These are general notional tutorial slides on data mining theory and practice from which content may be

freely drawn.

Monte F. Hancock, Jr.

Chief Scientist

Celestech, Inc.

Data Mining is the detection, characterization, and exploitation of

actionable patterns in data.

Data Mining (DM)• Data Mining (DM) is the principled detection, characterization, and

exploitation of actionable patterns in data.• It is performed by applying modern mathematical techniques to collected

data in accordance with the scientific method. • DM uses a combination of empirical and theoretical principles to Connect

Structure to Meaning by:– Selecting and conditioning relevant data– Identifying, characterizing, and classifying latent patterns– Presenting useful representations and interpretations to users

• DM attempts to answer these questions:– What patterns are in the information? – What are the characteristics of these patterns?– Can “meaning” be ascribed to these patterns and/or their changes?– Can these patterns be presented to users in a way that will facilitate their assessment,

understanding, and exploitation?– Can a machine learn these patterns and their relevant interpretations?

DM for Decision Support

● “Decision Support” is all about…– enabling users to group information in familiar ways – controlling complexity by layering results (e.g., drill-down)– supporting user’s changing priorities – allowing intuition to be triggered (“I’ve seen this before!”)– preserving and automating perishable institutional knowledge– providing objective, repeatable metrics (e.g., confidence factors)– fusing & simplifying results – automating alerts on important results (“It’s happening again!”)– detecting emerging behaviors before they consummate (“Look!”) – delivering value (timely-relevant-accurate results)

● …helping users make the best choices.

DM Provides “Intelligent” Analytic Functions

● Automating pattern detection – to characterize complex, distributed signatures that are worth human attention… and recognize those that are not.

● Associating events – that “go together” but are difficult for humans to correlate.

● Characterizing interesting processes – not just facts or simple events

● Detecting actionable anomalies – and explaining what makes them “different AND interesting”.

● Describing contexts – from multiple perspectives –with numbers, text and graphics

DM Answers Questions Users are Asking

● Fusion Level 1: Who/What is Where/When in my space?

– Organize and present facts in domain context

● Fusion Level 2: What does it mean? – Has this been seen before? What will happen next?

● Fusion Level 3: Do I care?– Enterprise relevance? What action should be taken?

● Fusion Level 4: What can I do better next time?– Adaptation by pattern updates and retraining

● How certain am I?– Quantitative assessment of evidentiary pedigree

Useful Data Applications

● Accurate identification and classification– add value to raw data by tagging and annotation (e.g., fraud detection)

● Anomaly / normalcy and fusion – characterize, quantify, and assess “normalcy” of patterns and trends (e.g., network intrusion detection)

● Emerging patterns and evidence evaluation - capturing institutional knowledge of how “events” arise and alerting when they emerge

● Behavior association - detection of actions that are distributed in time & space but “synchronized” by a common objective: “connecting the dots”

● Signature detection and association – detection & characterization of multivariate signals, symbols, and emissions (e.g., voice recognition)

● Concept tagging - reasoning about abstract relationships to tag and annotate media of all types (e.g., automated web bots)

● Software agents assisting analysts – small-footprint “fire-and-forget” apps that facilitate search, collaboration, etc.

Some “Good” Data Mining Analytic Applications

• Help the user focus via unobtrusive automation– Off-load burdensome labor (perform intelligent searches, smart winnowing)– Post “smart” triggers/tripwires to data stream (e.g., anomaly detection)– Help with mission triage (“Sort my in-basket!”)

• Automate aspects of classification and detection– Determine which sets of data hold the most information for a task– Support construction of ad hoc “on-the-fly” classifiers– Provide automated constructs for merging decision engines (multi-level fusion)– Detect and characterize “domain drift” (the “rules of the game” are changing)– Provide functionality to make best estimate of “missing data”

• Extract/characterize/employ knowledge– Rule induction from data, develop “signatures” from data– Implement reasoning for decision support– High-dimensional visualization– Embed “decision explanation” capability into analytic applications

• Capture/automate/institutionalize best practice– Make proven analytic processes available to all– Capture rare, perishable human knowledge… and put it everywhere– Generate “signature-ready” prose reports– Capture and characterize the analytic process to anticipate user needs

Things that make “hard” problems VERY hard

– Events of interest occur relatively infrequently in very large datasets (“population imbalance”)

– Information is distributed in a complex way across many features (the “feature selection problem”)

– Collection is hard to task, data are difficult to prepare for analysis, and are never “perfect” (“noise” in the data, data gaps, coverage gaps)

– Target patterns are ambiguous/unknown; “squelch” settings are brittle (e.g., hard to balance detection vs. “false-alarm” rates)

– Target patterns change/morph over time and across operational modes (“domain drift”, processing methods becomes “stale”)

Some Key Principles of “Information Driven” Data Mining

1. Right People, Methods, Tools (in that order)2. Make no prior assumptions about the problem (“agnostic”)3. Begin with general techniques that let the data determine the direction of the

analysis (“Funnel Method”)4. Don’t jump to conclusions; perform process audits as needed5. Don’t be a “one widget wonder”; integrate multiple paradigms so the strengths

of one compensate for the weaknesses of another6. Break the problem into the right pieces (“Divide and Conquer”)7. Work the data, not the tools, but automate when possible8. Be systematic, consistent, thorough; don’t lose the forest for the trees.9. Document the work so that it is reproducible10. Collaborate to avoid surprises: team members, experts, customer11. Focus on the Goal: maximum value to the user within cost and schedule

Select Appropriate Machine Reasoners

1.) Classifiers Classifiers ingest a list of attributes, and determine into which of finitely many categories the entity exhibiting these

attributes falls. Automatic object recognition and next-event prediction are examples of this type of reasoning. 2.) Estimators Estimators ingest a list of attributes, and assign some numeric value to the entity exhibiting these attributes. The

estimation of a probability or a "risk score" are examples of this type of reasoning.

3.) Semantic Mappers Semantic mappers ingest text (structured, unstructured, or both), and generate a data structure that gives the "meaning"

of the text. Automatic gisting of documents is an example of this type of reasoning Semantic mapping generally requires some kind of domain model.

4.) Planners Planners ingest a scenario description, and formulate an efficient sequence of feasible actions that will move the domain

to the specified goal state. 5.) Associators Associators sample the entire corpus of domain data, and identify relationships among entities. Automatic clustering of

data to identify coherent subpopulations is a simple example. A more sophisticated example is the forensic analysis of phone, flight, and financial records to infer the structure of terrorist networks.

Embedded Knowledge…

• Principled, domain-savvy synthesis of “circumstantial” evidence

• Copes well with ambiguous, incomplete, or incorrect input

• Enables justification of results in terms domain experts use

• Facilitates good pedagogical helps

• “Solves the problem like the man does”, and so is comprehensible to most domain experts.

• Degrades linearly in combinatorial domains

• Can grow in power with “experience”

• Preserves perishable expertise

• Allows efficient incremental upgrade/adjustment/repurposing

Features

• A feature is the value assumed by some attribute of an entity in the domain

(e.g., size, quality, age, color, etc.)

• Features can be numbers, symbols, or complex data objects

• Features are usually reduced to some simple form before modeling is performed.

>>>features are usually single numeric values or contiguous strings.<<<

Feature Space• Once the features have been designated, a feature space can be defined

for a domain by placing the features into an ordered array in a systematic way.

• Each instance of an entity having the given features is then represented by a single point in n-dimensional Euclidean space: its feature vector.

• This Euclidean space, or feature space for the domain, has dimension equal to the number of features.

• Feature spaces can be one-dimensional, infinite-dimensional, or anywhere in between.

How do classifiers work?

Machines

• Data mining paradigms are characterized by– A “concept of operation (CONOP: component structure, I/O, training

alg., operation) – An architecture (component type, #, arrangement, semantics) – A set of parameters (weights/coefficients/vigilance parameters)

>>>it is assumed here that parameters are real numbers.<<<

A machine is an instantiation of a data mining paradigm.

• Examples of parameter sets for various paradigms– Neural Networks: interconnect weights– Belief Networks: conditional probability tables– Kernel-Based-classifiers (SVM, RBF): regression coefficients– Metric classifiers (K-means): cluster centroids

A Spiral Methodology for theData Mining Process

The DM Discovery Phase: Descriptive Modeling

• OLAP• Visualization • Unsupervised learning• Link Analysis/Collaborative Filtering• Rule Induction

The DM Exploitation Phase: Predictive Modeling

• Paradigm selection• Test design• Formulation of meta-schemes• Model construction• Model evaluation• Model deployment• Model maintenance

A “de facto” standard DM Methodology

CRISP-DM (“cross-industry standard process for data mining”)

– 1.) Business Understanding

– 2.) Data Understanding

– 3.) Data Preparation

– 4.) Modeling

– 5.) Evaluation

– 6.) Deployment

Data Mining Paradigms: What does your solution look like?

• Conventional Decision Models -statistical inference, logistic regression, score cards

• Heuristic Models -human expert, knowledge-based expert systems,

fuzzy logic, decision trees, belief nets• Regression Models

-neural networks (all sorts), radial basis functions, adaptive logic networks, decision trees, SVM

Real-World DM Business Challenges

• Complex and conflicting goals– Defining “success”– Getting “buy in”

• Enterprise data is distributed

• Limited automation

• Unrealistic expectations

Real-World DM Technical Challenges

• big data consume space and time

• efficiency vs. comprehensibility

• combinatorial explosion

• diluted information

• difficult to develop “intuition”

• algorithm roulette

Data Mining Problems: What does your domain look like?

• How well is the problem understood?

• How "big" is the problem?

• What kind of data do we have?

• What question are we answering?

• How deeply buried in the data is the answer?

• How must the answer be presented to the user?

1. Business Understanding

How well is the problem understood?

How well is the problem understood?

•Domain intuition: low/medium/high–Experts available?–Good documentation?–DM team’s prior experience?–Prior art?

•What is the enterprise definition of “success”?•What is the target environment?•How skillful are the users?•Where are the pitchforks?

2. Data Understanding3. Preparing the Data

How "big" is the problem?

What kind of data do we have?

DM Aspects of Data Preparation

• Data Selection

• Data Cleansing

• Data Representation

• Feature Extraction and Transformation

• Feature Enhancement

• Data Division

• Configuration Management

How "big" is the problem?

•Number of exemplars (“rows”)

•Number of features (“columns”)

•Number of classes (“ground truth”)

•Cost/schedule/talent (dollars, days, dudes)

•Tools (own/make/buy, familiarity, scope)

What kind of data do we have?•Feature type: nominal/numeric/complex•Feature mix: homo/heterogeneous by type•Feature tempo:

–Fresh/stale–Periodic/sporadic–Synchronous/asynchronous

•Feature data quality:–Low/high SNR –Few/many gaps–Easy/hard to access–Objective/subjective

•Feature information quality–Salience, correlation, localization, conditioning–Comprehensive? Representative?

How much data do I need?

• Many heuristics– Monte’s 6MN rule, other similar– Support vectors

• Segmentation requirements

• Comprehensive

• Representative– Consider population imbalance

Feature Saliency Tests

• Correlation/Independence

• Visualization to determine saliency

• Autoclustering to test for homogeneity

• KL-Principal Component Analysis

• Statistical Normalization (e.g., ZSCORE)

• Outliers, Gaps

Making Feature Sets for Data Mining

• Converting Nominal Data to Numeric: Numeric Coding

• Converting Numeric data to Nominal: Symbolic Coding

• Creating Ground-Truth

Information can be Irretrievably Distributed (e.g., the parity-N problem)

0010100110… 1

The best feature set is not necessarily the set of best features.

An example of a Feature Metric

“Salience” : geometric mean of class precisions • an objective measure of the ability of a feature

to distinguish classes• takes class proportion into account• specific to a particular classifier and problem• does not measure independence

Nominal to Numeric Coding...…one step at a time!

Name Class Feature 1 Feature 2 Feature 3 Feature 4 Feature 5

(habitat) (diet) (integument) (morphology) (life cycle)

Bill mammals land omnivore skin w/o feathers biped no wings live birthBubbles non-mammals sea omnivore scales no wings, non biped eggs w/o metaRover mammals land carnivore skin w/o feathers no wings, non biped live birthRingo non-mammals land herbivore exoskeleton wings, non-biped egss w. metaChuck non-mammals parasitic other other no wings, non biped otherTweety non-mammals land omnivore skin with feathers wings, biped eggs w/o meta

Name Class Feature 1 Feature 2 Feature 3 Feature 4 Feature 5

(habitat) (diet) (integument) (morphology) (life cycle)

Bill primates land omnivore skin w/o feathers biped no wings live birthBubbles fishes sea omnivore scales no wings, non biped eggs w/o metaRover domestic land carnivore skin w/o feathers no wings, non biped live birthRingo bugs land herbivore exoskeleton wings, non-biped egss w. metaChuck bacteria parasitic other other no wings, non biped otherTweety birds land omnivore skin with feathers wings, biped eggs w/o meta

Name Class Feature 1 Feature 2 Feature 3 Feature 4 Feature 5

(habitat) (diet) (integument) (morphology) (life cycle)

1 1 2 3 1 3 12 2 1 3 3 4 33 1 2 2 1 4 14 2 2 1 4 1 25 2 3 4 5 4 46 2 2 3 2 2 3

Original Data:

Step 1:

Step 2:

Numeric to Nominal Quantization

“Clusters” Usually Mean Something

How many objects are shown here? One, seen from various perspectives!This illustrates the danger of using ONE METHOD/TOOL/VISUALIZATION!

Autoclustering

• Automatically find spatial patterns in complex data– find patterns in data– measure the complexity of the data

Differential Analysis

• Discover the Difference “Drivers” Between Groups

– Which combination of features accounts for the observed differences between groups?

– Focus research

Sensitivity Analysis

• Measure the Influence of Individual Features on Outcomes– Rank order features by salience and independence

– Estimate problem difficulty

Rule Induction

• Automatically find semantic patterns in complex data– discover rules directly from data– organize “raw” data into actionable knowledge

A Rule Induction Example

(using data splits)

Rule Induction Example (Data Splits)

4. Modeling

What question are we answering?

How deeply buried in the data is the answer?

How must the answer be presented to the user?

What question are we answering?

•Ground truth type–Nominal–Numeric–Complex (e.g., interval estimate, plan, concept)

•Ground truth data quality–Low/high SNR–Few/many gaps–Easy/hard to access–Objective/subjective

•Ground truth predictability–Correlation with features–Population balance–Class collisions

How deeply buried in the data is the answer?

•Solvable by a 1 layer Multi-Layer Perceptron (easy)–Linearly separable; any two classes can be separated by a hyperplane

•Solvable by a 2 layer Multi-Layer Perceptron (moderate)–Convex hulls of classes overlap, but classes do not

•Solvable by a 3 layer Multi-Layer Perceptron (hard)–Classes overlap but do not “collide”

•“intractable”–Data contain class collisions

How must the answer be presented to the user?

•Forensics–GUI, confidence factors, intervals, justification

•Integration–Web-based, Web-enable, dll/sl, fully integrated

•Accuracy–% correct, confusion matrix, lift chart

•Performance–Throughput, ease of use, accuracy, reliability

Text Book Neural Network

Knowledge Acquisition

What the Expert says:

KE: ...and, primates. What evidence makes you CERTAIN an animal is a primate?

KE: Yeah, well, like...If it’s a land animal that’ll eat anything...but it bears live young and walks upright,...

KE: Any obvious physical characteristics?EX: Uh...yes...and no feathers, of course, or wings, or any of that...

Well, then...then, it’s gotta be a primate...yeah.KE: So, ANY animal which is a land-dwelling, omnivorous, skin-

covered, unwinged featherless biped which bears live young is NECESSARILY a primate?

EX: Yep.KE: Could such an animal, be, say, a fish?EX: No...it couldn’t be anything but a primate.

What the KE hears:

IF

(f1,f2,f3,f4,f5) = (land, omni, feathers, wingless biped, born alive)

THEN

PRIMATE and (not fish, not domestic, not bug, not germ, not bird)

Evaluation

How must the answer be presented to the user?

Model Evaluation

• Accuracy – Classification accuracy, geometric accuracy– precision/recall– RMS– Lift curve– Confusion matrices– ROI

• Speed, space, utility, other

Classification Errors

• Type I - Accepting an item as a member of a class when it is actually false: a “false positive”.

• Type II - Rejecting an item as a member of a class when it

actually is (true) a “false negative”.

Prediction = 1 2 3 Type IIGround Truth RECALL Error

1 302 55 21 79.9% 20.1%2 128 526 194 62.0% 38.0%3 35 68 469 82.0% 18.0%

PRECISION 64.9% 81.0% 68.6%Type I Error 35.1% 19.0% 31.4%

Model Maintenance

• Retraining, stationarity

• Generalization (e.g. heteroscedasticity)

• Changing the feature set (add/subtract)

• Conventional maintenance issues

What do we give the user besides an application?

• Documentation

• Support

• Model retraining

• New model generation

Using a Paradigm Taxonomy to Select a DM Algorithm

Place paradigms into a taxonomy by specifying their attributes. This taxonomy can be used for algorithm selection.

First, an example taxonomy….

KBES (knowledge-based Expert System)

required intuition: high vector count supported: high feature count supported: medium class count supported: medium cost to develop: high schedule to develop: high talent to develop: medium, high tools to develop: can be expensive to buy/make feature types supported: nominal/numeric/complex feature mix supported: homogeneous, heterogeneous feature data quality needed: need not fill "gaps" ground truth types supported: nominal, complex relative representational power: low relative performance: fast, intuitive, robust relative weaknesses: ad hoc; relatively simple class boundaries relative strengths: intuitive; easy to provide conclusion justification

MLP (Multi-Layer Perceptron)

required intuition: low vector count supported: high feature count supported: medium class count supported: medium cost to develop: low schedule to develop: medium talent to develop: medium tools to develop: easy to obtain inexpensively feature types supported: numeric feature mix supported: homogeneous feature data quality needed: must fill "gaps" ground truth types supported: nominal, numeric relative representational power: high relative performance: moderately fast relative weaknesses: inscrutable; uncontrolled regression relative strengths: easy to build

RBF (Radial Basis Function)

required intuition: low vector count supported: high feature count supported: medium class count supported: high cost to develop: low schedule to develop: medium talent to develop: medium tools to develop: easy to obtain inexpensively feature types supported: numeric feature mix supported: homogeneous feature data quality needed: need not fill "gaps" ground truth types supported: nominal, numeric relative representational power: high relative performance: moderately fast relative weaknesses: inscrutable; models tend to be large relative strengths: uncontrolled regression can be mitigated

SVM (Support Vector Machines)

required intuition: low vector count supported: high feature count supported: high class count supported: two cost to develop: medium schedule to develop: medium talent to develop: medium tools to develop: easy to obtain inexpensively feature types supported: numeric feature mix supported: homogeneous feature data quality needed: must fill "gaps" ground truth types supported: nominal, numeric relative representational power: high relative performance: moderately fast relative weaknesses: inscrutable; can be hard to train relative strengths: minimal need to enhance features

Decision Trees (e.g., CART, BBN’s)

required intuition: low vector count supported: high feature count supported: medium class count supported: high cost to develop: low schedule to develop: medium talent to develop: medium tools to develop: easy to obtain inexpensively feature types supported: nominal, numeric feature mix supported: homogeneous, heterogeneous feature data quality needed: need not fill "gaps" ground truth types supported: nominal, numeric relative representational power: high relative performance: moderately fast relative weaknesses: many "low support" nodes or rules relative strengths: can provide insight into the domain

The taxonomy can be used to match available paradigms with the

characteristics of the data mining problem to be addressed…

IF the ground truth is discrete; there aren't too many classes; the class boundaries are simple; the number of features is medium; the data are heterogeneous; no comprehensive, representative data set with GT; the population is unbalanced by class; the domain is well-understood by available experts; conclusion justification is needed;THEN KBES

ELSE IF the ground truth is numeric; there is a medium number of classes; the class boundaries are complex; the number of features is medium; the data are numeric; comprehensive, representative data set tagged with GT; the population is relatively balanced by class; the domain is not well-understood by available experts; conclusion justification is not needed;THEN MLP

ELSE IF the ground truth is numeric or nominal; there is a large number of classes; the class boundaries are very complex; the number of features is medium; the data are numeric; representative data set tagged with GT; the population is unbalanced by class; the domain is not well-understood by available experts; conclusion justification is not needed;THEN RBF

ELSE IF the ground truth is numeric or nominal; the number of classes is two; the class boundaries very complex; the number of features is very large; the data are numeric; comprehensive, representative data set tagged with GT; the population is unbalanced by class; the domain is not well-understood by available experts; conclusion justification is not needed;THEN SVM

ELSE IF the ground truth is numeric or nominal; there is a medium number of classes; the class boundaries are very complex; the number of features is medium; the data are numeric, nominal, or complex; representative data set tagged with GT; the population is unbalanced by class; the domain is not well-understood by available experts; conclusion justification is needed;THEN Decision Tree (CART, BBN, etc.)

END IF

Common Reasons Data Mining Projects Fail

Mistakes can occur in each major element of data mining practice!

1. Specification of Enterprise Objectives– Defining “success”

2. Creation of the DM Environment– Understanding and Preparing the Data

3. Data Mining Management4a,b. Descriptive Modeling and Predictive Modeling

– Detecting and Characterizing Patterns– Building Models

5. Model Evaluation 6. Model Deployment7. Model Maintenance

1. Specification of Enterprise Objectives

Define “success”:• Knowledge acquisition interviews (who, what, how)• Objective measures of performance (enterprise specific)• Assessment of enterprise process and data environment• Specification of data mining objectives

Specification Mistakes

• DM projects require careful management of user expectations. Choosing the wrong person as customer interface can guarantee user disappointment.

(GIGOO: Garbage in, GOLD out!)

• Since the default assessment of “R&D type” efforts is “failure”, not defining “success” unambiguously will guarantee “failure”.

2. Creation of the DM Environment

• Data Warehouse/Data Mart /Database

• Meta data and schemas

• Data dependencies

• Access paths and mechanisms

Environmental Mistakes

• Big data require bigger storage. DM efforts typically work against multiple copies of the data; try 2 or 3 x.

• Unwillingness to invest in tools forces data miners to consume resources building inferior versions of what could have been purchased more cheaply.

• Get labs and network connections set up quickly.

Understanding the Data

• Enterprise data survey– Data as a process artifact– Temporal Considerations

• Data Characterization– Metadata– Collection paths

• Data Metrics and Quality– currency, completeness, correctness, correlation

A List of Common Data Problems

• Conformation (e.g., a dozen ways to say lat/lon)• Accessibility (distributed, sensitive)• Ground Truth (missing, incorrect)• Outliers (detect/process)• Gaps (imputation scheme)• Time (coverage, periodicity, trends, Nyquist)• Consistency (intra/inter record)• Class collisions (how to adjudicate)• Class population imbalance (balancing)• Coding/quantization

Data Understanding Mistakes

• Assuming that no understanding of the domain is needed for a successful DM effort

• Temporal infeasibility: assuming every type of data you find in the warehouse will actually be there when your fielded system needs it.

• Ignoring the data conformation problem

Data Preparation Mistakes • Improper handling of missing data, outliers• Improper conditioning of data• “Trojan Horsing” ground truth into the feature set• Having no plan for getting operational access to data

3. Data Mining Management

• Data mining skill mix (who are the DM practitioners?)

• Data mining project planning (RAD vs. waterfall)

• Data mining project management

• Sample DM project cost/schedule

• Don’t forget Configuration Management!

DM Management Mistakes• Appointing a “domain expert” as the technical lead on a DM project

virtually guarantees that no new ground will covered.• Inadequate schedule and/or budget poison the psychological atmosphere

necessary for discovery.• Failure to parallelize work• Allowing planless tinkering• Letting technical people “snow” you• Failure to conduct “process audits”

Configuration Management

• Nomenclature and naming conventions• Documenting the workflow for reproducibility• Modeling Process Automation

Configuration Management Mistakes

• Not having a configuration management plan (files, directories, nomenclature, audit trail) virtually guarantees that any success you have will be unreproduceable.

• Allowing each data miner to establish their own documentation and auditing procedures guarantees that no one will understand what anyone else has done.

• Failure to automate configuration management (e.g., putting annotated experiment scripts in a log) guarantees that your configuration management plan will not work.

4a. Descriptive Modeling

• OLAP (on-line analytical processing)• Visualization • Unsupervised learning• Link/Market Basket Analysis• Collaborative Filtering• Rule Induction Techniques• Logistic Regression

4b. Predictive Modeling

• Paradigms• Test Design• Meta-Schemes• Model Construction• Model Evaluation• Model Deployment• Model Maintenance

Paradigms

• Know what they are• Know when to use which• Know how to instantiate them• Know how to validate them• Know how to maintain them

Model Construction

• Architecture (monolithic, hybrid)• Formulation of Objective Function• Training (e.g., NN)• Construction (e.g., KBES) • Meta Schemes

– Bagging– Boosting– Post-process model calibration

Modeling Mistakes • The “Silver Bullet Syndrome”: relying entirely on a single

tool/method

• Expecting your tools to think for you

• Overreliance on visualization

• Using tools that you don’t understand

• Not knowing when to quit (maybe this is just dirt)

• Quitting too soon (I haven’t dug deep enough)

• Picking the wrong modeling paradigm

• Ignoring population imbalance

• Overtraining

• Ignoring feature correlation

5. Model Evaluation

• Blind Testing• N-fold Cross-Validation• Generalization and Overtraining

Model Evaluation Mistakes

• Not validating the model• Validating the model on the training data• Not escrowing a “holdback set”

  6. Model Deployment

• ASP (applications service provider)

• API (application program interface)

• Other– plug-ins

– linked objects

– file interface, etc.

Model Deployment Mistakes

• Not considering the fielded architecture• No user training• Not having any operational performance

requirements (except “accuracy”)

7. Model Maintenance • Retraining

• Poor generalization – Heteroscedasticity– Non-stationarity– Overtraining

• Changing the problem architecture– Adding/subtracting features– Modifying ground truth

• Other

Model Maintenance Mistakes

• Not having a mechanism, method, and criteria for tracking performance of the fielded model

• Not providing a model “retraining” capability• No documentation, no support

Published by:Digital Press, 2001ISBN: 1-555558-231-1