Molluscicides from some common medicinal plants of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India

J. Appl. Toxicol. 2010; 30: 1–7 Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Review

Received 4 June 2009, Revised 8 October 2009, Accepted 13 October 2009, Published online in Wiley InterScience: 27 November 2009

(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI 10.1002/jat.1498

Molluscicides from some common medicinal plants of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India

Sunil Kumar Singh, Ram P. Yadav and Ajay Singha*

ABSTRACT: Many aquatic snails act as intermediate hosts for the larvae of trematodes, Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigan-tica, which cause the diseases fascioliasis and schistosomiasis. The WHO has tested several thousands of synthetic compounds for the control of the snail host. Although eff ective, these molluscicides have so far not proved themselves to be entirely satisfactory. With a growing awareness of environmental pollution, eff orts are being made to discover molluscicidal products of plant origin. Being products of biosynthesis, these are potentially biodegradable in nature. Several groups of compounds present in various plants have been found to be toxic to target organisms at acceptable doses ranging from <1 to 100 ppm. Common medicinal plants, i.e. Thevetia peruviana, Alstonia scholaris (Family; Apocynaceae), Euphorbia pulcherima and Euphorbia hirta (Family; Euphorbiaceae), have potent molluscicidal activity against freshwater snails. The toxicological actions of Thevetia peruviana may be due to the presence of apigenin-5-methyl ether (fl avonoid) and triterpenoid glycosides, while a number of alkaloids (pseudo-akuammigine in addition to betulin, ursolic acid and β-sitosterol), steroids and triterpenoids are present in Alstonia scholaris and the diterpenoids, pulcherrol, β-sitosterol, hentriacontane, ellagic acid and β-amyrin are present in Euphorbia hirta and in Euphorbia pulcherima. Although, at present very little literature is available on the control of vector snails through plant origin pesticides, an attempt has been made in this review to assemble all the known informa-tion on molluscicidal properties of common medicinal plants of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, which might be useful for the control of harmful snails. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Keywords: molluscicides; snail; Thevetia peruviana; Alstonia scholaris; Euphorbia pulcherima; Euphorbia hirta

*Correspondence to: A. Singh, Department of Zoology, DDU Gorakhpur University,

Gorakhpur 273 009 (U.P.), India.

E-mail: singhajay_gkp@rediff mail.com

aDepartment of Zoology, DDU Gorakhpur University, Gorakhpur 273 009

(UP), India

INTRODUCTION

Molluscs comprise the second largest group of invertebrate

animals, although the exact number of existing mollusc species

is still a matter of speculation. Abbott (1954) has estimated a total

of about 110 000 living species, 80 000 of which are gastropods,

10 000 bivalves and 5000 belong to the other three classes of

mollusk. Godan (1983), on the other hand, believes the number

of living species to be about 120 000.

Terrestrial snails and slugs cause considerable damage to both

cultivated and useful non-cultivated plants. These animals can

make their appearance in any damp areas; snails also cause con-

siderable damage to vegetable gardens, agriculture crops and

fruit orchards. Singh and Agarwal (1981) reported that Pila

globosa, an amphibious snail, causes damage to paddy crops in

the northern part of India. The larvae of parasite trematodes also

pass part of their life in fresh water. Many aquatic snails act as

vectors for the larvae of trematodes and thereby cause a number

of diseases. Schistosomiasis is caused by Schistosoma. It is a

devastat ing disease of mankind second only to malaria in its

deleterious eff ect (Lambert, 1966; Jobin, 1973). Fascioliasis is

caused by Fasciola hepatica, the large liver fl uke, common in

sheep, cattle, goat and other herbivorous ani mals throughout

the world. Froyed (1975) reported that about 21% cattle and 7%

sheep were infected with liver fl uke in Great Britain. In India, the

freshwater snails Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus

are the intermediate hosts of Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola

gigantica (Hyman, 1970), which cause immense harm to domes-

tic animals of this country (Singh and Agarwal, 1981; Singh, 2000;

Singh et al., 2000, 2004a, b, 2005, 2009; Yadav and Singh, 2001,

2002, 2006, 2007; Yadav et al., 2002, 2005, 2006, 2009; Singh and

Singh, 2003a–c).

The best method of controlling both diseases such as schis-

tosomiasis and fascioliasis is chemotherapy, using orally admin-

istered drugs for individuals with moderate or severe level of

infection. The disadvantage of this approach is that it does not

eliminate the infection entirely, the cost of recurrent treatment

may become prohibitive and drug resistance may become a

problem. A better way to tackle the problem of schistosomiasis

and fascioliasis is destroy the carrier snails and remove an essen-

tial link in the life cycle of the fl ukes. This can be accom plished in

a number of ways, including the use of many synthetic or plant

molluscicides (Agarwal and Singh, 1988; Singh and Agarwal,

1988a; Singh et al., 1996).

SYNTHETIC MOLLUSCICIDE

Godan (1983) and Agarwal and Singh (1988) reviewed the various

types of synthetic molluscicides available for the control of snails.

The major synthetic molluscicides are metaldehyde, niclosamide,

1

S. K. Singh et al.

www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jat Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Appl. Toxicol. 2010; 30: 1–7

carbamate, organophosphate and synthetic pyrethroids. Singh

and Agarwal (1988b) suggested that Lymnaea acuminata, which

is very fast breeder throughout the year, may be possibly be

controlled through chemo sterilization.

The molluscicidal eff ects of metaldehyde have been found

to depend to a great extent on the ambient temperature and

humidity. Moens (1970) established the relationship between

toxicity and temperature for slugs, and demonstrated that the

toxicity of metaldehyde increased with a rise in temperature.

The carbamate pesticides which are currently being used for the

control of various species of gastropods pests are carbaryl (Barry,

1969; Brar and Simwat, 1973), mexacarbamate (Barry, 1969), aldi-

carb (Judge, 1969; Brar and Simwat, 1973) and isolan (Daxl, 1971).

The organophosphorus compound is powerful inhibitors of

cholinesterase and is therefore similar to carbamates in their

mode of action. Unlike carbamate, however, the inhibition

caused by most of these compounds is irreversible (Koelle, 1975;

O’Brien, 1976; Taylor, 1980). Synthetic pyrethroid, a synthetic ana-

logue of pyrethrum, which is extracted from several species of

chrysanthemum plants, has no lethal eff ect on terrestrial snails

while Sahay et al. (1991) reported the toxicity of three synthetic

pyrethroids (cypermethrin, fenvalerate and deltamethrin) singly

and with the synergist piperonyl butoxide against freshwater

snails Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus. Pyrethroids

primarily act on the nerve membrane by changing its permeabil-

ity to Na+ and K+. This causes repetitive discharges of nerves at

the synapses and neuromuscular junctions (Wilkinson, 1976;

Narahashi, 1983).

The use of synthetic or petroleum-based molluscicides for con-

trolling of snails and other target organisms causes serious envi-

ronmental pollution (Redinger, 1976; Mian and Mulla, 1992; Dua

et al., 1998; Susan et al., 1999; Waliszewski et al., 1999). To over-

come the problem, basic research for over 50 years in biology

and biochemistry has made it possible to envisage not only how

new pesticides may be synthesized, but also a completely new

approach to the control of vectors using secondary plant prod-

ucts which may be toxic to a specifi c vector yet harmless to

non-target organisms. In recent years, considerable attention

has been directed to the research and application of mollusci-

cides, insecticides, larvicides and insect growth regulators of

juvenile hormone analogs in protection of human beings and

their domestic animals. These substances have been used suc-

cessfully on large scale in vector management programmes

(Srivastava et al., 2003).

PLANT ORIGIN MOLLUSCICIDE

In recent times, the use of plant products has gained unprece-

dented impetus all over the world. The people of the northeast-

ern region of India, in particular the rural and tribal people living

in some remote areas, primarily depend upon folk and traditional

medicine, and indigenous knowledge of how these plants are

used for diff erent purposes in diff erent areas. A large number of

plant families have furnished many classes of product, which may

vary in the degree of pesticidal activity. Several countries have

promoted the use of plant products due to their wide range of

ideal properties, such as high target toxicity, low mammalian

toxicity, low cost, solubility in water, easy bio-degradability,

abundant growth in endemic areas and operator safety (Kinghorn

and Evans, 1975; Marston and Hostettmann, 1985; Singh et al.,

1996; Singh et al., 2000)

The above-mentioned properties of plant products have

opened up a new vista. India possesses a rich biodiversity of

medicinal plants that are used for many purposes. The plant

products (as well as extracts) have been used from time imme-

morial. The Vrikshayurveda is the branch of Ayurveda that deals

with plant health and recommends drugs possessing specifi c

qualities of treatment for insect attack. During the co-evolution

of plants and insects, plants have bio-synthesized a number of

secondary metabolites to serve as defense chemicals against

pest attack. Although only 10 000 secondary metabolites have

been chemically identifi ed so far, the total number may exceed

400 000 (Swain, 1977).

Snails exposed to latex of Euphorbia roylea na plant of family

euphorbiaceae exhibited typical symptoms of nerve poisoning

and death took place within 24 h. It was shown that the latex was

an acetylcho linesterase inhibitor and its anti-AChE activity in the

snail Lymnaea acuminata was very high in comparison to any

synthetic organic pesticides (Singh and Agarwal, 1984a). In

another study, Singh and Agarwal (1984b) also observed that the

latex of Euphorbia royleana reduced the level of 5-hydrodxy-trypt-

amine (5-HT) and dopamine in the nervous tissues of Lymnaea

acuminata. Singh and Agarwal (1992a) reported that the latexes

of several euphorbious plants signifi cantly reduced the alkaline

and acid phosphatase activity in nerve tissue of Lymnaea acumi-

nata. Cheng (1971) and Amin (1972) have recorded the mollusci-

cidal properties of Thea oleso sa, Croton tiglium, Sehima argenta

and Jatropha spp. Adewunmi and Morquis (1980) studied the

molluscicidal properties of methanolic extracts of the fruit of

Jatropha gossypifolia and Jatropha podagrica.

Pharmacological action of Croton tiglium is due to the pres-

ence of alkaloids (Rizk, 1987). The alkaloids are naturally occur-

ring organic bases, which contain at least one nitrogen atom

either in the heterocyclic ring or linked to an aliphatic skele ton.

They are found in vascular plants and rarely occur in gymno-

sperms cryptogams and monocotyledons. Okunji and Iwu (1988)

screened several plants of diff erent families for molluscicidal

properties and suggested that the toxic properties of these

plants may be due to the presence of alkaloids. Toxicity in

Codiaeum spp. is due to the presence of tanin in the latex (Wealth

of India, 1985). Tanin are complex phenolic compounds, divided

into two groups: (i) the hydrolysable tanins, which are esters of

garlic acid and also glycosides of these esters; and (ii) the con-

densed tanins, which are polymers derived from various fl avo-

noids. The molluscicidal activity was found to be related to the

free phenolic groups of the tanins. Ayoub and Yankov (1986)

screened several tanin-bearing plants of diff erent families for

their molluscicidal activity. On assumption was made by him,

that the molluscicidal activity of the tanin-bearing plants is pro-

portional to the amount of tanin present in the various morpho-

logical parts.

Several species of family euphorbiaceae, which contain diter-

penes, show molluscicidal properties. Those with known mol-

luscicidal properties are Euphorbia royleana, E. antisyphilitica,

E. lacteal acristata, E. pulcherima, E. neutra, Jatropha gossypifolia,

Croton tiglium and Codiaeum variegatum (Singh and Agarwal,

1984a, b, 1988a, b, 1990, 1991, 1992a, b; Singh, 1991, 2000; Singh

and Singh, 2003a–c, 2005; Singh et al., 2004a–c, 2009; Yadav,

2000; Yadav and Singh, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2007; Yadav et al., 2005,

2006, 2009). Recent work has demonstrated that the toxicologi-

cal actions of the latex can be attributed to a new class of

diterpenes, which are esters of phorbol (12-deoxyphorbol,

12-deoxy-16-hydroxy-phorbol, ingenol, 5-deoxy-ingenol, resinif-2

Molluscicides from some common medicinal plants

J. Appl. Toxicol. 2010; 30: 1–7 Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jat

erotoxin and tinyatoxin; Kinghorn and Evans, 1975). It has been

reported that phorbol esters interact with and activate the

recently discovered protein kinase-C (Takai et al., 1977).

The medicinal plant Euphorbia pulcherima is useful for a variety

of conditions, such as rheumatism, snakebite, asthma, obstipa-

tion and skin diseases (Vlietink, 1987), while Euphorbia hirta is

also used in cough, asthma, colic, dysentery and genito-urinary

diseases (Wealth of India, 1985; Jain, 1996; Bhatnagar et al., 2000).

Singh and Singh (2005) reported that both the plants have

potent molluscicidal activity against the snails Lymnaea acumi-

nata and Indoplanorbis exustus (Table 2).

Thevetia peruviana and Alstonia scholaris are common medi-

cinal plants of the family apocynaceae. The latex of Thevetia

peruviana is used in tooth cavities for relief from toothache and

the latex of Alstonia scholaris is applied to ulcers, sores, tumors

and rheumatic pain, and is used for curing toothache (Rama

Rao, 1967). Both the plants have potent molluscicidal and anti-

cholinesterase activity against harmful snails and slugs (Panigrahi

and Raut, 1994; Singh et al., 2000, 2004b, 2009; Singh and Singh,

2003a). The toxicological actions of Thevetia peruviana may be

due to the presence of apigenin-5-methyl ether (fl avonoid) and

triterpenoid glycosides (Voigtlander and Balsam, 1970) while a

number of alkaloids (pseudo-akuammigine in addition to betulin,

ursolic acid and β-sitosterol), steroids and triterpenoids are

present in Alstonia scholaris (Banerji and Banerji, 1977).

ACTIVE COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS

Plants are the richest source of renewable bioactive organic

chemicals. The total number of plant chemicals may exceed

400 000; of these, 10 000 are secondary metabolites whose major

role in the plants is reportedly defensive (Swain, 1977; Cooper

and Johnson, 1984). Numerous defensive chemicals belonging

to various categories (terpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, phenols,

tannins, etc.) that cause behavioral and physiological eff ects on

pests have already been identifi ed. Some important compounds

are as given below.

Saponins

Saponins are naturally occurring plant glycosides, which form a

soapy lather with water. They consist of a sugar moiety and an

aglycone unit. Monodesmosidic saponins (sugar moiety only at

position C-3) possess toxic activity whereas bidesmosidic sapo-

nins (sugar moiety both at C-3 and C-28) are inactive. There is a

high correlation between plants employed as fi sh poisons or

soap substances and their molluscicidal activity. Phytolacca

dodecandra (Phytolaccaceae) is an example of such a plant. The

molluscicidal activity of its berries was fi rst noticed by Lemma

(1965) in Ethiopia. It was found that stretches of the river where

Table 1. Comparison of toxic potentials of some synthetic and plant origin molluscicides

Molluscicides Molluscicidal activity mg L−1

(LC50) with in hour

Snails References

SyntheticMexacarbate 3.5/24 h Lymnaea acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Aldicarb 30/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Carbaryl 14.4/96 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Formothion 27/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Phorate 15/96 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Trichlorofon 14.4/96 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1981)Niclosamide 11.8/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1984a)Cypermethrin 0.8/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1986)Permethrin 0.73/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1986)Fenvalerate 2.5/24 h L. acuminata Sahay et al. (1991)Deltamethrin 0.57/24 h L. acuminata Sahay et al. (1991)

PlantNerium indicum (Latex) 0.118/24 h L. acuminata Singh et al. (1993)Euphorbia royleana (Latex) 0.125/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1988a)E. antisyphlitca (Latex) 0.120/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1988a)E. lactea cristata (Latex) 0.118/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1988a)Jatropha gossypifolia (Latex) 0.200/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Agarwal (1988a)Thevetia peruviana (Latex) 0.43/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Singh (2005)Alstonia scholaris (Latex) 4.76/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Singh (2005)Euphorbia pulcherima (Latex) 0.09/24 h L. acuminata Singh and Singh (2005)Euphorbia hirta (Latex) 1.29/24 h L. acuminata Singh et al. (2004a)Anacardium occidentale (Trine) 0.35/24 h Biomphalaria glabrata Sullivan et al. (1982)Anacardium occidentale (Dine) 0.9/24 h B. glabrata Sullivan et al. (1982)Anacardium occidentale (Monoene) 1.4/24 h B. glabrata Sullivan et al. (1982)Ambrosia maritima 10–14/24 ha B. alexandra Shoeb and El-Eman (1978)

B. truncatus Shoeb and El-Eman (1978)Podachaenum emineus 1/24 h B. glabrata Fronczek et al. (1984)

aLC100 dose.

3

S. K. Singh et al.


Table 2. Toxicity (LC50) of aqueous latex, stem bark and leaf extracts of Thevetia peruviana, Alstonia scholaris, Euphorbia pulcherima

and Euphorbia hirta plants against freshwater harmful snails Lymnaea acuminata and Indoplanorbis exustus at diff erent time

intervals

Plant Plant parts Exposure periods (LC50, mg L−1) Snails References

Thevetia

peruviana

Latex 24 h 0.43 L. acuminata Singh (2000); Singh et al. (2000, 2004b,

2009); Singh and Singh (2003a, c, 2005)96 h 0.1724 h 0.38 I. exustus96 h 0.16

Stem bark 24 h 691.91 L. acuminata96 h 165.5324 h 350.46 I. exustus96 h 95.88

Leaf 24 h 272.51 L. acuminata96 h 58.7824 h 250.00 I. exustus96 h 73.00

Alstonia

scholaris

Latex 24 h 4.76 L. acuminata Singh (2000); Singh et al. (2000, 2004b,

2009); Singh and Singh (2003a, c, 2005)96 h 1.7624 h 2.36 I. exustus96 h 0.98



Euphorbia

pulcherima

Latex 24 h 0.09 L. acuminata Singh and Singh (2003b, d, 2005);

Singh et al. (2004a, c)96 h 0.0224 h 0.06 I. exustus96 h 0.02



Euphorbia

hirta

Latex 24 h 1.29 L. acuminata Singh and Singh (2003d, 2005);

Singh et al. (2004a, c, 2005)96 h 0.5924 h 0.97 I. exustus96 h 0.34





these berries were used for washing cloths were remarkably free

of snails. Based on this observation, a fi ve-year pilot snail control

program was launched in Ethiopia which resulted in a signifi cant

reduction in the incidence of Schistosoma mansoni infection. The

compounds responsible for the molluscicidal activity were found

to be triterpenoid saponins, with LC100 values as low as 2 ppm

(Hostettmann et al., 1982).

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are naturally occurring organic bases, which contain at

least one nitrogen atom either in the hetrocyclic ring or linked to

an aliphatic skeleton. They are usually colorless, crystalline, non-

volatile solids, slightly soluble in water but soluble in ethanol,

ether and chloroform. Alkaloids have been isolated from the

seeds, roots, leaves and bark of the stem. In the leaves of some

species they constitute 0.5–8% of the dry weight. They are stored

in the vacuoles or in the cytoplasm in a solid form (Srivastava,

1991).

A quinolizene alkaloid virgilin, isolated from the leaves of

Calpurnia aurea (Mimosaceae), kills 100% of Biomphalaria gla-

brata at 130 ppm, within 48 h. Vieira and Kubo (1990) reported

four quinoline alkaloids from dichloromethane extracts of

Galipea bracteata. Out of the quinoline caused 100% mortalities

of snail B. glabrata.

Flavonoids

The term fl avonoids embraces all compounds whose structure is

based on fl avone. Flavonoids are C15 compounds (exclusive of

O-alkyl groups and secondary substituents), which are com-

posed of two phenolic nuclei connected by three Carbon unit.

Dossaji and Kubo (1980) reported that the leaves of Polygonum

senegalense have a known fl avonoid quercetin. This compound

possesses signifi cant molluscicidal activity at 10 ppm, causing

100% mortality of three species of snails, Lymnaea natalensis,

Biomphalaria peiff eri and B. glabrata within 24 h. Likewise, a

eupatorin compound isolated from the plant Baccharis timera

killed 100% of B. glabrata at 100 ppm, but other fl avone glyco-

sides from Asparagus plumosus was found to be completely

harmless to snails (Marston and Hostettmann, 1985).

Diterpeneoids

The diterpenoids form a group of compounds having general

molecular formula C20H32. They are not steam volatile and are

usually obtained from plants. A new class of diterpenes which are

esters of phorbol (12-deoxyphorbol, 12-deoxy-16 hydroxy-

phorbol, ingenol, 5-deoxy-ingenol resiniferotoxin and tinyatoxin)

possess highly toxic activity against pests. Cheng (1971) and

Amin (1972) have recorded the molluscicidal properties of Thea

olesosa, Croton tiglium, Schima argenta and Jatropha spp.

Adewunmi and Morquis (1980) studied the molluscicidal proper-

ties of methanolic extracts of the fruit of J. podagrica. The extracts

of these plants were found to be very active against the snail

Bulinus globosus.

Singh and Agarwal (1991, 1992a, b) reported that the aqueous

extracts of Euphorbia lactea cristata, E. royleana, E. antisyphlitica

and Jatropha gossypifolia are lethal to the snails Lymnaea acumi-

nata and Indoplanorbis exustus. The order of toxicity at all the

exposure periods ranging from 24 to 96 h in the case of L. acumi-

nata was E. lactea cristata > E. antisyphlitica > E. royleana >

J. gossypifolia. In the case of I. exustus, however the order of

toxicity was E. royleana > E. antisyphlitica > E. lacteal cristata >

J. gossypifolia.

In order to assess the toxicity of the euphorbiales to other

animals sharing the ecosystem with the snails, toxicological

experiments were carried out on the fi sh Colisa fasciatus. The

results demonstrated that the lattices were indeed lethal to

fi shes but at doses much higher than the dose required for killing

snails.

Monoterpenoids

Monoterpenoids are made up of two isoprene units (C10H16) and

are the chief constituents of essential oils. Molluscicidal activity

of thymol, carvacrol and limonene from plants of the genus

Lippia, has been briefl y reported against Biomphalaria glabrata

(Marston and Hostettmann, 1985).

Sesquiterpenes Lactones

Sesquiterpenoid lactones are those compounds, which possess

a sesquiterpene skeleton having an additional lactone ring.

These are present essentially in the leaves and fl owering head,

but rarely in the stem and roots of the family Compositae. Up to

now 21 sesquiterpene lactones, mainly pseudoguaianolides and

norsesquiterpenes, have been identifi ed in the leaves, fl owers

and seeds of Ambrosia maritima. This plant is a herbaceous weed,

which is widely distributed over the Mediterranean region of

Africa.

There is much variation in the susceptibility of diff erent snail

species to Ambrosia maritima. LC50 doses of dried leaves of A.

maritima against the snails Bulinus foskalli, B. globosus, B. pfeiff eri

and Lymnaea natalensis were 165, 149, 227 and 108 ppm, res-

pectively (Belot et al., 1991). The alcoholic extracts of the leaves

of this plant, however, are more potent because of the miscibility

of alcohol in water. Thus, the LC50 of the ethanol extracts of

dried leaves of A. maritima against the snails Bulinus foskalli,

Biomphalaria pfeiff eri and Lymnaea natalensis was 62, 87 and

42 ppm, respectively, expressed in terms of dried leaves (Belot

et al., 1991).

Tannins

Tannins are complex phenolic compounds which can be divided

into two groups: (i) the hydrolysable tannins, which are esters of

gallic acid and also glycosides of these esters; and (ii) the con-

densed tannins, which are polymers derived from various fl avo-

noids. Methanolic and aqueous extracts of 12 tannin-containing

plants against the snail Biomphalaria glabrata have been studied:

Quercus spp. (Fagaceae), Camellia spp. (Theaceae) (black tea and

green tea), Hamamelis virginiana (Hamammelidaceae), Potentilla

erecta (Rosaceae), Alchemilla ssp. (Rosaceae), Acaccia catechu

(Mimosaceae), Dalbergia nitidula (Mimosaceae), Krameria trian-

dra (Krameriaceae), Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae), Arctostaphylos

uva-ursi (Ericaceae) and Cinchona succirubra (Rubiaceae). As mol-

luscicides, extracts of Krameria triandra and Arctostaphylos uva-

ursi are the most eff ective as they cause 100% kill at concentrations

as low as 50 ppm. The methanolic extracts of these exhibit even

stronger molluscicidal activity than the aqueous extracts

(Schaufelberger and Hostettmann, 1983). 5

S. K. Singh et al.


CONCLUSION

There are a very large number of plants, which contain com-

pounds lethal to target as well as non-target organism at doses

which are much below those for synthetic pesticides (Amusan

et al., 1997; Schall et al., 1988; Marston et al., 1996; Singh et al.,

1996, 2000, 2004b, c, 2005, 2009; Singh, 1991; Singh and Singh,

2003a–c; Yadav and Singh, 2001, 2006, 2007; Yadav et al., 2005,

2006, 2009). Use of such products has the additional advantage

that they contain biodegradable compounds, which are less

likely to cause environmental contamination. After all, such com-

pounds are not only confi ned to the plants in which they are

found, but are also possibly distributed in the environment. We

feel strongly that if these herbaceous products were used as mol-

luscicides they would not only control the vector snail but they

would also have the advantage of easy availability, low cost,

biodegradability and greater acceptance amongst users.

Furthermore, we feel that, with further progress in biotechnol-

ogy, such products could be raised form sources other than those

plants in which they are currently found. Production of plant

pesticides could, in long run also become an important industry

using biotechnological methods.

Further studies are ongoing on these plants to elaborate the

activity of their constituents. There are many plant uses men-

tioned in Ayurveda that may form the basis of further studies.

Acknowledgments

One of the authors (Sunil Kumar Singh) is thankful to Ministry of

Science and Technology, Department of Science and Technology,

New Delhi, Government of India, for the award of the SERC ‘Fast

Track’ Young Scientist Fellowship (no. SR/FT/L-44/2006 dated 18

June 2007) for fi nancial assistance.

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Molluscicides from some common medicinal plants of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India

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