

When the merger was announced it became apparent that the two companies had been discussing the possibility since last year, and

A friend told me about a conversation she’d recently overheard. Two women were discussing their holiday plans.


I first met Steve and Jane when they had been going out together for five years, and they didn’t get married for another three years after that. And Emma met Graham when she was going out with his best friend.

4. Remember that we don’t describe states with continuous tenses, and we use the past perfect, not the past perfect continuous, even when we focus on the length of a situation up to a particular past time: We had owned the car for 6 months before we discovered it was stolen.

(not We had been owning the car for 6 months.)Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 220

5. The past perfect continuous in mainly used in written texts and is less common in speech. Here are two examples of the past perfect continuous used in newspaper stories:

The body of a climber who went missing in the Alps was finally found yesterday. Carl Sims had been climbing alone in the dangerous area of Harz Waterfall, which has claimed many lives in the past.

A spokesman for the company said Morgan hadn’t been working for them long and wasn’t familiar with safety procedures: ‘It was an unfortunate incident …’


Present and Past time reviewContinuous and simple1. When we focus on an activity itself, starting

before and continuing up to (and possibly beyond) a particular point of time, rather than focusing on actions as completed events, we use continuous forms: Janet can’t come to the phone. She’s washing her hair. As you’re not using your car at the moment, can I borrow it? This time yesterday I was flying over the Pacific. Was she wearing that red dress when you saw her?


We use simple forms to talk about general situations, habits, and things that are or were always true:

When I worked as a postman I got up at 3 o’clock every morning. Miguel doesn’t play golf very well. These birds build their nests on the ground. The earthquake struck the area at midday yesterday. (past simple for completed events)


We use simple forms with verbs that describe unchanging states; that is, things that stay the same: She intends to work hard at school and go on to university. Did you understand the instructions we were given?

However, we can use continuous forms with these verbs when they describe something happening or changing:

She was intending to talk to Tony about the idea, but she didn’t get the opportunity.

I’m understanding physics much better now that Mr Davies is teaching us.



2. PerfectWe use perfect verbs forms to describe one

event or state from the point of view of a later time. The present perfect suggests a connection between something that happened in the past and the present time. Notice, however, that the situation or event does not have to continue until the time of speaking, only to have some connection or relevance to the present time:

I’ve finished the new Harry Potter book now, so you can borrow my copy if you like.

Have you turned the gas off? I don’t like it to be on when I’m not at home.

Your nose is bleeding. Has somebody hit you?

The past perfect is used to locate a past event before another past event:

I invited him out to dinner, but he said he had already eaten.

By the time I picked up the phone, they had rung off.


3. Combinations of perfect and continuousWe combine the perfect and continuous forms

in the present perfect continuous to describe an activity in progress either at or recently before the time of speaking, and possibly beyond it: E.g.: I have been following the discussions with great interest.

We can also use the present perfect continuous to talk about activities that have recently finished with some result that can be seen, heard, etc.: Look at the dirt on your clothes! Have you been digging in the garden again?


The past perfect continuous has a similar meaning. However, the point of reference is not ‘now’ (as it is with the present perfect continuous) but a point in the past:

E.g.: When we met Simon and Pat, they had been riding.

It had been snowing heavily for hours and when I went to the door I couldn’t open it.


LECTURE 12

FUTURE INDEFINITE , WILL AND BE GOING TO

& FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSES


The Future Indefinite Tense The Future Indefinite Tense is formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall (1st person, singularand plural ), will (2nd, 3rd persons singular andplural ) + the Infinitive of the notional verb withoutto. E.g.: He will work late today.But there is a growing tendency to use will for allpersons. For the formation of interrogative formthe auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. Forthe formation of the negative form the negativeparticle not is added after the auxiliary verb. Short form is ‘ll.



Affirmative InterrogativeI shall see him tomorrow.He will see you tomorrow.We’ll see them tomorrow.

Shall I see him tomorrow?Will he see you tomorrow?Shall we see them tomorrow?

NegativeI shall not (shan’t ) see him tomorrow.He will not ( won’t ) see you tomorrow.

We shall not (shan’t ) see them tomorrow. Future Indefinite Tense

AffirmativeI shall (‘ll) read. He / She will read.It will rain.We shall read.You / They will( they’ll ) read.

InterrogativeShall I read ? Will he / she read?Will it rain?Shall we read?Will you / they read?

NegativeI shall not (shan’t ) read.He / She will not ( won’t ) read.It will not ( won’t ) rain.We shall not (shan’t ) read.You / They will not ( won’t ) read.

II. The Future Indefinite Tense is used to denote actions of facts in the future, and sometimes habitual actions.

E.g.: I shall attend the English class three times a week. She will take his exams in spring.

III. The problem of choosing a proper form of Future is rather complicated in Modern English.


There is a growing tendency not to use theFuture Indefinite Tense, but to substitute iteither by the Present Continuous Tense, orby the to be going + Infinitive form, or bythe Future Continuous Tense.E.g.: 1. They are coming soon. 2. He is going to write the letter later.

3. She will be driving the car at 6 o’clock tomorrow.


IV. After temporal conjunctions when, until, before, after, as soon as, while, till and if no future is used. It is substituted by a Present Tense. E.g.: 1. He will stay here until you come. 2. I’ll speak to him, when he returns. 3. If you wish, I’ll show you round the University campus.

To Be Going to + Infinitive To Be Going to + Infinitive is one of the

commonest ways to express futurity. It is more usual with persons, than with things.

E.g.: I am going to write the report next week.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 234

Will and Be Going to 1. We can use either will or be going to to talkabout something that is planned, or somethingthat we think is likely to happen in the future:

We will study climate change in a later part of the course. (or We are going to study...)

Where will you stay in Berlin?(or Where are you going to stay...?)

The south of the city won’t be affected by the power cuts. (or ....isn’t going to be affected...) We often prefer be going to in informal contexts


2. We use will rather than be going to to make a prediction based on our opinion or experience: Why not come over at the weekend? The children will enjoy seeing you again. ‘Shall I ask Sandra?’ ‘No, she won’t want to be disturbed.’

We use be going to rather than will when we make a prediction based on some present evidence: The sky has gone really dark. There’s going to be a storm.

What’s the matter with her? ‘It looks like she’s going to faint.’


3. To predict the future we often use will with I bet (informal), I expect, I hope, I imagine, I reckon (informal), I think, I wonder, and I’m sure, and in questions with think and reckon:

I imagine the stadium will be full for the match on Saturday. That cheese smells awful. I bet nobody will eat it. When do you think you’ll finish work? Do you reckon he’ll say yes?

Be going to can also be used with these phrases, particularly in informal contexts.


4. We use will when we make a decision at the moment of speaking and be going to for decisions about the future that have already been made. Compare:

I’ll pick him up at 8.00. (an offer; making an arrangement now) and I’m going to collect the children at 8.00. (this was previously arranged)

‘Pineapples are on special offer this week.’ ‘In that case, I’ll buy two.’ and When I’ve saved up enough money, I’m going to buy a digital camera.


However, in a formal style, we use will rather than be going to to talk about future events that have been previously arranged in some detail. Compare: Are you going to talk at the meeting tonight? and The meeting will begin at 9.00 a.m. Refreshments will be available from 8.30 onwards.

5. We can use will or be going to with little difference in meaning in the main clause of an if-sentence when we say that something (often something negative) is conditional on something else:


If we go on like this, we’ll/we’re going to lose all our money.

You’ll/You’re going to knock that glass over if you’re not more careful.

However, we use will, not be going to, when the main clause refers to offers, requests, promises, etc. and ability: If Jack phones I’ll let you know.

(= an offer; ‘..., I’m going to let you know’ suggests ‘I intend to let you know when Jack phones’)


If you look to your left, you’ll see the lake. (= you’ll be able to see; ‘... you’re going to

see...’ suggests ‘I know this is what you can see when you look to your left’ ) and when one thing is the logical consequence of another:

If you don’t switch on the monitor first, the computer won’t come on.


The Present Continuous Tense for the Future The Present Continuous Tense for the Future is used for definite agreements in the near future. Time expression is needed.

The Present Continuous Tense for the Future is mostly used with persons.

E.g.: She is singing a folk song next. They are going to the museum in the afternoon.


The Future Continuous Tense 1. The Future Continuous Tense is formed by

means of the auxiliary verb to be in the Future Indefinite Tense+Participle I of the notional verb.

E.g.: He will be flying to Kiev at this very time tomorrow.

For the formation of the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject, for the formation of the negative form the negative particle not is added after the auxiliary verb.



Affirmative InterrogativeI shall be writing.He will be writing.

Shall I be writing?Will he be writing?Negative

I shall not (shan’t ) be writing.He will not ( won’t ) be writing.

Future Continuous Tense

AffirmativeI shall be reading.He / She will be reading.It will be raining.We shall be reading.You / They will be reading.

InterrogativeShall I be reading ? Will he / she be reading ?Will it be raining?Shall we be reading ?Will you / they be reading ?

NegativeI shall not (shan’t ) be reading.He / She will not ( won’t ) be reading.It will not ( won’t ) be raining.We shall not (shan’t ) be reading.You / They will not ( won’t ) be reading.

II. The Future Continuous Tense is used to denote an action in duration in the Future, the time of action is definite. E.g.: We shall be discussing this problem when he comes.

III. The Future Continuous Tense is often used to substitute the Future Indefinite Tense.

E.g.: They will be dancing and having fun. They will be cooking and baking.


LECTURE 13 BE TO + INFINITIVE, FUTURE PERFECT & FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES


Be to + infinitive1. Be to + infinitive is commonly used in news

reports to talk about events that are likely to happen in the near future.

E.g.: Police officers are to visit every home in the area. The main Rome to Naples railway line is to be reopened today. (passive form)

It is used to talk about formal or official arrangements, formal instructions, and to give orders.

E.g.: You are not to leave the school without my permission.


The European Parliament is to introduce a new law on safety at work.

Children are not to be left unsupervised in the museum. (passive form)

Passive forms are often used to make orders and instructions more impersonal.

Notice that we only use be to + infinitive to talk about future events that can be controlled by people. Compare:

In the next few years, thousands of speed cameras are to appear on major roads. (or ....will appear ...) and


Scientists say they can’t predict when or where the disease will appear again. (not ... the disease is to appear again; the appearance of the disease can’t be controlled)

The President is to return to Brazil later today. (or .... will return ...) and

The comet will return to our solar system in around 500 years. (not The comet is to return ...; the movement of the comet can’t be controlled)


However, when be to + infinitive refers to the future from the past, we often use it to describe what happened to someone, whether they were able to influence events or not:

Matthew Flinders sailed past Tasmania in 1770, but it was to be a further 30 years before he landed there.

Clare Atkins was to write two more books about her experiences in Africa before her death in 1967.


2. We often use be to + infinitive in if-clauses to say that something must happen first (in the main clause) before something else can happen (in the if-clause): If the human race is to survive, we must look at environmental problems now. The law needs to be revised if justice is to be done. (passive form)

Compare the use of be to + infinitive and the present simple for the future in if – clauses:

If Jones is to win gold at the next Olympics, he needs to work on his fitness. and If Jones wins gold at the next Olympics, he has said that he will retire from athletics.


Notice how the order of cause and effects in if-sentences is reversed with these two tenses: If Jones is to win gold ... (=effect), he need to work ... (=cause) and

If Jones wins gold ... (=cause), he has said that he will retire ...(=effect)

3. We can use be about to + infinitive to say that something will (not) happen in the very near future: I’m about to start work on my second novel. Appearing on TV might make her famous, but it’s not about to make her rich.


Notice that while be to + infinitive is mainly used in news reports and formal contexts, we often use be about to + infinitive in conversation:

We’re just about to eat. Do you want to join us?

I was about to go to bed when my brother turned up.


The Future Perfect Tense 1. The Future Perfect Tense is formed by

means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Future Indefinite Tense + Participle II of the notional verb.

E.g.: I shall have finished the experiment by 5 o’clock.

For the formation of the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb is placed before the subject, for the formation of the negative form the negative particle not is added after the first auxiliary verb.



Affirmative InterrogativeI shall have finished my work.He will have finished his work.

Shall I have finished my work ?Will he have finished his work ?

NegativeI shall not (shan’t ) have finished my work.He will not ( won’t ) have finished his work.

Future Perfect Tense

AffirmativeI shall have read. We shall have read.He / She will have read. You / They will have read.It will have rained.

InterrogativeShall I have read ? Shall we have read ?Will he / she have read ? Will you / they have read ?Will it have rained?

NegativeI shall not (shan’t ) have read.He / She will not ( won’t ) have read.It will not ( won’t ) have rained.We shall not (shan’t ) have read.You / They will not ( won’t ) have read.

II . The Future Perfect Tense is used to denote an action which will be completed before a definite future moment or a certain future action. We are interested in the completion of the action, not in the time of it.

E.g.: I’ll have read three Shakespeare’s plays by the end of the term. He will have finished writing the letter before they come.


Future Perfect Continuous TenseThe Future Perfect Continuous Tensedescribes a future, ongoing action that willoccur some specified or certain time in thefuture. This tense is formed by using will havebeen and the Present participle of the verb.

(will+have+been+pres.participle verb+ing) E.g.: By the year 2020, schoolchildren of

primary schools of Mongolia will have been studying foreign languages.


Future Continuous and Future PerfectFuture continuous: I will be doing1. We can use the future continuous to talk

about something that is predicted to start before a particular point of future time, and that may continue after this point. Often it is the result of a previous decision or arrangement:

This time next year this part of the garden will be looking beautiful. She will be taking up her place at university in October.


When it goes into orbit, the spacecraft will be carrying 30 kilos of plutonium.

We can also use the future continuous to talk about a future activity that is part of the normal course of events or that is one of a repeated or regular series of events:

Dr Jones will be giving the same talk in room 103 at 10.00 next Thursday.

Will you be driving to Glasgow, as usual?


We can often use either the future continuous or the present continuous when we talk about arranged activities or events in the future. Compare:

We will be leaving for Istanbul at 7.00 in the evening. (timetabled; or ... are leaving ...) and

When the race starts later this afternoon the drivers will be hoping for drier weather than last year. (not ... are hoping ...; not reporting the details of a programme or timetable)


2. The future continuous is sometimes used to indicate that a future activity is pre-arranged. Using will can indicate willingness, intention, invitation, etc. Compare: Ann will be helping us to organise the party. (suggests a previous arrangement) and Ann’ll help us organise the party. (suggests she is willing to help)

When we don’t want to indicate willingness, intention, invitation, etc., we prefer to use the future continuous instead of will.


For example, If guests have stayed longer than you wanted, and you don’t know when they are leaving, you might ask:

Will you be staying with us again tonight? (asking about their plans)

Will you stay with us again tonight? (they might think this is an invitation)

3. Future perfect and future perfect continuous: I will have done and I will have been doing


We use the future perfect to say that something will be ended, completed, or achieved by a particular point in the future: By the time you get home I will have cleaned the house from top to bottom. I’m sure his awful behaviour will soon have been forgotten.(= passive form)

We use the future perfect continuous toemphasise the duration of an activity in

progress at a particular point in the future:On Saturday, we will have been living in this

house for a year. Next year I will have been working in the company for 30 years.


With both the future perfect and future perfect continuous we usually mention the future time (By the time you get home ...., On Saturday...,).

4. The future continuous, future perfect and future perfect continuous can also be used to say what we believe or imagine is happening around now: We could ask to borrow Jim’s car. He won’t be using it today – he went to work by bike.

Most people will have forgotten the fire by now. Tennis fans will have been queuing at Wimbledon all day to buy tickets.


We can use the future perfect continuous to say what we think was happening at a point in the past:

Motorist Alan Hesketh will have been asking himself whether speed cameras are a good idea after he was fined 100 last week for driving at 33 mph in a 30 mph zone.


LECTURE 14 PASSIVE VOICE


Passive Voice The Passive Voice is formed by means of the verb to be with the Past Participle of the verb. Identifying the Passive Passives are common in written English, especially in writing where the purpose is to instruct or explain for instance in textbooks and informative articles. E.g.: All adult citizens are allowed to vote. A presidential election is held every four

years. The votes are counted by computer.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 267

A writer wants to be sure that his ideas are clear. He wants to focus our attention on key words, so he sometimes uses the passive to put those key words at the beginning of a sentence. Here are examples from advertisements:- This sports car was engineered for fast

pickup and fuel economy. - The diamond has been set in a slender band

of 18 carat gold.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 268

- This blade was designed to give you a smooth, close shave.

In speaking, the passive is often used when answering questions like these:- Who took this photo?- It was taken by Paul.- Do you want me to make the bed?- No thanks, it has already been made.


- Have you mailed the letter yet? - No, it is being mailed today.

Look at these nine passive verbs again : * The car was engineered… * The diamond has been set … * The blade was designed…


* Adult citizens are allowed… * An election is held… * Votes are counted… * The letter is being mailed… * The photo was taken… * The beg has been made….


Passive verbs have two things in common. They all have …1. some forms of the verb to be: am, is, has been, etc.2. and a past participle.


Be + Past Participlewashas beenwasisareis beingwashas been

engineeredsetdesignedheldallowedmailedtakenmade

Forming the Passive. Intransitive verbs cannot be used to form

passive sentences. You can use your dictionary to find out :

- the symbol “vt” after a verb stands for “verb transitive” - the symbol “vi” tells you that the verb is transitive.


E.g.: They are coming at 10 o’clock. (They are not “coming” anything)

Joe stays late every day. (Joe doesn’t “stay” anything)


vt vimaketakehearfindcarry

besitrisecomestay

Forming the Passive There are two things you need to do to form the passive. 1. Change the transitive verb to its passive form. catch > are caught2. Move the object (receiver or action) to the subject position. Cats catch mice. > Mice are caught.


There is one more thing you have to think about when forming a passive sentence. If the subject is important to the meaning of the sentence, move it to the end and put “by” before it. Mice are caught by cats. “Cats” are important to this sentence because the paragraph is about cats.


Passive in the Past TenseThe object of an active sentence becomesthe subject in the passive: They showed the new house to us. The new house was shown to us.Sometimes an direct object in an active sentence

becomes the subject of a passive sentence: They showed us the new house. We were shown the new house.


+


be

was wasn’twas being wasn’t beingwere weren’twere being weren’t being

past participle

E.g.: I asked when I should arrive at the university.I was told that classes would begin on October 3rd. Passive in Other Tenses Use: The auxiliary + be + past participleFuture: will be done won’t be donePresent Perfect: has been done have been done hasn’t been done haven’t been done Past Perfect: had been done hadn’t been doneE.g.: Sarah: Is this the end of the story? Jack: No, it will be continued in the next book.


Passive Voice of verb “Destroy”


Tense noun Singular Plural Past Participle of main verb

Present

The house(s)

Is Are

destroyed.

Present Perfect has been have been

Past Was Were

Past Perfect had been had been

Future will be will be

Future Perfect will have been will have been

Present Progressive

is being are being

Past Progressive

was being were being

The Use of the Passive Voice The Passive Voice is used in English when it

is more convenient or important to stress the thing done than the doer of it, or when the doer is unknown.

My article was published.In a passive sentence the doer of the action is

not mentioned. When the doer is mentioned it is preceded by the preposition by.

Tom painted this picture. (active)This picture was painted by Tom. (passive)


A passive verb is a form of transitive verb and passive verbs have specific uses:1. When the actor is unknown, unimportant, or obvious, or wishes to be unknown.2. In certain styles of specific writing.3. In writing about disasters and accidents if the result or the victim is more important than the cause. ActiveClub members adopted the new rules in 1980.

PassiveNew club rules were adopted in 1980.


Active I completed the experiment to show the

relation between nutrition and growth. The relation between nutrition and growth

Passivewas shown.

ActiveA flood destroyed Mr. Jonson’s house.

PassiveMr. Johnson’s house was destroyed by a flood.


Advantages of the Passive Voice 1.A passive construction emphasizes the result

in an impersonal style. This use is sometimes desirable in scientific and technical writing. Water was produced by mixing two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. The effects of confinement in a small space were repeatedly observed in the experimental animals.

2.A passive verb emphasizes a victim or the result of a disaster.

Active: The motorcycle injured the child.Passive: The child was injured.


3. Use a passive verb when the agent or actor is so unimportant or obvious that you do not need to mention it.

The school auditorium was built in 1912. (Who did the construction is unimportant.)The thief was arrested. (Unless several law enforcement agencies are working on the

same case, you can assume that the agent is the local police.)


4. Use a passive verb if you want to hide the name of the person who is responsible for an unpleasant decision or result.

The proposal to raise taxes was approved. (no agent)

An increase in tuition fees was proposed. (no agent)


LECTURE 15 The forms of Conditions & The use of Conditional Tenses in Conditional sentences


Conditional sentences (if clauses)If – clauses are used to talk about a situation

that is hypothetical, or not really the situation when the statement is made.

The Forms of ConditionsThe Present Conditional Tense is formed with should / would + Infinitive for the 1st person

and would + Infinitive for the other persons.



Affirmative Interrogative

I should / would make.You would make. (You’d make.)He would make. (He’d make.)

Should I guess?Would you guess?Would he guess?

Negative

I should not (shouldn’t) guess. You would not (wouldn’t) guess. He would not (wouldn’t) guess.

The negative – interrogative form is also used. Should I not (shouldn’t I) speak? Would you not (wouldn’t you ) speak? The Perfect Conditional Tense is formed with should / would

+ Perfect Infinitive.



Affirmative Interrogative

I should have made.You would have made.He would have made.

Should I have guessed?Would you have guessed?Would he have guessed?

Negative I should not (shouldn’t) have guessed. You would not (wouldn’t) have guessed. He would not (wouldn’t) have guessed.

The negative – interrogative form is also used.

Should I not (shouldn’t I) have spoken? Would you not (wouldn’t you ) have spoken?


The use of Conditional Tenses in Conditional Sentences English can express three important ideas with “if”:1. He will come if you call him. (= smth. will

happen if a certain condition is fulfilled.)2. He would come if you called him. (the action of

the “if” clause is not taking place at this moment, but I can imagine the probable result.)

3. He would have come if you had called him. (= but he didn’t come! Why? Because he didn’t call him.)


Conditional sentences have two parts:* the “if”- clause* the main clause In the sentence: If it rains I shall stay at

home. “If it rains” is the “if”- clause “I shall stay at home” is the main clause.


Type 1 – Probable Condition

The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Present Tense, the verb in the main clause in the Future Indefinite Tense. E.g.: If he runs all the way he’ll get there in time.


Type 2 – Improbable Condition

The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Past Indefinite Tense, the verb in the main clause in the Conditional Tense. E.g.: If I dropped the cup it would break.


Type 3 – Impossible Condition

The verb in the “if”-clause is in the Past Perfect Tense, the verb in the main clause -in the Perfect Conditional Tense. E.g.: If I had known of your arrival I should have met you. (but I didn’t know so I didn’t meet you)


Real Conditions In a real condition, the if-clause has the Simple Present Tense for future or present meanings. Present: If I have a question, I always ask my teacher. Future: She’ll answer If I ask her. / Notice that comma(,) after the if-clause when if-clause comes first. /


You can use modal verbs (can, should, etc.)

in the main clause. John can ask for help if he needs it. If John needs help, he can ask for it. (present) (modal) (Does he or will he need help? We don’t know.)


You can use will (-’ll) in the main clause when you are talking about a condition in the future. But you should not use will in the if-clause. If John needs help, he can ask for it. John will ask for help if he needs it. (future) (present) (Will he need help? We don’t know.)


The if-clause can have the simple past tense for real past meaning, but this is not very common. John asked for help if he needed it. If John needed help, he asked for it. (He asked any time he needed help. or If he needed help, he probably asked for it.)


Real Conditions

Now you can try all the kinds of conditions Real present/ future: If he’s ready, he’ll go. past: If he was ready, he went.Hypothetical present/future: If he were, he’d go. If he’d been ready, he would have gone.


If-clause main clauseIf …. (present)…. , …..(future/will).

…. (modal).…. (present).

If ….. (past) ….. , …. (past).

Present / Future Hypothetical

Conditions Some present / future hypothetical conditions are not impossible but are unlikely, improbable, or doubtful. If I had time, I would go tomorrow. (Past form ‘had’ in the if-clause for future time.) I’m not sure, but I probably won’t have time.


Just as real will becomes hypothetical would, real can becomes could:

Real: I can go If I want to. Hypothetical: I could go if I wanted to. (Maybe I don’t want to go tomorrow, or maybe it is just very doubtful.) Hypothetical: I could fly if I had wings. (It’s not doubtful. It is quite impossible)


We have just seen could in present / future hypothetical main clauses: You could swim now if you knew how (but you don’t know how). Could is used in hypothetical if-clause too; would, like will, normally is not.


We’d be happy if we could see the result of all this (but we can’t). The verb be has a special hypothetical form, were.Present/Future Real: If he’s there now, he’ll see her. (he can see her). Hypothetical: If he were there now, he would/could see her.


Use this chart to help you if you have

trouble:


If-clause Main clause

If (past tense verb)

If …. couldIf …. were

wouldcouldmight

Past Hypothetical Conditions The verb in a past hypothetical condition looks like a past perfect , and the verb in the main clause has would/could + have + a past participle: If I had wanted to, I would have gone. (But I did not want to go, so I didn’t.) If I had had wings, I could have flown. (I did not have wings, so I couldn’t fly.) Past hypothetical conditions are all

contrary to fact or impossible.Lecturer Ts.Dagiimaa Ph.D 308

In past hypothetical conditions, as in the past perfect, the auxiliary verb had is often contracted to ’d: If I’d wanted to, I would have gone. (If I had wanted to, …) Don’t confuse this with ‘d for would in present / future hypothetical sentences: If I wanted to, I’d go. ( …. I would go.)


You will remember that could can be used in present / future hypothetical if-clauses: I’d be glad if I could learn all this. Similarly, could have is used in past hypothetical if-clauses: I would have been glad if I could have learned all that.


Use the following chart if you have difficulty.


If-clause Main clause

If …. (past perfect) If …. could have + (past participle)

would have could have might have

Morphology lecture

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