morfo inglesa 2

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Morfossintaxe e seMântica da Língua ingLesa

Unit IIWelcome to Unit II.

We have studied on Unit I almost all the principle verb tenses in English. We are going to continue our studies, but remember that learning a language is a gradual processs – it does not happen immediately. Make learning a habit. It is much better to study (or read, or listen to English news, etc.) 15 minutes each day than to study for 2 hours once a week. If you study every day English will be constantly in your head. If you study once a week, English will not be as present in your mind as it should be.

Let’s start our studies.

5 Past Perfect tense

The past perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the “past in the past”.

In this lesson we are going to look at:

• How we make the past perfect tense;

• How we use the past perfect tense.

The past perfect tense is often used in English when we are relating two events which happened in the past. It helps to show which event happened first.

The structure of the past perfect tense is:

Chart 30

Subject Auxiliary verb HAVE (simple past) Main verb

had past participle

WeI

hadhad

workedbroken

Chart 31

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I had worked. I hadn’t worked. Had I worked?

You had worked. You hadn’t worked. Had you worked?

He, she, it had worked. He hadn’t worked. Had she worked?

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We had worked. We hadn’t worked. Had we worked?

You had worked. You hadn’t worked. Had you worked?

They had worked. They hadn’t worked. Had they worked?

When speaking with the past perfect tense, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb:

Chart 32

I had I’d

you had you’d

he had

she had

it had

he’d

she’d

it’d

we had we’d

they had they’d

The ‘d contraction is also used for the auxiliary verb would. For example, we’d can mean:

• We had

Or

• We would

But usually the main verb is in a different form, for example:

• We had arrived (past participle)

• We would arrive (base)

It is always clear from the context.

5.1 Using the past perfect

The past perfect is used to show you which of two events happened first. Imagine that two things happened in the past:

Chart 33

I was ill.

I ate too much chocolate.

Here, we don’t know which order the events happened in. That may be important — perhaps I was ill after eating too much chocolate, or maybe I was ill before eating too much chocolate.

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There are many ways to make this sequence clear, and the past perfect is one of them. This is how we do it:

Chart 34

I was ill after I had eaten too much chocolate.

Here, we KNOW that the FIRST I ate too much chocolate — even though the sentence describing it comes afterwards. I ate too much chocolate, and THEN I got ill. This can be very useful when you are telling a story or relating a sequence of events. At any point in your story, you can jump BACK to a previous event, and your reader will not be confused, because the past perfect will make it clear that the event happened previously. Here is another example:

Chart 35

I saw a bird in my garden. I went to get my camera. The bird flew away. I returned with my camera.

We need the past perfect to make it clear that one of the events is not in order.

I saw a bird in my garden so I went to get my camera. When I returned with my camera, the bird

had flown away.

(The bird went before I returned.)

We use the past perfect tense fairly often in English.

1. A completed action before something else in the past.

When the firemen arrived, we had already put the fire down. (= first we extinguished the fire, then later the firemen arrived).

2. To explain or give a reason for something in the past.

Jane arrived late as her car had broken down.

3. Stative verbs only: something that started in the past and continued up to another action in the past.

When he graduated, he had been in Stanford for five years.

(= he arrived in Stanford five years before he graduated and lived there continuously until he graduated, or even longer)

4. As part of the third conditional.

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If I had known you were ill, I would have visited you.

We often use the Past Perfect with:

• after, although, because, before, until, when, already, never, for and since.

When John telephoned I had already gone to bed.

He had not seen her for five years.

After John had seen the doctor, he felt better.

Jane received a gold medal because she had won the race.

5.2 Past perfect continuous tense

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past.

The structure of the past perfect continuous tense is:

Chart 36

Subject Auxiliary verb HAVE Auxiliary Verb BE Main Verb

had (simple past) past participle present participle (ing)

WeI

hadhad

beenbeen

workingplaying

For example:

• Julius started waiting at 8 a.m. I arrived at 12 a.m. When I arrived, Julius had been waiting for four hours.

• John was very tired. He had been training for the marathon.

• I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking.

• Had the pilot been drinking before the crash?

We often use the past perfect tense in reported speech after verbs like said, told, asked, thought, wondered:

Look at these examples:

• He told us that the train had left.

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• I thought I had met her before, but I was wrong.

• He explained that he had closed the window because of the rain.

• I wondered if I had been there before.

• I asked them why they had not finished.

note

As you can see from the newspaper extracts above, you are already familiar with most of the verb forms used. That means that you can read the newspapers in English.

So, let’s get it started: try to read short reports every week, even if you don’t understand the whole message. You will see how quicker you are going to improve your reading skills.

for more information

If you want some more information, please read:

CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The grammar book. USA: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.

YULE, G. Oxford practice grammar advanced (w/ answers + CDROM). Oxford do Brasil, 2006.

6 If-cLaUses Or cOnDItIOnaL cLaUses

If Clauses are also known as Conditional Sentences or Conditional Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled.

There are 4 main types of conditional structures in English:

• Factual condition

• 1st type or Possible/ probable conditions

• 2nd type or improbable conditions

• 3rd type or impossible conditions

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6.1 factual conditions

Picture 25

1.Use present factual conditional sentences to talk about general truths and scientific facts.

The if clause talks about the condition, and the main clause talks about what happens if the condition occurs.

Use the simple present tense in both clauses.

If + verb [simple present] + verb [simple present]

If clause main clause

Example: If you heat butter, it melts.

If it is noon in San Diego, it’s 6 P.M. in Brazil.

2.You can also use present factual conditional sentences to talk about habits and recurring events (things that happen again and again).

Use the simple present tense or present progressive in the if clause. Use the simple present tense in the main clause.

If I am studying, I always close the door.

3.Use the imperative in the main clause to give instructions, commands, and invitations that depend on a certain condition.

If you see Mary, give her my phone number.

If the seat belt light is on, don’t leave your seat.

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If you come to Rio de Janeiro, stay in my house.

4.You can begin conditional sentences with the if clause or the main clause. The meaning is the same.

Use a comma between the two clauses only when the if clause comes first.

Stay in my house, if you come to Rio de Janeiro.

6.2 1th type - possible conditions or factual conditions

Picture 26 – “My parents get angry if I get home late.”

1. Use future factual conditional sentences to talk about what will happen under certain conditions. The if clauses states the condition. The main clause states the result.

Use the simple present tense in the if clause. Use the future with will or be going to in the main clause.

Pay attention: Even though the if clause refers to the future, use the simple present tense.

If + verb [simple present] + will + verb [infinitive]


Example: If I study, I will pass my exams.

2. You can begin conditional sentences with the if clause or the main clause. The meaning is the same.

Use comma between the two clauses only when the if clause comes first.

If I see Ann, I’ll invite her.

I’ll invite Ann if I see her.

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3. If and unless can both be used in conditional sentences, but their meanings are very different.

Use unless to state a negative condition. Unless often has the meaning as if … not.

We will go to the mountains on Saturday, unless it rains. (= if it doesn’t rain.)

Unless you pay for the ball, I’ll phone the police. (=If you don’t pay, …)

6.3 2nd type – improbable conditions or unreal conditions

Improbable or unreal conditions are the ones related to unreal, untrue, imagined, or impossible conditions.

The if clause presents the unreal condition. The result clause presents the unreal main of that condition.

1. Use the simple past tense in the if clause. Use would + base form of the verb in the main clause.

Pay attention

The if clause uses the simple past tense form, but the meaning is not past.

Don’t use would in the if clause in the present unreal condition sentences.

Use *were for all subjects when the verb in the if clause is a form of be.

(*) Sometimes you will hear native speakers use was in the if clause. However many people think that this is not correct.

If + verb [simple past] + would + verb [infinitive]


Example: If I studied, I would pass the exam.

2. You can begin conditional sentences with the if clause or the mainclause. The meaning is the same.


If I had more money, I would travel all over the world.

I would travel all over the world if I had more money.

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3. Statements beginning with If I were you, … are often used to give advice.

If I were you, I would study a little bit harder.

If I were you, I would read “The Lord of the Rings”.

6.4 3rd type – impossible conditions or unreal conditions

These are sentences to talk about past conditions and results that never happened.

The if clause presents the unreal condition. The main clause presents the imagined result of that condition.

1. Use the past perfect (had + past participle) in the if clause. Use would have + past participle in the main clause.

If + verb [past perfect] + would + have + verb [past participle]


Example: If I had studied, I would have passed.

2. You can begin conditional sentences with the if clause or the result clause. The meaning is the same.


If he had won the lottery, he would have bought that house.

He would have bought that house if he had won the lottery.

3. Past unreal conditionals are often used to express regret about what happened in the past.

If I had known that, I would have helped you. (I regret that I didn’t).



SINGLETON, K. Front line english grammar series – Conditionals. São Paulo: SBS, 2005.

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6.5 Wish

Picture 27 – “I wish I were thinner.”

Wish means want, but it is much more formal and much less common.

1. Use wish followed by a verb in the simple past tense to talk about things that you want to be true now but are not true, that we have regrets about the present situation.

Example: He wishes (that) he lived in Paris.

She wished (that) she could find a better job.

After wish, use were instead of was.

Example: I wish (that) I were rich.

2. Use wish followed by the past perfect to express regrets about events in the past.

Example: They wish they had chosen a different leader.

3. Use would after wish to express a desire for someone or something to act in a different way. This normally communicates a complaint or a regret.

Note: Do not use will after wish.

I wish you would cook dinner. You can prepare it marvelously.

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4. You can also use ‘wish’ with a noun to ‘offer good wishes’.

Example: I wish you all the best in your new job.

We wish you a merry Christmas.

7 PassIve vOIce

Verbs are also said to be either active (The mouse ate the cat.) or passive (The mouse was eaten by the cat.) in voice.

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known who or what is performing the action.

Example: My car was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my car was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes, not to be rude, a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, the focus is on the fact that a mistake was made, but we aren’t going to blame anyone (example: He/ She/You made a mistake.).

Have a look on the examples below: Are they being used in the active or passive voice?

Picture 28

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Active Voice: I’m sending your message.

We will switch off your computer in 1 minute.

Passive Voice: Your message is being sent.

Your message can’t be sent.

Your message has been sent.

Your computer will we switched off in 1 minute.

7.1 Passive verb formation

The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the “to be verb” with the past participle of the main verb.

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: An e-mail was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Chart 37 - Examples of Passive

Tense Subject Verb Object

Simple PresentActive: The secretary writes the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail is written by the secretary.

Simple PastActive: The secretary wrote the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail was written by the secretary.

Present PerfectActive: The secretary has written the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail has been written by the secretary.

Future Active: The secretary will write the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail will be written by the secretary.

Modal Active: The secretary can write the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail can be written by the secretary.

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Chart 38 - Examples of Passive

Tense Subject Verb Object

Present Progressive Active: The secretary is writing the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail is being written by the secretary.

Past Progressive Active: The secretary was writing the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail was being written by the secretary.

Past Perfect Active: The secretary had written the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail had been written by the secretary.

Future Active: The secretary will have written the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail will have been written by the secretary.

Conditional I Active: The secretary would write the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail would be written by the secretary.

Conditional II Active: The secretary would have written the e-mail.

Passive: The e-mail would have been written by the secretary.

7.2 Passive sentences with by

We are normally not interested in the person who did the action in a passive sentence. When we want to mention the “person”, we use the preposition by. The whole phrase is called by-agent in English.

Chart 39

Active sentence Passive sentence

Jones built the house. The house was built by Jones.

When we do not know, who was the person who did the action, we use someone or somebody in the active sentence. We leave out these words in the passive sentence.

Chart 40


Someone stole my car. My car was stolen.

7.3 active sentences with two objects in passive

When there are two objects in an active sentence, there are two possible active sentences and two possible passive sentences.

Possibility 1: The man gave Barbara a necklace.

Possibility 2: The man gave a necklace to Barbara.

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There are two objects in each of the following sentences:

object 1 = indirect object: the students

object 2 = direct object: the exercise

An indirect object is very often a person, a direct object a thing. When a direct object is followed by an indirect one, we put to in front of the indirect object.

Chart 41

active sentence - possibility 1subject verb indirect object direct objectThe man gave Barbara a necklace.

active sentence - possibility 2subject verb direct object indirect objectThe man gave a necklace to Barbara.

Each of the objects (direct and indirect) can be the subject in the passive sentence.

Chart 42

passive sentence - possibility 1

subject verb object (by-agent)

Barbara was given a necklace (by the man).

passive sentence - possibility 2

subject verb object (by-agent)

A necklace was given to Barbara (by the man).

7.4 Personal passive

When we put an object of an active sentence into passive, it becomes subject of the passive sentence.

Active voice:

The man gave Barbara a necklace.

The man gave a necklace to Barbara.

Passive voice:

Barbara was given a necklace by the man.

A necklace was given to Barbara by the man.

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We sometimes use a pronoun for “a necklace” or “Barbara” in its subject form (here: it/she).

Passive voice:

She was given a necklace.

It was given to her.

We very often leave out the by-agent in the passive sentence (here: by the man).

7.5 verbs with prepositions in passive

When we put an active sentence, where a preposition follows after the verb (e.g. look after), into passive - the preposition remains immediately after the verb.

Chart 43


She is looking after the baby. The baby is being looked after.

7.6 Impersonal passive - it is said ...

The phrase It is said ... is an impersonal passive construction. We often use it in news.

Passive sentence - version 1:

It is said that there is life in Mars.

They say that the planet is in danger.

It is said that the planet is in danger.

This type of passive is called impersonal because we use the impersonal form “it is...” This is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. believe, consider,find, know, report, say, think, understand …).

Examples:

• It is said that...

• It is thought that...

• It is believed that...

• It is known that...

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It is also common that we start the passive form of these sentences with the subject of the that-clause:

Examples:

They say that the planet is in danger. = The planet is said to be in danger.

They think that women live longer than men. = Women are thought to live longer.

7.7 the passive causative

Look at the pictures below.

Picture 29 – The girl cut her hair. Picture 30 – The girl had her hair cut.

On the first picture

The girl cut her own hair.

The girl went to a hair salon.

Answer:

The girl cut her own hair.

When you get somebody else to do something for you use Causative verbs show that somebody/something is indirectly responsible for an action. The subject doesn’t perform the action itself, but causes someone/something else to do it instead.

For example:

Yesterday I had my hair cut. = I didn’t cut my own hair, but I made someone else do it for me instead - I “caused” them to cut my hair.

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Have

Have is a common causative verb. Instead of doing something ourselves, we “have” someone else do it instead. It has the following form:

The verb “to have” + object + past participle. For example:

- I had my jacket cleaned yesterday.

- Did you have your computer fixed?

Get

Get is often used instead of have.

For example:

- I got my computer fixed - I had my computer fixed. These two sentences mean the same thing.

- I got my jacket cleaned. - I had my jacket cleaned. These two sentences mean the same thing.

Chart 44

Statements

Subject Have/Get Object Past Participle (by + agent)

I had my jacket cleaned.

She had her hair cut by Ross.

I got my nails done by Shirley yesterday.

We are going to get our house painted.

Yes/No questions

Auxiliary Verb Subject have/get Object Past Participle (by agent)

Did you have your computer fixed?

Has he had his beard trimmed lately?

Is she going to have her ears pierced? by John?

Will they have their window repaired?

Causative verbs are often used with negative experiences. In these situations it’s more common to use have.

For example:

• I had my wallet stolen. (I didn’t actually cause my wallet to be stolen - someone stole my wallet from me)

• She had her window smashed.

• I got my nose broken playing basketball.

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Sometimes we use have as a causative verb when we intend to perform the action ourselves.

For example:

• When will the report be ready? I’ll do it by tomorrow morning.

• When will the report be ready? I’ll have it done by tomorrow morning.

By using the causative the second sentence takes attention away from the one who does the action, and gives more attention to the action being done. It sounds polite and professional.

Use by when it’s necessary to mention the person doing the service (the agent). Do not mention the agent unnecessarily.


For more information on Causative verbs see:

<http://my.netian.com/~scorpius/englishgrammar/verb/causative.htm>

<http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/verbs.htm#causative>

<http://www.englishpage.com/minitutorials/let.html>

7.8 reported speech

When do we use reported speech?

Picture 31

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Sometimes someone says a sentence, for example “I’m leaving tonight”. Later, maybe we want to tell someone else what the first person said.

We use a ‘reporting verb’ like ‘say’ or ‘tell’. If this verb is in the present tense, it’s easy. We just put ‘she says’ and then the sentence:

• direct speech: “I like the t-shirt.”

• reported speech: She says she likes the t-shirt.

We don’t need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change the ‘person’ from ‘I’ to ‘she’, for example. We also may need to change words like ‘my’ and ‘your’.

But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the tenses in the reported speech:

• direct speech: “I like the t-shirt.”

• reported speech: She said she liked the t-shirt.

Chart 45

Change of tenses

from to

Simple Present Simple Past

Simple Past

Past PerfectPresent Perfect

Past Perfect

will would

Progressive forms

am/are/is was/were

was/were

had beenhas been

had been

Chart 46

Change of tenses

from to

Peter said, “I study hard.” Peter said that he worked in the garden.

Peter said, “I studied hard.”

Peter said that he had worked in the garden.Peter said, “I have studied hard.”

Peter said, “I had studied hard.”

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Peter said, “I will study hard.” Peter said that he would work in the garden.

Peter said, “I can study hard.” Peter said that he could work in the garden.

Peter said, “I may study hard.” Peter said that he might work in the garden.

Peter said, “I would study hard.”(could, might, should, ought to)

Peter said that he would work in the garden.(could, might, should, ought to)

Progressive forms

Peter said, “I am studying hard.” Peter said that he was working in the garden.

Peter said, “I was studying hard.”Peter said that he had been working in the garden.Peter said, “I have been studying hard.”

Peter said, “I had been studying hard.”

• If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.

Peter: “I worked in the garden yesterday.”

Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.

Certain expressions must change in the reported form of speech:

Chart 47

this that

these those

here there

tomorrow the following day orthe next day

next month month or the followingthe next month

today that day

tonight that night

yesterday the day before orthe previous day

last year the year before orthe previous year

last night the night before orthe previous night

*now then

*The word now does not have to change, but it can change to then. Most native English speakers don’t change now.

He said, “I wasn’t feeling very well yesterday, but now I’m all right.”

He said that he hadn’t been feeling well the day before but that now he was all right.

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He said that he hadn’t been feeling well the day before but that then he was all right.

Pronouns, possessives and demonstratives

The changes required in pronouns, possessive adjectives and demonstratives are as follows:

Chart 48

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

I he, she

me him, her

mine his, hers

we they

us them

our their

you they/them

you their

yours theirs

this that

these those

If the direct speech was in the present tense, the reported speech must be in the past tense:

• She said, “I am tired and also hungry.”

• She said that she was tired and also hungry.

If the direct speech was in the past tense, the reported speech must be in the past perfect:

• (the “past before a past” form, had + past participle):

• He said, “I was feeling pain when I fell down the stairs.”

• He said that he had been feeling pain when he had fallen down the stairs.

Some x-words change from direct to reported speech:

can/could I asked him, “Can I see your passport?”

I asked him if I could see his passport.

shall/should She asked, “Shall I call you later?”

She asked if she should call me later.

will/would He told them, “I’ll help you tomorrow.”

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He told them that he would help them the following day.

may/might She said, “I may work tonight.”

She said that she might work that night.

must/had to He said, “I must see a dentist soon.”

He said that he had to see a dentist soon.

Some verbs and verb combinations have no change in the reported form. Don’t change the past perfect (had + p.p.), the unreal (present or past), or any combination with could, should, would, or might.

past perfect She said, “My mother had already died before I got married.”

He said that her mother had already died before she had got married.

present He said, “I would help the homeless if I were mayor.”

unreal He said that he would help the homeless if he were mayor.

past She said, “I would have helped you if I had known it.”

unreal She said that she would have helped the answer if she had known it.

could I said, “I could run faster when I was young.”

He said that he could run faster when he had been young.

should He said, “You should get married.”

He said that I should get married.

should have She said, “I should have worn a better dress yesterday.”

She said that she should have worn a better dress the day before.

might I said, “I might go to the San Francisco.”

I said that I might go to San Francisco.

Occasionally, we don’t need to change the present tense into the past if the information in direct speech is still true (but this is only for things which are general facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense):

• direct speech: The sky is blue.

• reported speech: She said that the sky is/was blue.

• direct speech: “The sun rises in the East.”

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The teacher said that the sun rose in the East. or

The teacher said that the sun rises in the East.

Okay, so now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and negative sentences.

But how about questions?

• direct speech: “Where do you live?”

How can we make the reported speech here?

In fact, it’s not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is that, once we tell the question to someone else, it isn’t a question any more. So we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence. Confused? Sorry, maybe this example will help:

So, to look again at the example:

• direct speech: “Where do you study?”

• She asked me where I studied.

Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense. We make a present simple question with ‘do’ or ‘does’ so I need to take that away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple.

How about another example:

• direct speech: “where is Robert?”

• She asked me where Robert was.

The direct question is the present simple of ‘be’. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into the past simple.

Here are some more examples:

The direct question is the present simple of ‘be’. We make the question form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into the past simple.

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Here are some more examples:

Chart 49

Direct Question Reported Question

“Where is the hospital, please?” She asked me where the hospital was.

“What are you doing?” She asked me what I was doing.

“Who was that handsome man?” She asked me who that handsome had been.

So much for ‘wh’ questions. But, what if you need to report a ‘yes / no’ question? We don’t have any question word to help us. It’s easy, instead use ‘if’:

• Direct speech: “Do you like chocolate?”

• She asked me if I liked chocolate.

No problem? Here are a few more examples:

Chart 50

Direct Question Reported Question

“Do you love me?” He asked me if I loved him.

“Have you ever been to Disneyworld?” She asked me if I had ever been to Disneyworld.

“Are you living here?” She asked me if I was living here.

The normal form for asking a direct question is

Chart 51

Question word Auxiliary verb subject verb

Where is your father working today?

Why do you talk so much?

How much does this t-shirt cost?

Have you seen my glasses?

In reported speech, a question is reported like this.

1. A question with is changes to was.

2. A question with are changes to was/were.

3. A question with do changes to the simple past.

4. A question with does changes to the simple past.

5. A question with did changes to the past perfect (had + past participle).

6. The present perfect also changes to the past perfect.

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7. There are no commas and no question marks in reported questions.

Here are the reported speech forms of the questions above:

Chart 52

Question word Auxiliary verb subject verb

She asked me where your father was working that day.

She asked me why you talked so much.

She asked me how much this t-shirt cost.

She asked me if I had seen her sunglasses.

note

You never use that when reporting a question!

You never use a question mark (?) when reporting a question!

7.9 reported requests

There’s more! What if someone asks you to do something (in a polite way)? For example:

• direct speech: “Close the door, please”

• or: “Could you close the door please?”

• or: “Would you mind closing the door please?”

All of these requests mean the same thing, so we don’t need to report every word when we tell another person about it. We simply use ‘ask me + to + infinitive’:

• reported speech: She asked me to close the door.

Here are a few more examples:

Chart 53

Direct Request Reported Request

“Please help me.” She asked me to help her.

“Please don’t smoke.” She asked me not to smoke.

“Could you bring my book tonight?” She asked me to bring her book that night.

“Could you pass the salt, please?” She asked me to pass the salt.

“Would you mind coming early tomorrow?” She asked me to come early the next day.

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To report a negative request, use ‘not’:

• Direct speech: “Please don’t be late”

• Reported speech: She asked us not to be late.

7.10 reported orders

And finally, how about if someone doesn’t ask so politely? We can call this an ‘order’ in English, when someone tells you very directly to do something. For example:

• Direct speech: “Sit down!”

In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We just use ‘tell’ instead of ‘ask’:

• Reported speech: She told me to sit down

Chart 54

Direct Order Reported Order

“Go to bed!” He told the child to go to bed.

“Don’t worry!” He told her not to worry.

“Be on time!” He told me to be on time.

“Don’t smoke here!” He told us not to smoke there.



SINGLETON, K. Front line English grammar series – Reported Speech – segunda edição. São Paulo: SBS, 2003.

7.11 Writing

Do you know what a paragraph is?

A Paragraph is a group of sentences that work together to explain or support one main idea, which is often stated in the first sentence. The rest of the paragraph contains enough sentences to develop the main idea.

A topic sentence is usually the first sentence in a paragraph and introduces its subject. It is a general statement that is interesting enough to capture the reader’s interest but narrow enough in

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scope to be developed in one paragraph. All of the sentences in a unified paragraph relate directly to the topic sentence.

When we begin to write, we need to think of ideas to write about. There are four ways to help us to get ideas to write.

1. Brainstorming: to write every idea that is in your head (brain). You can write all the ideas and all the words you can think of about a topic. You should never say “ This idea isn’t a good idea”. When you are brainstorming, all ideas are good ideas.

You do not write complete sentences when you brainstorm. You just write words or phrases. Write all the things that you think of.

Let’s see an example of a brainstorming related to the topic Daily Routine:

Chart 55

have breakfast finish work get dressed get to work get up go to bed start work sleep get home watch TV have dinner go to school

2. Clustering: means putting words into groups. Each group, or cluster, has a number of words that are related to each other. Clustering is similar to brainstorming. You try to think of many words and phrases. When you make a cluster map, you write the words and phrases in groups.

a) Write the topic in the centre of your page, inside a circle.

Daily Routine

Picture 32

b) Write general ideas about the topic around the circle.

Daily Routine

Home Work

Picture 33

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c) Write more ideas about each general idea.

Daily Routine

Home Work

Get to workStart work

Wake up / get upHave lunch

sleep

Picture 34

d) Continue until you think of no more ideas.

3. Making lists – when you make a list, you try to think of ideas in an organized way.

Here is an example of two lists about daily routine:

Chart 56

Actions Places

Wake upGet upShower

Get dressedEat breakfastBrush teethTake the busBuy coffee

BedroomBathroomKitchenWork

SchoolLiving Room

4. Asking questions – Asking yourself questions is a good way to get new ideas. When you answer these questions, you think of ideas.

Here is an example of some questions about daily routine:

When do I get up?

What do I do in the morning?

When do I go to work?

Where do I have lunch?

What do I do at work?

When do I go home from work?

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What do I do after work/school?

What do I do in the evening?

Planning

Before you write a paragraph, you have to organize all the ideas you thought of in the pre-writing stage. You can organize the ideas using the time order or/and space order.

Time Order

Time order means putting your ideas in the order in which they happened. When you are writing about a past event you need to use time order. You begin with the first thing that happened, then tell the second thing that happened, and then the third thing.

Space Order

Space order means writing about objects in the order of where they are located. When you are writing a description of how something looks, or how to go somewhere, you need to use space order.

Drafting

In the first or rough draft, you take your ideas and write them in sentences in an organized way. It won’t be perfect, because your aim here is to write. Don’t worry with spelling mistakes or grammar problems. They will be corrected on the second draft.

When you finish the first draft, you can improve the writing. You can reorganize the sentences and add or remove information. You can correct mistakes.

Revising & Editing

After you have written a first draft, you need to read it again. You will see some errors and some sentences that need to be changed. Revising means changing and editing means correcting. The second draft is where you make changes in your writing and where you correct your mistakes. After you have made the changes and corrections, you will have your final draft.

8 LInKInG WOrDs / cOnJUnctIOns

A conjunction is a joiner, a word that connects (conjoins) parts of a sentence.

• Coordinate conjunctions may express:

• Addition = and

• Listing = and

• Contrast = but

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• Alternative = either...or / or

• Negative = neither...nor

Chart 57

Conjunction Conjunction in correlation Function

And Both…and Addition

Not only…but also Addition

Or Either…or Alternative

Nor Neither…nor Negative

Sally and Peter are going to the movies tonight. [addition]Not only Sally but also Peter are going to the movies tonight. [addition]

Sally is going to the movies but Pamela isn´t. [contrast]Either Sally or Peter is going to the movies. [alternative]

Subordinate conjunctions, however, connect the main clause to a subordinate clause. There are many kinds of subordinate conjunctions:

• time;

• place;

• contrast;

• reason;

• result;

• purpose.

Let´s have a look at some conjunctions in the chart below:

Chart 58

Conjunction Function Meaning

When Time Quando

While Time Enquanto

As Time Enquanto

Before Time Antes

After Time Após, depois

Until Time Até

Since Time Desde

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Where Place Onde

Wherever Place Onde quer que

Although Contrast Apesar de que

Even though Contrast Mesmo que, apesar de que

Though Contrast Apesar de, no entanto

While Contrast Enquanto que

Whereas Contrast Enquanto que

However Contrast Entretanto

Despite Contrast A despeito de

Because Reason Porque

As Reason Como

Since Reason Visto que

Therefore Result Portanto

So Result Então

As a result Result Assim, portanto

In order to Purpose A fim de, para

So as to Purpose A fim de

So that Purpose Para que

Some of the main features and rules about usage of the common subordinate conjunctions are exemplified and classified according to their function and meaning:

Category 1

Time: when/ as/ while

When I was studying the telephone rang.

As I was getting home last night I heard a strange noise.

I often listen to the radio while I am having a shower.

Note that progressive forms are used after conjunctions when one wants to express long time range actions!

When one wants to express actions which happens one after another we can use:

• when;

• after;

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• as soon as;

• before.

Examples

When I had finished breakfast I went to work.

I´ll phone you as soon as I get home

The plane had left before they arrived at the airport.

After she left school, she started working in a hospital.

Note that in some contexts when can have the same meanings of while / as / before / after.

When/While/As we were watching TV the telephone rang twice.

When/ After he left school, he started working as a bank clerk.

The plane had landed when/before he got to the airport.

Usamos as conjunções until e till quando queremos dizer até o momento em que.

Example

We waited until he arrived.

Category 2

Contrast: although, even though, despite, while, whereas, however

We can use although and even though to introduce a contrast and after them we can use a clause with subject and verb.

Even though is more emphatic than although!

Although / Even though he doesn´t like his job, he works hard every day.

We can also use though instead of although in more informal style and despite, if used before a verb, needs a special construction = [despite + V+ ing].

Though I was late I didn´t hurry!

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I was late. I didn´t hurry though!

Despite being late I didn´t hurry

Despite can also come before nouns or noun phrases

Example

Despite the rain I went for a walk in the park. While / Whereas can introduce a contrast between two ideas!

He is quite shy while / whereas his sister is lively and talkative!

We can also introduce contrast ideas by using however [which tends to come in between comas].

Examples

She said she doesn´t like sports, however, she goes jogging twice a week!

He promised he wouldn´t go without asking for permission. However, he woke up and left and didn´t say goodbye.

Category 3

Reason: because, because of, since, as

We use because [porque] before a clause, with a subject and verb.

We use because of [devido a] before a noun.

Examples

She ran to the airport because she was late

She arrived late because of the traffic.

Note that as /since may be used with the sense of ‘because’.

But pay attention to the difference of structures!

As / Since

Often come at the beginning of a sentence.

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Because

Used before a clause.

Examples

As we were late, we took the subway.

Since we were late, we took the subway.

We took the subway because we were late.

As it was raining, we didn´t go out.

Since it was raining, we didn´t go out.

Because it was raining, we didn´t go out.

We can use so/ therefore/ as a result to introduce the result of something.

Examples

He was late [and] so he ran to the station.

It was raining hard and as a result we stayed home that evening.

I failed my test last year. Therefore I took it again this year.

Category 4

Purpose = to, in order to, so that

We use to + infinitive of the verb to talk about a person´s purpose = why someone does something.

In a more formal style we can use so as to or in order to.

Examples

I went to the Spain in order to learn Spanish.

She got up early so as to have plenty of time to finish her report.

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note

In negatives we use in order not to or so as not to.

Example

He woke up early so as not to be late for the meeting because he had an important business presentation.

We use for + Verb+ ing to talk about the purpose or function of a thing.

Examples

A thermometer is used for measuring the temperature.

Knives are used for cutting things.

We use telescopes for studying the stars.

note

So [that] is a very common conjunction used to express ‘purpose’. It is generally used in structures which have the following modal verbs in their VP [verb phrases]:

can/ can´t/ will/ won´t/ would/ could.

I gave you the key so [that] you could unlock the door.

He left early so [that] he wouldn´t arrive late!

The conjunction ‘in case’ is specially used to express ‘reason’, ‘purpose’ and carries the meaning of ‘promptness’ or ‘reasonable certainty’ since the action might happen. In other words, it may express the meaning of the possibility of that action:

I wrote down the telephone number in case you forget.

We took some food in case we got hungry during the journey.

Take an umbrella with you in case it rains!

Linking words

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Chart 59

additionagain, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too

comparison also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

concession granted, naturally, of course

contrastalthough, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

emphasis certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

example or

illustration

after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly

summaryall in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

time sequence

after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when

8.1 Phrasal verbs

Phrasal Verbs are part of the idiomaticity of the English language. Whatever is considered ‘idiomatic’ in English means that we have to learn as a whole, as a unit that just makes sense when learnt and memorized together and it is not to be broken into parts otherwise you will miss the meaning and you won´t be able to make sense of it!

Therefore we cannot separate the verb from the adverbial particle which follows it in order to make sense of the phrasal verb and to understand the expression as a whole, as a unit, as a chunk.

In this sense phrasal verbs differ from prepositional verbs because the latter have a form a unit of meaning which can be broken into parts to be understood, a feature that cannot be applied to phrasal verbs.

In case you have difficulty in memorizing the following lists of phrasal verbs it is advisable to try and do it step by step, one or two expressions a day but it is essential to have phrasal verbs in your vocabulary.

Pay attention

Remember that idiomaticy and conventionality are exactly the two areas that makes your English sound more like natural English!

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Check out the meanings of some prepositional verbs before we study the phrasal verbs jut for you to see how clear is the meaning of a prepositional verb: you just have to sum up the tow parts [verb + preposition] to get to the total meaning of the chunk:

Chart 60

Suspect of = suspeitar deApologize for = desculpar-se porSpecialise in = especializar-se emResult in = resultar emDerive from = derivar de

Insisit on = insistir emProtest against = protestar contraDeal with = lidar comArgue about = discutir sobre

8.2 Phrasal verbs – some lists

The following lists focus on multiple meaning, and other meanings of known phrasal verbs. Note that there may be other meanings for the verbs listed here and also remember: this is just a selection of some phrasal verbs. There are about other hundreds to be learnt!

note

This is a compilation of the most useful everyday phrasal verbs.

They were adapted from: KAY, Sue. Advanced Language Practice with key - English Grammar and Vocabulary. 3rd edition. Macmillan/Heinemann do Brasil, 2009.

Chart 61

Phrasal verb Meaning Example

Ask after Inquire about Jim was asking after you.

Back down Yield in an argument Sheila was right so Paul had to back down.

Break down Lose control of emotions David broke down and wept when he heard the bad news.

Bring on Cause the onset of an illness Sitting on the damp brought on his rheumatism.

Bring up Mention I feel I ought to bring on another small matter.

Carry out Complete a plan The attack was successfully carried out.

Come out Appear Look! the flowers have come out!

Come about Happen Let me explain how the situation came about.

Come up with Think of (an answer, a plan) We still haven´t come up with a solution to the problem.

Do away with Abolish [colloquial] Dog licenses have been done away with.

Drop in Pay a visit [colloquial] Drop in any time you are passing!

Drop off Fall asleep [colloquial] The baby has just drop off! Psiu!

Fall for Be deceived by [colloquial] It was an un likely story but he fell for it.

Feel up to Feel capable of doing Old Jimmy didn´t feel up to walking all day.

Fall through Fail to come through completion The plan fell through at the last minute.

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Chart 62


Get across Be understood – especially get an idea across I had the feeling I wasn´t getting across during the meeting.

Get down Make to feel depressed [colloquial] This cold weather really gets me down.

Get off with Avoid punishment They were lucky to get off with such light sentences.

get up to Do something usually bad The children are getting up to something in the garden.

Get on for Approach a certain age, time, number He must be getting on for seventy.

Give away Betray His false identity papers gave him away.

Give up Surrender The escaped prisoner gave herself up.

Give over Abandon, devote The rest of the time was given over to playing cards.

Go off Become bad, deteriorate [food] This milk has gone off.

Go round Be enough There weren´t enough life jackets to go on.

Grow on Become more liked [colloquial] This new record is growing on me.

Have it in for Be deliberately unkind to someone My teacher has got it in for me.

Have someone on Deceive [colloquially] I don´t believe you! You are having me on!

Hold out Offer, especially with hope We don’t hold out enough hope that the price will fall.

Hold up Delay Sorry, I was help up in the traffic.

Keep up Continue Well done! Keep up the good work!

Let down Disappoint, break a promise Sorry to let you down but I can´t give you a lift today.

Let in on Allow to be part of a secret We haven´t let Tina in on the plans yet.

Live up to Live an expected standard The play quite lived up to my expectations.

Chart 63


Look into Investigate The police have promised to look into the problem.

Look on Consider We look on this town as our real home.

Make for Result in The power steering makes for easier parking.

Make out Pretend Tim made out that he hadn´t seen the No Smoking sing.

Make out Manage to understand I couldn’t make out what our boss was saying at the meeting.

Miss out Fail to include You have missed out a word here.

Pack in Stop an activity [colloquial] Jim has packed in his job.

Pick up Improve [colloquial] The weather seems to be picking up.

Point out Draw attention to a fact I pointed out that I wouldn´t be able to participate anyway.

Pull off Manage to succeed It was a tricky plan but we pulled it off.

Put up Offer accomodation We can put you up for some days while you are having your house reformed.

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Put off Discourage, upset The crowd put the gymnast off and he fell.

Put up with Tolerate I can´t put up with all this noise!

Put oneself out Take trouble to help someone Please don´t put yourself out making a meal. A sandwich will do!

Run into Meet Guess who I ran into at the supermarket!

Run to Have enough money I don´t think we can run to a holiday abroad this year.

Run over/ run through Check Let´s run over the plan once more!

Run up against Encounter, usually something unpleasant

We have run up against a slight problem.

Chart 64


See someone off Go to the station, airport to say goodbye I went to the airport to see them off.

See through Realize the truth about I saw through his intentions at once.

Set about Start working We must set about re-organizing the office.

Set in Establish itself I think this rain has set in for the day.

Set out Give in detail in writing This document sets out all the information necessary.

Set up Establish An inquiry into the accident has been set up.

Slip up Make a mistake [colloquial] Someone slipped up and my application form was lost.

Sort out Find a solution [colloquial] Don´t worry! You will sort out your problem soon.

Stand for Represent [initials] e.g stands for exempli gratia, it´s Latin.

Stand in for Take the place of Carol has kindly agreed to stand in for Greene while he is away.

Take in Deceive Don´t be taken in by her apparent shyness.

Stick up for Defend [especially your rights] You must learn to stick up for yourself.

Take off Imitate [colloquial] Dave takes off the prime Minster very well.

Take off Departure [planes] The plane had taken off when they arrived at the airport.

Take on Acquire a new characteristic She has taken off a new lease of life after her operation.

Take up [time] Occupy time The meeting took up the whole morning.

Take over Gain control of The army tried to take over the South American country.


If you want more information, please read:

Harrison, Jeremy. Front line English Grammar Series - Phrasal Verbs. São Paulo: SBS Editora, 2002.

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abstract

The past perfect simple expresses an action taking place before a certain time in the past.

Past Perfect Simple

Chart 65

Positive Negative Interrogative

no differences I had spoken. I had not spoken. Had I spoken?

For irregular verbs, use the past participle form (see list of irregular verbs, 3rd column). For regular verbs, just add ed.

Use of Past Perfect

Action taking place before a certain time in the past

(putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration)

Example: Before I came here, I had spoken to Jack.

Conditional Sentences Type III (condition that was not given in the past)

Example: If I had seen him, I would have talked to him.

Signal Words

Already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present)

Conditional Sentences

Chart 66

Condition If clause Main clause

Certainty If +simple present Simple present

If you go under water, the pressure increases.

Probable If +simple present Simple future imperative

If Bob studies, he will pass the exam.

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Improbable If + simple past Simple conditional

If Bob studied, he would pass the exam.

Impossible If + past perfect Conditional perfect

If Bob had studied, he would have passed the exam.

Wish

1. We use ‘wish’ + past simple to express that we want a situation in the present (or future) to be different.

I wish I had a big car. (I don’t have a big car.)

I wish I were on a beach. (I’m in the office.)

Wishes about the past

2.We use ‘wish’ + past perfect to express a regret, or that we want a situation in the past to be different.

I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (I ate a lot.)

I wish they’d come on holiday with us. (They didn’t come on holiday with us.)

Passive - Use

We only use the passive when we are interested in the object or when we do not know who caused the action.

Example: Houses are sold here.

We can only form a passive sentence from an active sentence when there is an object in the active sentence.

Form

to be + past participle

How to form a passive sentence when an active sentence is given:

- object of the “active” sentence becomes subject in the “passive” sentence

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- subject of the “active” sentence becomes “object” in the “passive” sentence” (or is left out)

Chart 67

Active: Peter sells houses.

Passive: Houses are sold by Peter.

Examples

Chart 68

Active: Peter sells houses.

Simple Present

Passive: Houses are sold by Peter.

Chart 69

Active: Peter sold houses.

Simple Past

Passive: Houses were sold by Peter.

Chart 70

Active: Peter has sold a house.

Present Perfect

Passive: A house has been sold by Peter.

Chart 71

Active: Peter will sell a house.

will-future

Passive: A house will be sold by Peter.

Chart 72

Active: Peter can sell a house.

Modals

Passive: A house can be sold by Peter.

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Causative Form

Rule: Have + Object + Past Participle

This structure is used to describe when someone does something to you.

Examples:

Becky/ is testing/ eyes - Becky is having her eyes tested.

Ben/ has painted/ face - Ben has had is face painted.

Pay attention:

You must pay attention to tense you are in, as this influences the tense of the sentence you’re writing with the causative form.

Present Simple: She cuts her hair - She has her hair cut.

Pres. Cont.: She is cutting her hair - She is having her hair cut.

Past Simple: She cut her hair - She had her hair cut.

Past Cont.: She was cutting her hair - She was having her hair cut.

Future Simple: She will cut her hair - She will have her hair cut.

Present Perfect: She has cut her hair - She has had her hair cut.

Pres. Perf. Cont.: She has been cutting her hair - She has been having her hair cut.

Reported Speech

Statements

1) If the sentence starts in the present, there is no backshift of tenses in Reported speech.

Example: Susan: “I work in an office.” Susan says that she works in an office.

2) If the sentence starts in the past, there is often backshift of tenses in Reported speech. (see: Note)

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Example: Susan: “I work in an office.” Susan said that she worked in an office.

Chart 73

Change of tenses

from to

Simple Present Simple Past

Simple Past

Past PerfectPresent Perfect

Past Perfect

will would

Progressive forms

am/are/is was/were

was/were

had beenhas been

had been

Chart 74

Change of tenses

from to

Peter said, “I study hard.” Peter said that he worked in the garden.

Peter said, “I studied hard.”

Peter said that he had worked in the garden.Peter said, “I have studied hard.”

Peter said, “I had studied hard.”

Peter said, “I will study hard.” Peter said that he would work in the garden.

Peter said, “I can study hard.” Peter said that he could work in the garden.

Peter said, “I may study hard.” Peter said that he might work in the garden.

Peter said, “I would study hard.”

(could, might, should, ought to)

Peter said that he would work in the garden.

(could, might, should, ought to)

Progressive forms

Peter said, “I am studying hard.” Peter said that he was working in the garden.

Peter said, “I was studying hard.”Peter said that he had been working in the garden.Peter said, “I have been studying hard.”

Peter said, “I had been studying hard.”

If the sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it as well.

Peter: “I worked in the garden yesterday.”

Peter said that he had worked in the garden the day before.

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Chart 75

this that

these those

here there

tomorrow the following day orthe next day

next month month or the followingthe next month

today that day

tonight that night

yesterday the day before orthe previous day

last year the year before orthe previous year

last night the night before orthe previous night

*now then

Pay attention:

In some cases the backshift of tenses is not necessary, e.g. when statements are still true.

John: “My sister is at Michigan university.”

John said that his sister was at Michigan university. or

John said that his sister is at Michigan university.

or

Carol: “The sun rises in the East.”

Carol said that the sun rose in the East. or

Mandy said that the sun rises in the East.

Reported questions

If you put a question into Reported speech there are some steps which are the same like in statements: (changing of the person, backshift of tenses, changing of expressions of time).

In Reported speech there is no question anymore, the sentence becomes a statement.

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That’s why the word order is: subject - verb

Question without question words (yes/no questions):

Peter: “Do you play football?” - Peter asked me whether (if) I played football.

Question with question words:

Peter: “When do you play football?” - Peter asked me when I played football.

Reported commands

If you put a command into Reported speech there are some steps which are the same like in statements: (changing of the person, backshift of tenses, changing of expressions of time).

The form is mostly: form of to tell + to + infinitive.

Chart 76

Affirmative commands Negative commands

Father: “Do your homework.” Teacher. “Don’t talk to your classmates.”

Father told me to do my homework.

The teacher told me not to talk to my classmates.

exercises

Question 1. Choose the best answer:

John is a hard-working student. If he studies hard, he...

a) will to pass all his school exams.

b) will passed all his school exams.

c) will pass all his school exams.

d) would pass all his school exams.

e) would have pass all his school exams.

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Answer: C

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

If Clause = if + present, future . Will without to.

b) Wrong answer:

If Clause = if + present, future. = will pass

c) Correct answer:

If Clause = if + present, future.

d) Wrong answer:

If Clause = if + present, future, not conditional.

e) Wrong answer:

If Clause = if + present, future, not conditional.


I don’t have anything to eat.

a) I wish I had more time.

b) I wish I understood it better.

c) I wish I had some cookies.

d) I wish I knew more people.

e) I wish I knew something about cars.

Answer: C

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

The idea that completes the sentence is wrong.

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b) Wrong answer:


c) Correct answer:

Use wish followed by a verb in the simple past tense to talk about things that you want to be true now but are not true, that we have regrets about the present situation.

d) Wrong answer:


e) Wrong answer:



We made mistakes.

a) Mistakes was made.

b) Mistakes are made.

c) Mistakes had been made.

d) Mistakes were made.

e) Mistakes is made.

Answer: D

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

Mistakes is written in the plural form, so we have to use “were”.

b) Wrong answer:

The sentence in the active voice is in the past form.

c) Wrong answer:

The sentence in the active voice is in the past form.

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d) Correct answer:

The sentence in the active voice is in the past form, so the verb is ‘were”.

e) Wrong answer:

Mistakes is plural and the sentence in the active voice is in the past tense.

Question 4. The alternative which is correct in the Reported Speech is:

a) The teacher told the children don’t open the door.

b) The teacher told the children no open the door.

c) The teacher told the children that they not open the door.

d) The teacher told the children that they open not the door.

e) The teacher told the children not to open the door.

Answer: E

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

In reported orders we have to use not to.

b) Wrong answer:


c) Wrong answer:

In reported orders we don’t use that and the subject.

d) Wrong answer:

The order of the words are wrong and we don’t use that and the subject.

e) Correct answer:


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Our plane _________ an hour late because of the fog.(=departure)

a) took off

b) packed in

c) fell for

d) looked for

e) ran into

Answer: A

Explanation:

a) Correct answer:

took off = Departure [planes]

b) Wrong answer:

pack in = Stop an activity.

c) Wrong answer:

Fall for = Be deceived by.

d) Wrong answer:

Look for = seek

e) Wrong answer:

Ran into = meet

Question 6. Choose the answer that completes the sentence.

We’re going to have to __________ the advertising campaign if we can’t get any TV or radio time.

a) make out

b) call off

c) drop off

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d) drop in

e) come about

Answer: B

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

Make out means pretend.

b) Correct answer:

Call off means to cancel.

c) Wrong answer:

Drop off means fall asleep

d) Wrong answer:

Drop in means pay a visit.

e) Wrong answer:

Come about means happen.

Question 7. I did not go to the show ________ I had already seen it.

a) until

b) because

c) so

d) but

e) although

Answer: B

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

Until indicates time.

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b) Correct answer:

Because indicates reason.

c) Wrong answer:

So indicates result.

d) Wrong answer:

But indicates contrast.

e) Wrong answer:

Although indicates contrast.

Question 8. Choose an answer to complete the text.

I was very tired after school yesterday. I wanted to watch TV after dinner _________ was so tired that I went to bed early.

a) and it

b) so I

c) because I

d) but I

e) before I

Answer: D

Explanation:

a) Wrong answer:

And has the idea of putting things together.

b) Wrong answer:

So = indicates result.

c) Wrong answer:

Because indicates reason.

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d) Correct answer:

But indicates opposition.

e) Wrong answer:

Before indicates time.

Question 9. Read the text1 below:

Christmas is my favorite holiday. My grandmother makes ham, salad, and cupcakes on Christmas. I also get a present on Christmas! Last year I got a new set of paint brushes. This year I hope to get new pencils and a drawing pad. I always have fun on Christmas.

Halloween is another good holiday. My grandmother makes candy corn and cupcakes on Halloween. People wear costumes during Halloween. Last year I wore a skeleton costume. This year I am going to wear a zombie costume.

July 4 is a good holiday. July 4 is the birthday of the United States of America. My grandmother makes hot dogs and salad on July 4. I don’t have to go to school on July 4. But I don’t get any presents either. If I got presents on July 4 it would be my favorite holiday.

I) When does the author’s grandmother make cupcakes?

I. Christmas

II. Halloween

III. July 4

a) I only

b) II only

c) III only

d) I and II only.

e) I, II, and III.

Answer: D

Explanation:

1 Available at: <http://www.englishforeveryone.org/PDFs/Level_3_Passage_3.pdf>. Retrieved May 22, 2011.

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a) Wrong answer:

In paragraph 1, the author says “My grandmother makes ham, salad, and cupcakes on Christmas.” This means option (I) is true. true. In paragraph 2, the author says “My grandmother makes candy corn and cupcakes on Halloween.” This means option (II) is true.

b) Wrong answer:


c) Wrong answer:

In paragraph 3 the author says “My grandmother makes hot dogs and salad on July 4.” This means option (III) is not true.

d) Correct answer:


e) Wrong answer

In paragraph 1, the author says “My grandmother makes ham, salad, and cupcakes on Christmas.” This means option (I) is true. true. In paragraph 2, the author says “My grandmother makes candy corn and cupcakes on Halloween.” This means option (II) is true. In paragraph 3 the author says “My grandmother makes hot dogs and salad on July 4.” This means option (III) is not true.

II) This story is mainly about

a) why the author likes some holidays.

b) how someone can get out of school.

c) which foods are the best to eat on different holidays.

d) a flower costume.

e) why Christmas is best.

Answer: A

Explanation:

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a) Correct answer:

The author writes about three different holidays: Christmas, July 4, and Easter. The author explains what happens these holidays, and what he likes about each one.

b) Wrong answer:

In paragraph 3 the author says, “I don’t have to go to school on July 4.” However, this is only a detail of the passage. It is not what the passage is mainly about.

c) Wrong answer:

In paragraphs 1, 2, and 3 the author tells about the food he eats on each holiday. However, these are only details of the passage. They are not what the passage is mainly about.

d) Wrong answer:

Nothing is mentioned about that.

e) Wrong answer:

In paragraph 1 the author says, “Christmas is my favorite holiday.” However, why Christmas is best is only one part of this passage. It is not the main idea.

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PICTURES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Picture 5

FILE000908630014.JPG. Available at: <http://mrg.bz/u2DWGs>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 14

FILE000895312167.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/d/drfragilex/preview/fldr_2008_12_01/file000895312167.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 15

FILE1201294778104.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/a/alvimann/preview/fldr_2011_01_11/file1201294778104.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 18

FILE00017555531.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/k/katmystiry/preview/fldr_2005_07_29/file00017555531.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 19

FILE4511261897498.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/b/beglib/preview/fldr_2009_12_27/file4511261897498.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 20

FILE00048833447.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/d/daphatone/preview/fldr_2008_12_01/file00048833447.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 21

FILE4511261897498.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/b/beglib/preview/fldr_2009_12_27/file4511261897498.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 22

FILE00048833447.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/d/daphatone/preview/fldr_2008_12_01/file00048833447.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 23

FILE5101244929700.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/j/jade/preview/fldr_2009_06_13/file5101244929700.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

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Picture 24

FILE0001114197825.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/r/ronnieb/preview/fldr_2005_10_01/file0001114197825.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 26

FILE000556054096.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/p/puravida/preview/fldr_2008_11_11/file000556054096.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 27

FILE0001993853011.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/a/anitapatterson/preview/fldr_2005_08_06/file0001993853011.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

Picture 31

FILE0001468760916.JPG. Available at: <http://cdn.morguefile.com/imageData/public/files/k/kittenpuff1/preview/fldr_2005_05_08/file0001468760916.jpg>. Retrieved: April 20, 2011.

REFERENCES

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BIBER, D.; LEECH, G. Longman student grammar of spoken and written English. Pearson Longman, 2005.

BLAND, S. K. Grammar Sense 4: Student Book with Wizard CD-ROM. São Paulo: Oxford do Brasil, 2008.

CALMAN, M.; DUNCAN, B. Short Cuts – Using Texts to Explore English. Longman Penguin, 2007.

CARTER, R.; MCCARTHY, M. Cambridge grammar of english: a comprehensive guide-spoken and written english grammar and usage. CUP. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The grammar book. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.

CRYSTAL, D. English as a global language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

___. The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

CURZAN, A.; ADAMS, M. How English works – a linguistic introduction. 2. ed. London: Longman/Pearson, 2008.

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DRISCOLL, L. Cambridge English skills real reading 4 with answers. Cambridge do Brasil, 2008.

EASTWOOD, J. Oxford learner’s grammar. Reference book-grammar-finder with CD-ROM grammar checker. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.

FOLSE, K. S. Great writing 3: From great paragraphs to great essays. Cengage ELT, 2010.

FUCHS, M.; BONNER, M. Grammar express-upper intermediate. Pearson Longman. 2006.

GRADDOLL, D. English next. Available at: <http://www.britishcouncil.org/br/brasil-education-elt-english-next.htm>. Retrieved April 15, 2011.

___. The future of English. Available at: <http://www.britishcouncil.org/learning-elt-future.pdf>. Retrieved April 15, 2011.

GREENBAUN, S. Oxford English grammar. OUP. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.

KAY, S. Advanced Language Practice with key - English Grammar and Vocabulary. 3rd ed. Macmillan/Heinemann do Brasil, 2009.

LYONS, J. New horizons in linguistics. UK: Penguin Books, 1970.

MARCELLO, N. Perfect tenses – como entender e empregar perfect tenses. São Paulo: Disal, 2005.

NOLASCO, R. Streetwise. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

O´KEEFE; McCARTHY, M.; CARTER, R. From corpus to classroom. Cambridge University Press, 2007.

MURPHY, R. English grammar in use. 16. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS DO BRASIL. Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary 2005 with compass CD-Rom. 7. ed. São Paulo: Oxford do Brasil, 2005.

PALMER, F. R. Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.

SCHOENBERG, E. I.; MAURER, J.; FUCHS, M. Focus on grammar: an integrated skills approach. Pearson Longman, 2006.

TAGNIN. S. O jeito que a gente diz: expressões convencionais e idiomáticas. São Paulo: Disal, 2005.

VINCE, M. Intermediate language practice. Oxford: Heinemann ELT, 1998.

VINEY, B.; HOLLEY, G.; METCALFE, R. et all. Grammar practice-upper intermediate. Pearson Longman, 2006.

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YULE, G. Oxford Practice Grammar Advanced (w/ answers + CDROM). Oxford do Brasil, 2006.

aPPenDIce 1

Irregular verbs

Chart 77

Base Form Simple Past Tense Past Participle

awake awoke awoken

be was, were been

bear bore born

beat beat beat

become became become

begin began begun

bend bent bent

beset beset beset

bet bet bet

bid bid/bade bid/bidden

bind bound bound

bite bit bitten

bleed bled bled

blow blew blown

break broke broken

breed bred bred

bring brought brought

broadcast broadcast broadcast

build built built

burn burned/burnt burned/burnt

burst burst burst

buy bought bought

cast cast cast

catch caught caught

choose chose chosen

cling clung clung

come came come

cost cost cost

creep crept crept

cut cut cut

deal dealt dealt

dig dug dug

136

dive dived/dove dived

do did done

draw drew drawn

dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt

drive drove driven

drink drank drunk

eat ate eaten

fall fell fallen

feed fed fed

feel felt felt

fight fought fought

find found found

fit fit fit

flee fled fled

fling flung flung

fly flew flown

forbid forbade forbidden

forget forgot forgotten

forego (forgo) forewent foregone

forgive forgave forgiven

forsake forsook forsaken

freeze froze frozen

get got gotten

give gave given

go went gone

grind ground ground

grow grew grown

hang hung hung

hear heard heard

hide hid hidden

hit hit hit

hold held held

hurt hurt hurt

keep kept kept

kneel knelt knelt

knit knit knit

know knew know

lay laid laid

lead led led

leap leaped/leapt leaped/leapt

learn learned/learnt learned/learnt

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leave left left

lend lent lent

let let let

lie lay lain

light lighted/lit lighted

lose lost lost

make made made

mean meant meant

meet met met

misspell misspelled/misspelt misspelled/misspelt

mistake mistook mistaken

mow mowed mowed/mown

overcome overcame overcome

overdo overdid overdone

overtake overtook overtaken

overthrow overthrew overthrown

pay paid paid

plead pled pled

prove proved proved/proven

put put put

quit quit quit

read read read

rid rid rid

ride rode ridden

ring rang rung

rise rose risen

run ran run

saw sawed sawed/sawn

say said said

see saw seen

seek sought sought

sell sold sold

send sent sent

set set set

sew sewed sewed/sewn

shake shook shaken

shave shaved shaved/shaven

shear shore shorn

shed shed shed

shine shone shone

shoe shoed shoed/shod

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shoot shot shot

show showed showed/shown

shrink shrank shrunk

shut shut shut

sing sang sung

sink sank sunk

sit sat sat

sleep slept slept

slay slew slain

slide slid slid

sling slung slung

slit slit slit

smite smote smitten

sow sowed sowed/sown

speak spoke spoken

speed sped sped

spend spent spent

spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt

spin spun spun

spit spit/spat spit

split split split

spread spread spread

spring sprang/sprung sprung

stand stood stood

steal stole stolen

stick stuck stuck

sting stung stung

stink stank stunk

stride strod stridden

strike struck struck

string strung strung

strive strove striven

swear swore sworn

sweep swept swept

swell swelled swelled/swollen

swim swam swum

swing swung swung

take took taken

teach taught taught

tear tore torn

tell told told

139

think thought thought

thrive thrived/throve thrived

throw threw thrown

thrust thrust thrust

tread trod trodden

understand understood understood

uphold upheld upheld

upset upset upset

wake woke woken

wear wore worn

weave weaved/wove weaved/woven

wed wed wed

weep wept wept

wind wound wound

win won won

withhold withheld withheld

withstand withstood withstood

wring wrung wrung

write wrote written

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