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Summary of Verb Tenses In English, there are three basic verb tenses: present, past, and future.

Each has a perfect form, indicating completed action; each has a progressive form, indicating ongoing action; and each has a perfect progressive form, indicating ongoing action that will be

completed at some definite time. Here is a list of examples of these tenses and their definitions:

Simple Forms

Progressive Forms

Perfect Forms Perfect Progressive Forms

Present take/s am/is/are taking have/has taken have/has been taking

Past took was/were taking had taken had been taking

Future will/shall take will be taking will have taken will have been taking

Progressive FormsPresent Progressive Tense ~ describes an ongoing action that is happening at the same time the statement is written. This tense is formed by using am/is/are with the verb form ending in -ing.

The sociologist is examining the effects that racial discrimination has on society.Mom and dad are cooking dinner. The students are reading the examples right now. She is writing a letter for her family. The kids are playing in the street in this moment.

Past Progressive Tense ~ describes a past action which was happening when another action occurred. This tense is formed by using was/were with the verb form ending in -ing.

The explorer was explaining the latest discovery in Egypt when protests began on the streets.

Future Progressive Tense ~ describes an ongoing or continuous action that will take place in the future. This tense is formed by using will be or shall be with the verb form ending in -ing.

Dr. Jones will be presenting ongoing research on sexist language next week.

Perfect FormsPresent Perfect Tense ~ describes an action that happened at an indefinite time in the past or that began in the past and continues in the present. This tense is formed by using has/have with the past participle of the verb. Most past participles end in -ed.

We have studied here for three months. They have lived in Boston since 1996. She has worked at the university for a long time. My father and my brother have played soccer in many cities.

Example Meaning

The researchers have traveled to many countries in order to collect more significant data.

At an indefinite time

Women have voted in presidential elections since 1921. Continues in the present

Past Perfect Tense ~ describes an action that took place in the past before another past action. This tense is formed by using had with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrived, the war had ended.

Future Perfect Tense ~ describes an action that will occur in the future before some other action. This tense is formed by using will have with the past participle of the verb.

By the time the troops arrive, the combat group will have spent several weeks waiting.

Perfect Progressive FormsPresent Perfect Progressive ~ describes an action that began in the past, continues in the present, and may continue into the future. This tense is formed by using has/have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

The CEO has been considering a transfer to the state of Texas where profits would be larger.

Past Perfect Progressive ~ describes a past, ongoing action that was completed before some other past action. This tense is formed by using had been and the present perfect of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

Before the budget cuts, the students had been participating in many extracurricular activities.

Future Perfect Progressive ~ describes a future, ongoing action that will occur before some specified future time. This tense is formed by using will have been and the present participle of the verb (the verb form ending in -ing).

By the year 2020, linguists will have been studying and defining the Indo-European language family for more than 200 years.

Active TensesSimple Present

Present Action or Condition General Truths Non-action; Habitual Action Future Time

I hear you.Here comes the bus.

There are thirty days in September.

I like music.I run on Tuesdays and Sundays.

The train leaves at 4:00 p.m.

Present ProgressiveActivity in Progress Verbs of Perception

I am playing soccer now He is feeling sad

Simple PastCompleted Action Completed Condition

We visted the museum yesterday. The weather was rainy last week.

Past ProgressivePast Action that took place over a period of time Past Action interrupted by another

They were climbing for twenty-seven days. We were eating dinner when she told me.

FutureWith will/won't -- Activity or event that will or won't exist or

happen in the futureWith going to -- future in relation to circumstances

in the presentI'll get up late tomorrow.I won't get up early.

I'm hungry.I'm going to get something to eat.

Present Perfect

With verbs of state that begin in the past and lead up to and include the

present

To express habitual or continued action

With events occuring at an indefinited or unspecified time in the past -- with ever, never,

before

He has lived here for many years. He has worn glasses all his life. Have you ever been to Tokyo before?

Present Perfect ProgressiveTo express duration of an acton that began in the past, has continued into the present, and may continue into

the futureDavid has been working for two hours, and he hasn't finished yet.

Past PerfectTo describe a past event or condition completed before another event in

the past In reported speech

When I arrived home, he had already called. Jane said that she had gone to the movies.

Future perfectTo express action that will be completed by or before a specified time in the future

By next month we will have finished this job.He won't have finished his work until 2:00.

THE PASSIVE TENSESSimple present

active: passive:The company ships the computers to many foreign countries. Computers are shipped to many foreign countries.

Present Progressiveactive: passive:

The chef is preparing the food. The food is being prepared.

Simple Pastactive: passive:

The delivery man delivered the package yesterday. The package was delivered yesterday.

Past Progressiveactive: passive:

The producer was making an announcement. An announcement was being made.

Futureactive: passive:

Our representative will pick up the computer. The computer will be picked up.

Present Perfectactive: passive:

Someone has made the arrangements for us. The arrangements have been made for us. 

Past Perfectactive: passive:

They had given us visas for three months. We had been given visas for three months.

Future perfectactive: passive:

By next month we will have finished this job. By next month this job will have been finished.

Verbals ~ words based on verbs, therefore expressing action or state

of beingGerunds ~ A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun.

Since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example: subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject: Traveling might satisfy your desire for new experiences. (Traveling is the gerund.)

Gerund as direct object: They do not appreciate my singing. (The gerund is singing.)

Gerund as subject complement: My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)

Gerund as object of preposition: The police arrested him for speeding. (The gerund is speeding.)

A Gerund Phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or

complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund, such as:

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we're trying to do.

Finding (gerund)a needle (direct object of action expressed in gerund)in a haystack (prepositional phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the direct object of the verb appreciate.

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity .

my (possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund)offering (gerund)you (indirect object of action expressed in gerund)this opportunity (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject complement.

Norman's favorite tactic has been lying to his constituents .

lying to (gerund)his constituents (direct object of action expressed in gerund)

The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for.

You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work .

faking (gerund)an illness (direct object of action expressed in gerund)to avoid work (infinitive phrase as adverb)

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence.

Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

Being (gerund)the boss (subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund)

A gerund virtually never requires any punctuation with it.

Points to remember:1. A gerund is a verbal ending in -ing that is used as a noun. 2. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Gerunds and gerund phrases virtually never require punctuation.

Participles ~ a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. Since they function as adjectives, participles modify nouns or pronouns.

There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles.

Present participles end in -ing.

Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n, as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt, and seen. The crying baby had a wet diaper. Shaken, he walked away from the wrecked car. The burning log fell off the fire. Smiling, she hugged the panting dog.

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or

complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle, such as:

Removing his coat , Jack rushed to the river.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Jack.Removing (participle)his coat (direct object of action expressed in participle)

Delores noticed her cousin walking along the shoreline .

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.walking (participle)along the shoreline (prepositional phrase as adverb)

Children introduced to music early develop strong intellectual skills.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.introduced (to) (participle)music (direct object of action expressed in participle)early (adverb)

Having been a gymnast , Lynn knew the importance of exercise.

The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Lynn.Having been (participle)a gymnast (subject complement for Lynn, via state of being expressed in participle)

Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to the noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step. * Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can't be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left "dangling." Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.

Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. Washing and polishing the car, Frank developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence.

Sid, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep. The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used:

The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award. The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies.

The local residents often saw Ken wandering through the streets.(The phrase modifies Ken, not residents.)

Tom nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence.(The phrase modifies Tom, not woman.)

Points to remember1. A participle is a verbal ending in -ing (present) or -ed, -en, -d, -t, or -n (past) that functions as an

adjective, modifying a noun or pronoun. 2. A participial phrase consists of a participle plus modifier(s), object(s), and/or complement(s). 3. Participles and participial phrases must be placed as close to the nouns or pronouns they modify as

possible, and those nouns or pronouns must be clearly stated. 4. A participial phrase is set off with commas when it:

o a) comes at the beginning of a sentence o b) interrupts a sentence as a nonessential element o c) comes at the end of a sentence and is separated from the word it modifies.

InfinitivesAn infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb (in its simplest "stem" form) and functioning as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The infinitive may function as a subject, direct

object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Although an infinitive is easy to locate because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can

sometimes be confusing. To wait seemed foolish when decisive action was required. (subject) Everyone wanted to go. (direct object) His ambition is to fly. (subject complement) He lacked the strength to resist. (adjective) We must study to learn. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitive—a verbal consisting of to plus a verb—with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of to plus a noun or pronoun and any modifiers.

Infinitives: to fly, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong

Prepositional Phrases: to him, to the committee, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address

An Infinitive Phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s),

or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive, such as:

We intended to leave early .

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.to leave (infinitive)early (adverb)

I have a paper to write before class .

The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper.to write (infinitive)before class (prepositional phrase as adverb)

Phil agreed to give me a ride .

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.to give (infinitive)me (indirect object of action expressed in infinitive)a ride (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

They asked me to bring some food .

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.me (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)to bring (infinitive)some food (direct object of action expressed in infinitive)

Everyone wanted Carol to be the captain of the team .

The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.Carol (actor or "subject" of infinitive phrase)to be (infinitive)the captain (subject complement for Carol, via state of being expressed in infinitive)of the team (prepositional phrase as adjective)

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.

To buy a basket of flowers, John had to spend his last dollar. To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Points to remember1. An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to plus a verb; it may be used as a noun, adjective, or

adverb. 2. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus modifier(s), object(s), complement(s), and/or actor(s). 3. An infinitive phrase requires a comma only if it is used as an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.

Split infinitives ~ occur when additional words are included between to and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.

Examples: I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)

On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised) I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)

I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

Transitive and Intransitive VerbsA transitive verb, used with a direct object, transmits action to an object and may also have an indirect object, which indicates to or for whom the action is done.

In contrast, an intransitive verb never takes an object.

Transitive Verbs

My sister broke the window.

In this first sentence, the word that comes after the verb, window, is the object of the verb. We say that window is the object because it receives the action of the verb. All objects of verbs receive the action of the verb.

Here are some more examples of transitive verbs with their objects:

I sold some books. I took the bus. I bought a radio. I understood her question. I wrote a letter.

When a verb has an object that receives the action of the verb, we say that the verb is transitive. Transitive verbs are more common than intransitive verbs.

Intransitive Verbs

My father cried.

We can see in this sentence that there is no word after cried. In other words, there is no object for the word--there is no noun to receive the action of the word. Think about it--what could we say? My father cried something. Is there a noun that we could use after cried? We could probably think of one or two nouns, like tears, or even, good-bye, but normally, we do not use the verb cry with an object.

In this case we say that this verb is intransitive because it does not have an object after it.

Here are some more examples of intransitive verbs:

I slept. I coughed. The glass fell. My cat ran. The sun rose.

We should notice that in each case, the subject is doing the action of the verb and nothing receives the action.

The meaning of a transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object, as in the following examples:

INCOMPLETE The shelf holds. COMPLETE The shelf holds three books and a vase of flowers. INCOMPLETE The committee named. COMPLETE The committee named a new chairperson. INCOMPLETE The child broke. COMPLETE The child broke the plate.

An intransitive verb, on the other hand, cannot take a direct object:

This plant has thrived on the south windowsill.

The compound verb "has thrived" is intransitive and takes no direct object in this sentence. The prepositional phrase "on the south windowsill" acts as an adverb describing where the plant thrives.

The sound of the choir carried through the cathedral.

The verb "carried" is used intransitively in this sentence and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "through the cathedral" acts as an adverb describing where the sound carried.

The train from Montreal arrived four hours late.

The intransitive verb "arrived" takes no direct object, and the noun phrase "four hours late" acts as an adverb describing when the train arrived.

Since the company was pleasant and the coffee both plentiful and good, we lingered in the restaurant for several hours.

The verb "lingered" is used intransitively and takes no direct object. The prepositional phrase "in the restaurant for several hours" acts as an adverb modifying "lingered."

The painting was hung on the south wall of the reception room.

The compound verb "was hung" is used intransitively and the sentence has no direct object. The prepositional phrase "on the south wall of the reception room" acts as a adverb describing where the paint hung.

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive, depending on their context in the sentence. In the following pairs of sentences, the first sentence uses the verb transitively and the second uses the same verb intransitively:

transitive According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.

In this example, the verb "leave" takes a direct object, the noun phrase "this goo."

intransitive We would like to stay longer, but we must leave.

In this example, the verb "leave" does not take a direct object.

transitive The audience attentively watched the latest production of The Trojan Women.

In this example, the verb "watch" is used transitively and takes the noun phrase "the latest production of The Trojan Women" as a direct object.

intransitive The cook watched while the new dishwasher surreptitiously picked up the fragments of the broken dish.

In this example, the verb "watched" is used intransitively and takes no direct object.

intransitive The crowd moves across the field in an attempt to see the rock star get into her helicopter.

Here the verb "moves" is used as an intransitive verb and takes no direct object.

transitive Every spring, William moves all boxes and trunks from one side of the attic to the other.

In this sentence "moves" is used as a transitive verb and takes the noun phrase "all the boxes and trunk" as a direct object.

Active Voice verbs tell the reader that the subject is the performer of the action described by the verb.  The subject is thus the agent:

"The boy runs": the boy (the subject) is the one performing the action of the verb.

"The boy watches the dog": the boy (the subject) is the one performing the action (watching) upon the direct object (the dog).

Passive Voice verbs tell the reader that the subject receives the action described by the verb.  The subject is thus the patient:

"The boy is watched by the dog": the boy (the subject) is the one upon whom the action of the verb is done upon (watching) by the agent (the dog).

Passive verbs are also usually transitive verbs since when an active sentence is transformed into a passive one, the direct object of the transitive active becomes the subject of the passive.

You'll lay an egg if you don't lie down

The principal parts (most-common verb forms) of lie are: lie (present,) lay (past) and lain (past participle).

     The principal parts of lay are: lay (present), laid (past) and laid (past participle).

       As an aid in choosing the correct verb forms, remember that lie means to recline, whereas lay means to put something down.

     • Lie means that the actor (subject) is doing something to himself or herself. It's what grammarians call a complete verb. When accompanied by subjects, complete verbs tell

the whole story.

     • Lay, on the other hand, means that the subject is acting on something or someone else; therefore, it requires a complement to make sense. Thus lay always takes a direct object. Lie never does.

     More on “lie”: In its simplest (command) form, when the you is implied, lie is a sentence all by itself. If you tell your dog, “Lie,” as in “(You) lie (down),” that's a complete sentence. (The same is true, by the way, of sit.) In written material, we generally use down with lie when we mean to recline not because down is needed grammatically but because we wish to distinguish from the regular verb lie, meaning to tell an untruth (as in lie, lied, lied).

     Tip: Always remember that lay is a transitive verb and requires a direct object. (A transitive verb acts as a conveyor belt, transmitting action or influence from the subject to the object.) The common saying, “Let's lay out in the sun,” is not only incorrect grammatically, it suggests a public promiscuity that's frowned on even in this age of sexual permissiveness because you're implying the existence of a direct object of lay: “Let's lay (her/him?) out in the sun.” Not that there's anything wrong with THAT! It's just ungrammatical unless you're talking about sex.

Correct Usage:

Lie Present tense: I lie down on my bed to rest my weary bones. Past tense: Yesterday, I lay there thinking about what I had to do during the day. Past participle: But I remembered that I had lain there all morning one day last week.

Lay Present tense: As I walk past, I lay the tools on the workbench. Past tense: As I walked past, I laid the tools on the workbench. And: I laid an egg in class when I tried to tell that joke. Past participle: . . . I had laid the tools on the workbench.

AN IMPORTANT TIP:      Here's an easy way to get it right — every time — without remembering all that gobbleygook above.      When you bump into a lie-lay conundrum — when you aren't absolutely, 110 percent sure — do this quick little exercise.*      Write these six words — “lie, lay, lain” (to recline); then beside or below them — “lay, laid, laid” (to place or put down).

Lie Lay LainLay Laid Laid

"Lay" is a verb meaning to put or place something somewhere. It takes a direct object. Its principal parts are "lay," "laid," "laid," and "laying."

Examples: Every day I lay the book on the table. Yesterday I laid the book on the table. I have laid the book on

the table many times. I am laying the book on the table right now.

In all these examples, the verb is a form of the word "lay," and the direct object is "book."

"Lie" is, in this context, a verb meaning to recline. It does not take an object. Its principal parts are "lie," "lay," "lain," and "lying."

Examples: Every night I lie down. I lay down last night. I have lain down many times. I am lying down right now.

If you're in doubt about whether to use "lay" or "lie," try substituting a form of the verb "place." If it makes sense, use a form of "lay."

Lie is an intransitive verb (one that does not take an object), meaning "to recline."  Its principal parts are lie (base form), lay (past tense), lain (past participal), and lying (present participle).

[Lie meaning "to tell an untruth" uses lied for both the past tense and past participle, with lying as the present participle.]

Lay is a transitive verb (one that takes an object), meaning "to put" or "to place."  Its principal parts are lay (base form), laid (past tense), laid (past participle), and laying (present participle).

The two words have different meanings and are not interchangeable.  Although lay also serves as the past tense of lie (to recline) – as in, "He lay down for a nap an hour ago" – lay (or laying) may not otherwise be used to denote reclining.  It is not correct to say or write, "I will lay down for nap" or "He is laying down for a nap."  The misuse of lay or laying in the sense of "to recline" (which requires lie or lying) is the most common error involving the confusion of these two words.> Once you lay (put or place) a book on the desk, it is lying (reclining, resting) there, not laying there.

> When you go to Bermuda for your vacation, you spend your time lying (not laying) on the beach (unless, of course, you are engaged in sexual activity and are, in the vernacular, laying someone on the beach).

> You lie down on the sofa to watch TV and spend the entire evening lying there; you do not lay down on the sofa to watch TV and spend the entire evening laying there.

> If you see something lying on the ground, it is just resting there; if you see something laying on the ground, it must be doing something else, such as laying eggs.

She lays it down, laid it down, has laid it down, is laying it down. (The verb to lay takes an object; to lie doesn't.)She lies down, lay down, has lain down, is lying down

LIE first person third person

present I lie in bed she lies in bed

past I lay in bed she lay in bed

perfect form I have lain in bed she has lain in bed

participle form I am lying in bed she is lying in bed

LAY first person third person

present I lay it down she lays it down

past I laid it down she laid it down

perfect form I have laid it down she has laid it down

participle form I am laying it down she is laying it down

Who vs Whom: "If I spoke perfect English, to whom would I speak it?" When we speak, we

almost always speak in informal situations, and we therefore use an informal dialect. In speaking most of those informal dialects we seldom worry about who

and whom.

Who ya gonna take to da dance, huh, Frank, who?

Or something like that is how most of us would ask Frank about his dancing partner, most of the time. But on formal occasions:

Whom will you take to the dance, Franklin? Whom?

This is all about the tone of your message, not the meaning of the words. And there will come times when you would like to use a tone in which there is a difference between who and whom.

Here's the difference:

Use "who" when it is the subject of the sentence or a predicate noun.

Subject of the sentence:

Who goes there?

Oh, for heaven's sake, who did this to Henrietta?

Predicate noun:

Fenwick Fenstermeir is who!

He is who!

Use "whom" when it is the direct object, indirect object or object of a preposition.

Direct Object:

Whom did you fire?

Helpful hint: since we tend to move words around when we ask a question, changing the question into a statement might help you to realize how a word in the front of the sentence ["whom"] is actually a direct object which is usually found at the end of a sentence:

 "You did fire whom?"

Indirect Object:

Whom will you give the prize?

"You" is the subject and "prize" is the direct object, and "whom" is the indirect object.

You may think of indirect objects as objects of the preposition, "to" or "for", only without the preposition:

You will give the prize to whom?

More Objects of a Preposition:

You threw your typewriter at whom?

Or, less excitedly:

At whom did you throw your typewriter?

"Don't ask for whom the bell tolls, it tolls for thee." wrote John Donne.

EXERCISES: Read each of the following sentences carefully then correctly fill in each blank with either the word “WHO” or ‘WHOM.”

1. The defendant claimed he heard voices that told him ___________________ he should kill next.

2. Coach Fuentes says he doesn't know ________ is going to bring the ball up against Notre Dame's fine defense.

3. I don't care ___________________ takes responsibility for this accident, but somebody should.

4. Of all her students in French 101, ________________ did Mrs. Bongiorno seem to like the most?

5. Congressman Williams is the candidate ___________________ the voters feel is best qualified.

6. When Tanya tried to recall the names of all her aunts and uncles, most of____________ she had never met, she came up with only half of them.

7. "This is a woman _________________ most of us have hardly known at all," said Mr. McKenzie at Eleanor's hearing.

8. __________________ is your best friend now?

9. I really don't care ___________________ she's going out with.

10. ______________________ do you want to speak to?

11. If I had known ____________________ that was, I would have spoken to him.

12. Everyone ____________________ received an invitation should plan to attend.

13. He is a person ____________________, I think, we should honor.

14. ____________________ did you meet at the mall?

15. There are several people ____________________ I believe should be included.

16. ____________________ do you think will be elected?

17. The person for ____________________ this package was intended does not live here.

18. ____________________ will you accompany to the meeting this afternoon?

19. We did not know ____________________ the land belonged to.

20. ____________________ do you think we took with us on our vacation?

21. ____________________ should be notified concerning the problem?

22. ____________________ do you have business with at city hall?

23. ____________________ did you say this letter was for?

24. He is an author ____________________, you know, has written three books.

25. He is a man ____________________ I know well.

Comma Usage: Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses

          Whether a relative clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive matters for two reasons:             1. Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas, while nonrestrictive relative clauses are.             2. As a general rule, the pronoun "that" should be used for restrictive relative clauses, and "which"

should be used for nonrestrictive relative clauses.*

NON-RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSESIf a relative clause adds parenthetical, nondefining information, it is nonrestrictive.  A nonrestrictive

(parenthetical) element is set off by commas, as in these examples:               ~Mr. Smith, who is a well-respected lawyer, has just retired from active practice.               ~Professor James, who is an expert in Victorian poetry, will be giving a lecture tonight.

MORE EXAMPLES:               ~Your task, which is to seek out new civilizations and boldly go where no man has gone before, will     probably occupy the rest of your adult life.

               ~Kofi Annan, who is the current U.N. Secretary General, has spent much of his tenure working to         promote peace in the Third World.

              ~This is Jennifer, who is my college roommate's youngest daughter.

              ~That book, which is the novel I was reading last week, is the one I meant for you to take to the beach   with you.

         RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES

When the relative clause limits or restricts the noun or noun substitute (substantive) it modifies, it is restrictive, and it is not set off by commas.~My brother that lives in Arizona is named Pat.

          In this sentence the clause "that lives in Arizona" is needed to specify which brother, since the reader has no other way of knowing how many brothers the writer has or which brother is being referred to.   (One way to think of the issue of restrictive and non-restrictive elements is that a restrictive element provides information that is necessary to narrow the field of candidates down to one.)

But check out this example:~My other brother, who lives in Texas, is named Sam.

          In this sentence the first substantive, the noun phrase "My other brother," conveys the information that the writer has only two brothers, and it also specifies which of those two brothers is being referred to, so the fact that he lives in Texas is extra information--not necessary for specifying which of two brothers is being referred to.  In fact, although the brother's name is given in this sentence, the name itself isn't actually needed to narrow the

field of candidates to one: the phrase "my other brother" indicates that the writer has only two brothers, and it also specifies which of thoise two brothers he is referring to. (Obviously, the would not say "my other brother" except in a context where he has just referred to the first brother.)

          If the relative clause "who lives in Texas" were treated as restrictive, then the sentence would convey the information that the writer has two brothers who live in Texas, and that would only make sense if another brother living in Texas had already been mentioned:

                ~I have two brothers that live in Texas. One is named Eric. My other brother who lives in Texas isnamed Sam.

Judgment CallsSometimes whether to treat a relative clause as restrictive or nonrestrictive is simply a judgment call.

                ~My sister, who is even blonder than I am, is named Linda.

          In this example, the information that Linda "is even blonder than I am" is extra. Since the main clause names the sister as Linda, the information in the relative clause is not necessary to identify which of the writer's sisters he is referring to.

          But this relative clause could be treated as restrictive, giving the sentence a slightly different meaning:

                 ~My sister who is even blonder than I am is named Linda.

This version of the sentence indicates that the purpose is to call the reader's attention to a specific sister--the one "who is even deafer than I am," as opposed to one or more other sisters who are not.

This is an important point: sometimes whether a clause is restrictive or nonrestrictive is determined by subtleties of meaning, and it is up to the writer to make sure that the sentence says exactly what he

means.

                ~My youngest sister, who has three children, is named Carol.            In this example, the phrase "my youngest sister" doesn't tell exactly how many sisters I have (though it does indicate three or more, because "youngest" is in the superlative form).  But it does specify exactly which one I am referring to, as there can be only one "youngest sister," so the information about the three children is extra information, not needed to specify which one of however many sisters I am referring to.

                ~My daughter recently attended a Shakespearean play that was being performed at the rebuilt Globe Theater in London.

          In this case, the relative clause "that was being performed at the rebuilt Globe Theater in London" is restrictive because it is being used to specify which Shakespearean play she attended. There are many Shakespearean plays, and they are being performed all the time in many places. The relative clause narrows the field of candidates down to one.

          But this is another sentence where the relative clause could be treated as nonrestrictive, giving a slightly different meaning to the sentence:                ~My daughter recently attended a Shakespearean play, which was being performed at the rebuilt Globe Theater in London.

This version of the sentence emphasizes the fact that the play was being performed in the rebuilt Globe Theater, not which play she attended.

QUICK SUMMARY:

        1.  If the clause is restrictive, choose "that" over "which" (about a 99% rule), and don't set the clause off with commas. 

        2.  If the clause is nonrestrictive, choose "which" over "that" and do set the clause off with commas.**

  * About a 99% rule.** The relative pronoun "who" can govern both restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses.

That Versus WhichThe traditional approach to this question is to use "that" with restrictive clauses and

"which" with nonrestrictive clauses. While some writers seem to have abandoned the distinction entirely, no better rule has come along to replace the traditional rule. Moreover, the

rule is easy to master.

1.  Use "that" with restrictive clauses. A restrictive clause is one that limits -- or restricts --the identity of the subject in some way. When writing a restrictive clause, introduce it with the word "that" and no comma. (However, if the subject is or was a human being, use "who" to introduce the clause.) Correct Restrictive Use:

The painting that was hanging in the foyer was stolen.

Explanation: The use of "that" in this sentence is correct if the reader intends to single out the one painting that was in the foyer as the stolen painting. However, if there were several paintings hanging in the foyer, this use would be incorrect, since it would mislead the reader into believing that there had been only one painting in the foyer. The restriction here tells us that the one painting that had been hanging in the foyer was stolen -- not the painting in the living room, or the one in the drawing room, or any of those in the parlor.   2.  Use "which" with nonrestrictive clauses. A nonrestrictive clause may tell us something interesting or incidental about a subject, but it does not define that subject. When writing a nonrestrictive clause, introduce it with "which" and insert commas around the clause. (However, if the subject is or was a human being, use "who" to introduce the clause and insert commas around the clause.) Correct Nonrestrictive Use:

The painting, which was hanging in the foyer, was stolen.

Explanation: While this nonrestrictive use tells us that the painting was hanging in the foyer, it does not tell us which of the several paintings in the foyer was the stolen painting. It would be incorrect to use this nonrestrictive clause if there had been only one painting in the foyer, as the sentence leaves open the possibility that there were others.   3.  Combining Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses. One can provide both limiting and nonlimiting information about a subject in a single sentence. Consider the following. Correct Use of Both Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses: The Van Gogh that was hanging in the foyer, which we purchased in 1929 for $10,000,

was stolen.

Explanation: The restrictive clause beginning with "that" tells us that there was only one Van Gogh hanging in the foyer and that it was stolen. The nonrestrictive clause beginning with "which" tells us what the owner had paid for the painting, but it does not tell us that the owner did not pay another $10,000 for another painting in the same year. It does not limit the possibilities to the Van Gogh that was in the foyer.   4.  Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses beginning with "Who." When writing about human beings, we use "who" rather than "that" or "which" to introduce a clause telling us something about that human being. Since "who" is the only option, we distinguish between a restrictive use and a nonrestrictive use by the use of commas. Correct Restrictive Use:

The suspect in the lineup who has red hair committed the crime.

Note how the subject "suspect" in this sentence is restricted in two ways: we know that this suspect is both in the lineup and has red hair. As a result, we know that the other suspects, who are not in the lineup, could not have committed the crime. Moreover, of those suspects in the lineup, we know that the one suspect in the lineup with red hair committed the crime. If there were more than one suspect in the lineup with red hair, the above usage would be incorrect because it implies a different meaning. Correct Nonrestrictive Use:

The suspect in the lineup, who owns a red car, committed the crime.

In this example, the restrictive clause "in the lineup" tells us that of all possible suspects in the world, the one who committed the crime is in the lineup. However, while the nonrestrictive clause "who owns a red car" tells us

something about the suspect, it does not foreclose the possibility that there are several different suspects in the lineup with red cars. The car color may tell us something useful, but it does not restrict us to only one possibility.

Specific vs. All

RESTRICTIVE -- REFERS TO A SPECIFIC ONE/ KIND  - NONRESTRICTIVE -- REFERS TO ALL

USE NO COMMAS USE COMMAS

The bio-scientist who creates green energy will make a profit.(True for one kind of bio-scientist.) 

The bio-scientist, who creates green energy, will make a profit. (True for all scientists classified as bio-scientists.) 

The "green" household that reduces waste will save energy.(True for one kind of household.)

The "green" household, which reduces waste, will save energy.(True for all green households.)  

NOTE: Who or that can be used, not which. NOTE: Who or which can be used, not that.

The Appositive An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right

beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples:

The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.

The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table.

The insect, a large, hairy-legged cockroach that has spied my bowl of oatmeal, is crawling across the kitchen table.

Here are more examples:During the dinner conversation, Clifford, the messiest eater at the table, spewed mashed potatoes like an erupting volcano.

My 286 computer, a modern-day dinosaur, chews floppy disks as noisily as my brother does peanut brittle.

Genette's bedroom desk, the biggest disaster area in the house, is a collection of overdue library books, dirty plates, computer components, old mail, cat hair, and empty potato chip bags.

Reliable, Diane's eleven-year-old beagle, chews holes in the living room carpeting as if he were still a puppy.

Punctuate the appositive correctly:The important point to remember is that a nonessential appositive is always separated from the rest of the

sentence with comma(s).

When the appositive begins the sentence, it looks like this:A hot-tempered tennis player, Robbie charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

When the appositive interrupts the sentence, it looks like this:Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player, charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

And when the appositive ends the sentence, it looks like this:Upset by the bad call, the crowd cheered Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player who charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

An appositive is a noun or pronoun -- often with modifiers -- set beside another noun or pronoun to explain or identify it. Here are some examples of appositives.

An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it may also precede it.

Punctuation of appositives

In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.

Here are some examples.

Here we do not put commas around the appositive, because it is essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be The popular US president was known for his

eloquent and inspirational speeches. We wouldn't know which president was being referred to.

Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and traditional speeches. We still know who the subject of the sentence is without the appositive.

Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without the appositive.

My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.

The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large rowboat.

Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs. Hammon.

The actor Paul Newman directed only one picture.

Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally troubled woman.

Predicate NominativeA predicate nominative or predicate noun completes a linking verb and

renames the subject. It is a complement or completer because it completes the verb.

Predicate nominatives complete only linking verbs. The linking verbs include the following: the helping verbs is, am, are, was, were, be, being, and been; the sense verbs look, taste, smell, feel, and sound; and verbs like become, seem, appear, grow, continue,

stay, and turn.

The verb in a sentence having a predicate nominative can always be replaced by the word equals.

Examples: Mr. Johanson is a teacher. Mr. Johanson equals a teacher. Mr. Johanson is a father. Mr. Johanson equals a father. Mr. Johanson is my neighbor. Mr. Johanson equals my neighbor.

Nominative Absolute A nominative absolute is a noun phrase that begins or ends a sentence. The phrase has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. Most nominative absolutes contain a participle or participial phrase which

modifies the noun or pronoun.

Example: The weather being rainy, we decided to postpone the trip

Recognize a subordinate clause when you see one.

A subordinate clause—also called a dependent clause—will begin with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject

and a verb. This combination of words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the thought.

Here is a list of subordinate conjunctions:

afteralthough

asbecausebeforeeven if

even thoughif

in order that

onceprovided thatrather than

sinceso thatthanthat

thoughunless

untilwhen

wheneverwhere

whereaswhereverwhether

whilewhy

Here are your relative pronouns:

thatwhich

whichever

whowhoever

whom

whosewhoseverwhomever

Now take a look at these examples:

After Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad

After = subordinate conjunction; Amy = subject; sneezed = verb.

Once Adam smashed the spider

Once = subordinate conjunction; Adam = subject; smashed = verb.

Until Mr. Sanchez has his first cup of coffee

Until = subordinate conjunction; Mr. Sanchez = subject; has = verb.

Who ate handfuls of Cheerios with his bare hands

Who = relative pronoun; Who = subject; ate = verb.

Remember this important point: A subordinate clause cannot stand alone as a sentence because it does not provide a complete thought. The reader is left wondering, "So what happened?" A word group that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period must

contain at least one main clause. Otherwise, you will have written a fragment, a major error.

After Amy sneezed all over the tuna salad.

So what happened? Did Amy throw it down the garbage disposal or serve it on toast to her friends? No complete thought = fragment.

Once Adam smashed the spider.

So what happened? Did Belinda cheer him for his bravery or lecture him on animal rights? No complete thought = fragment.

Until Mr. Sanchez has his first cup of coffee.

So what happens? Is he too sleepy to work, or does he have a grumpy disposition? No complete thought = fragment.

Who ate handfuls of Cheerios with his bare hands.

So what happened? Were the roommates shocked, or did they ask him to pass the box so that they could do the same? No complete thought = fragment.

Correctly attach a subordinate clause to a main clause.

When you attach a subordinate clause in front of  a main clause, use a comma, like this:

S U B O R D I N A T E C L A U S E + , + M A I N C L A U S E .

Even though the broccoli was covered in cheddar cheese , Emily refused to eat it.

Unless Christine finishes her calculus homework , she will have to suffer Mr. Nguyen's wrath

in class tomorrow.

While Bailey slept on the sofa in front of the television , Samson, the family dog, gnawed on

the leg of the coffee table.

When you attach a subordinate clause at the end of a main clause, you will generally use no punctuation, like this:

M A I N C L A U S E + Ø + S U B O R D I N A T E C L A U S E .

Tanya did poorly on her history exam Ø because her best friend Giselle insisted on gossiping during their study session the night before .

Jonathon spent his class time reading comic books Ø since his average was a 45 one week before final exams .

Diane decided to plant tomatoes in the back of the yard Ø where the sun blazed the longest during the day .

Punctuate carefully when the subordinate clause begins with a relative pronoun.

Subordinate clauses can begin with relative pronouns [and thus are called relative clauses, a type of subordinate clause]. When a subordinate clause starts with who, whose, or which, for example, punctuation gets a little bit trickier. Sometimes you will need a comma, and sometimes you won't, depending on whether the clause is essential or nonessential.

When the information in the relative clause clarifies an otherwise general noun, the clause is essential and will follow the same pattern that you saw above:

M A I N C L A U S E + Ø + E S S E N T I A L R E L A T I V E C L A U S E .

Nick gave a handful of potato chips to the dog Ø who was sniffing around the picnic tables .

Dog is a general noun. Which one are we talking about? The relative clause who was sniffing around the picnic tables clarifies the animal that we mean. The clause is thus essential and requires no punctuation.

When a relative clause follows a specific noun, punctuation changes. The information in the relative clause is no longer as important, and the clause becomes nonessential. Nonessential clauses require you to use commas to connect them.

M A I N C L A U S E + , + N O N E S S E N T I A L R E L A T I V E C L A U S E .

Nick gave a handful of potato chips to Button , who was sniffing around the picnic tables.

Button, the name of a unique dog, lets us know which animal we mean. The information in the relative clause is no longer important and needs to be separated from the main clause with a comma.

Relative clauses can also interrupt a main clause. When this happens, use no punctuation for an essential clause. If the clause is nonessential, separate it with a comma in front and a comma behind. Take a look at these examples:

After dripping mustard all over his chest, the man Ø who was wearing a red shirt Ø

wished that he had instead chosen ketchup for his hotdog.

After dripping mustard all over his chest, Charles, who was wearing a red shirt , wished

that he had instead chosen ketchup for his hotdog.

Use subordination to combine ideas effectively.

Writers use subordination to combine two ideas in a single sentence. Read these two simple sentences:

Rhonda gasped. A six-foot snake slithered across the sidewalk.

Since the two simple sentences are related, you can combine them to express the action more effectively:

Rhonda gasped when a six-foot snake slithered across the sidewalk.

If the two ideas have unequal importance, save the most important one for the end of the sentence so that your reader remembers it best. If we rewrite the example above so that the two ideas are flipped, the wrong point gets emphasized:

When a six-foot snake slithered across the side walk, Rhonda gasped.

A reader is less concerned with Rhonda's reaction than the presence of a giant snake on the sidewalk!

A subordinate clause is usually introduced by a subordinating element such as a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. It depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. It does not express a complete thought, so it does not stand alone. It must always be attached to a main clause that completes the meaning.

Subordinate clauses normally act as single part of speech. They can be either noun clauses, adjective clauses, or adverb clauses.

They are sometimes called dependent clauses because they "depend" on a main clause to give them meaning.

The italicized clauses above are subordinate clauses. The first one is an adjective clause because it describes a noun (the word clause). The second one is an adverb clause which describes a verb (the word called).

Adjective and Adverbial Clauses

What is an adjective clause?

An adjective clause is a subordinate clause which functions as an adjective and modifies a noun or pronoun.

Example: Here is the important person.

"Important" is an adjective which modifies the noun "person."

Here is the person who wanted to meet you.

The clause "who wanted to meet you" modifies the noun "person."

What is an adverb clause?

An adverb clause is a subordinate clause which functions as an adverb and modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb or an entire main clause.

Example: We could go to a movie tomorrow.

"Tomorrow" is an adverb which modifies "go."

We could go to a movie unless you have other plans.

The clause "unless you have other plans" modifies the entire independent clause "we could go to a movie."

We left the party quickly.

"Quickly" is an adverb which modifies the verb "left."

We left the party when the police arrived.

The clause "when the police arrived" modifies the verb "left."

A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and a dependent clause.

Example: The television was playing (independent clause which can stand alone and make sense) as I left the room (dependent clause which must be attached to the independent clause to make sense).

There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adjective clause, adverb clause and noun clause.

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb. It usually modifies the verb.

Adverb clauses are introduced by subordinate conjunctions including after, although, as, as if, before, because, if, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, where, and while. These are just some of the more common ones.

Example: They arrived before the game had ended. ("before the game had ended" is the adverb clause modifying the verb arrived telling when.)

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses are dependent clauses that modify verbs and verb phrases. Adverbial clauses answer questions about the verb phrase that relate to time, location, purpose, and condition. Consider

what kinds of questions the clause answers. If the clause you are tying to identify answers the question "why?", "when?", "where?", "to what degree?", or "under what conditions?" then it is an

adverbial clause. Consider the following examples of adverbial clauses:

The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed.

The clause because the restaurant was closed answers questions about why the hostess wouldn't seat us.

The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light.

In this example, wherever there is enough light is an adverbial clause because it specifies where the seeds will take root.

Sean will come to your party if you promise to let his band play.

The adverbial clause if you promise to let my band play clarifies the conditions under which Sean will come to the party.

Adverbial Clauses are Movable

Adverbial clauses are more easily movable within sentences than adjective clauses. The following examples from above can be restructured and still be grammatical:

The hostess wouldn't seat us because the restaurant was closed. Because the restaurant was closed, the hostess wouldn't seat us. The seeds will take root wherever there is enough light. Wherever there is enough light, the seeds will take root.

It is important to note that when an adverbial clause precedes the sentence's independent clause, it is always separated with a comma.

Adjective Clauses

Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that modify nouns or pronouns. Much like adverbial clauses, you should try to determine what kinds of questions the clause in questions answers. Adjective

clauses clarify the noun or noun phrase by answering questions about "which?" or "what type of?"

The guitar, which was the one Elvis used to own, was found at a garage sale. Whitey broke the law which lead to his incarceration. Jeremy, who won the lottery, now lives in Malibu.

In these examples, the adjective clauses provide information that answers the question of "which."

Unlike adverbial clauses, adjective clauses typically can't be moved without constructing sentences that are ungrammatical.

Which was the one Elvis used to own the guitar was found at a garage sale. The guitar was found at a garage sale which was the one Elvis used to own.

Neither sentence above makes grammatical sense when the adjective clause is moved. This is a useful fact to consider when teaching students how to determine if a clause is an adverbial clause or an adjective clause.

If the sentence ceases to make sense when the clause is moved, it is more likely an adjective clause rather than an adverbial clause.

PronounsDefinition. - A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns can be in one of three cases: Subject, Object, or

Possessive.

Rule 1.

Subject pronouns are used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence. You can remember subject pronouns easily by filling in the blank subject space for a simple sentence.

  Example: ______ did the job.I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

Rule 2.

Subject pronouns are also used if they rename the subject. They follow to be verbs such as is, are, was, were, am, and will be.

  Examples: It is he.

This is she speaking.

It is we who are responsible for the decision to downsize.

  NOTE: In spoken English, most people tend to follow to be verbs with object pronouns. Many English teachers support (or at least have given in to) this distinction between written and spoken English.

Example: It could have been them.

Better: It could have been they.

Example: It is just me at the door.

Better: It is just I at the door.

Rule 3.

Object pronouns are used everywhere else (direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition). Object pronouns are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them.

  Examples: Jean talked to him.

Are you talking to me?

To be able to choose pronouns correctly, you must learn to identify clauses. A clause is a group of words containing a verb and subject.

Rule 4a.

A strong clause can stand on its own.

  Examples: She is hungry.

I am feeling well today.

Rule 4b.

A weak clause begins with words such as although, since, if, when, and because. Weak clauses cannot stand on their own.

  Examples: Although she is hungry...

If she is hungry...

Since I am feeling well...

Rule 4c.

If a sentence contains more than one clause, isolate the clauses so that you can decide which pronoun is correct.

  Examples: Weak Strong

[Although she is hungry,] [she will give him some of her food.]

[Although this gift is for him,] [I would like you to have it too.]

Rule 5.

To decide whether to use the subject or object pronoun after the words than or as, mentally complete the sentence.

  Examples: Tranh is as smart as she/her.If we mentally complete the sentence, we would say, "Tranh is as smart as she is." Therefore, she is the correct answer.

Zoe is taller than I/me.Mentally completing the sentence, we have, "Zoe is taller than I am."

Daniel would rather talk to her than I/me.We can mentally complete this sentence in two ways: "Daniel would rather talk to her than to me." OR "Daniel would rather talk to her than I would." As you can see, the meaning will change depending on the pronoun you choose.

Rule 6.

Possessive pronouns show ownership and never need apostrophes.Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

  NOTE The only time it's has an apostrophe is when it is a contraction for it is or it has.

Examples: It's a cold morning.

The thermometer reached its highest reading.

Rule 7.

Reflexive pronouns - myself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves, yourself, yourselves- should be used only when they refer back to another word in the sentence.

  Correct: I worked myself to the bone.

Incorrect: My brother and myself did it.The word myself does not refer back to another word.

Correct: My brother and I did it.

Incorrect: Please give it to John or myself.

Correct: Please give it to John or me.

The correct use of pronouns is a problem for many writers. Your pronouns must agree with the nouns that precede them (called the antecedents of the pronouns). There are two types

of agreement that must be correct: agreement in person and agreement in number.

NUMBER AGREEMENT: This seems like a no-brainer: if you use a singular noun, use a singular pronoun; a plural noun, a plural pronoun. You should be aware of some complicating factors, however.

Sometimes pronouns can actually take other pronouns. There are a group of pronouns known as indefinite pronouns:

o everybody, everything, each, anybody, anyone, anything, either, nobody, neither, no one, someone, something.

Despite the fact that several of these words may seem to refer to zero people or things or multiple people or things, grammatically all of these words are singular, and will only take "he," "she," or "it" for pronouns.

Ex: NO: Everyone should do their best      YES: Everyone should do his best.

PRONOUN CLARITY: there are several situations which commonly cause problems -- see if any of these apply to your writing.

Pronoun Case: "She" or Her"? "He and I" or "Him and Me"? Me, Myself and I? 1. Whether the pronoun is the subject or the object of the sentence will determine whether you use

what is called the subjective or objective case of the pronoun. You know that generally you use "she" as the subject and "her" as the object, but pay attention to the following situation:

It was she.

You may not think that looks correct, but it is; we do not use "her" here because the word "she" completes the meaning of the subject "it."

2. Another situation which we often encounter is that of using more than one pronoun at once, as in the following sentence:

Walter called him and me into the room.

Sounds odd, right? Well this is correct, because both "him" and "me" are in the objective case in this situation (they are being acted upon by the actor in the sentence and the verb). Thus, you know that if you hear "Walter called he and I into the room," that is incorrect. The easy way to avoid the odd sound here is to say "us," but be aware of this problem in other situations.

3. Finally, the use of the words "myself," "himself," etc. These are NOT interchangeable with regular pronouns such as "I" or "me"! "Myself," etc., are called intensive or reflexive pronouns. This means that they are used for greater emphasis or specificity than regular pronouns:

EX: Reflexive: I hit myself in the head with the ball.     Intensive: You can wash your muddy dog yourself!

EX: NO: Jordan called Joel and myself.     YES: Jordan called Joel and me.

MUDDY PRONOUN REFERENCES: these are the situations which create comical or very confusing sentences because your reader is not sure which noun the pronoun is supposed to refer to. You certainly want to avoid sentences such as these:

EX: I love the Pussy Cat Dolls and chili cheese dogs --they're so hot!Is this a comment on your musical or culinary taste?

EX: Monica told Sheila to pick up her brother at three.What if Monica and Sheila both have brothers?

Another problem situation occurs with the pronouns "this," "that," "it," etc., often at the beginning of a sentence:

EX: The poetic diction of Shelley is the most difficult aspect of "Kubla Khan." This shows his greatness.

There is no set rule to solve this problem in every unique situation, but remember the following:

o Your reader will usually try to connect a pronoun with the noun or pronoun that is the subject of the previous clause or sentence and which most logically fits with it in gender. Thus, in the second example, a reader might, without even thinking, assume that Monica was talking about Sheila's brother, but this might not be the case. Make sure that your connections are logical in terms of word order.

o You may need to change the wording somewhat, sometimes even eliminating the pronoun entirely:

The Spice Girls are my favorite singers and chili cheese dogs are my favorite food!

o Or, you may have to repeat a word or use a noun instead of a pronoun:

Monica asked Sheila to pick up her brother Steve. (Assuming that only one of them has a brother named Steve.)

Monica said her brother Steve would be ready at three so Sheila could pick him up.