Mohamad QomiPourang Zarif

Fall 2008

 

 

1. Why do people learn a second/foreign language?

2. Definitions of Motivation 3. Sources of Motivation 4. Theories of Motivation

Behavioral Cognitive Cognitive Developmental Achievement Psychoanalytic Humanistic Social Cognition Transpersonal / Spiritual

5. Models of Motivation

Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model

Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model Gardner (1985) Deci & Ryan (1985): Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation Dornyei (1990) Crookes & Schmidt (1991) Oxford and Shearin (1994) Dornyei (1994) Wen (1997): Expectancy-value theories Dornyei (1998)

6. Factors that Affect Motivation

7. Instruments for Motivation Assessment

The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985

Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985) The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Kelle

r, 1987).

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989)

Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989) Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996) Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997) The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Sm

all, 1997)

8. Implications & Strategies for:

Teachers + Homework

ConclusionReferences

 This seems to be the key question in all kinds of

research! And of course, the reasons vary from a person

to another.

Here are a few suggestions:

Fulfill school/university requirements Function and compete effectively in the global economy of

today and the future Increase job opportunities and salary potential Develop intercultural sensitivity, increasing global

understanding Improve English vocabulary and language proficiency in

order to communicate with members of that language community.

Improve critical and creative thinking skills Improve one's education Enhance travel and study abroad opportunities Enjoy great literary and musical masterpieces and films in

their original language Improve likelihood of acceptance into university and

graduate schools Increase understanding of people in own country Gain social power (prestige) Please one's parents

Any other reason(s)?

Smell Sight Touch Hearing Taste

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According to the Webster's, to motivate means to provide with a motive, a need or desire that causes a person to act.

According to Gardner (1985), motivation is concerned with the question, "Why does an organism behave as it does?

Motivation involves 4 aspects: 1. A Goal 2. An Effort 3. A Desire to attain the goal 4. Favorable Attitude toward the activity in question.

Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal.

Many researchers consider motivation as one of the main elements that determine success in developing a second or foreign language; it

determines the extent of active, personal involvement in L2 learning. (Oxford 1994)

Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative

motivation. Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and

optimism about the tasks that you are involved in. Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks for fear that there

should be undesirable outcomes, eg. failing a subject, if tasks are not completed.

Educational psychologists point to three major sources of motivation in learning (Fisher, 1990):

1. The learner’s natural interest:  intrinsic satisfaction

2. The teacher/institution/employment: extrinsic reward

3. Success in the task: combining satisfaction and reward

 

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as

either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.

The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation that have been studied.

Behavioral /

external

elicited by stimulus associated/ connected to innately connected stimulus

obtain desired, pleasant consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences

imitate positive models

biological

increase/decrease stimulation (arousal) activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.) decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc. maintain homeostasis, balance

affective

increase/decrease affective dissonance (inconsistency) increase feeling good  decrease feeling bad increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

cognitive

maintain attention to something interesting or threatening develop meaning or understanding increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty solve a problem or make a decision figure something out eliminate threat or risk

conative

meet individually developed/selected goal obtain personal dream take control of one's life eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream reduce others' control of one's life

spiritual understand purpose of one's life connect self to ultimate unknowns

A- Behavioral Theories

• Drive: urgent, basic, or instinctual need: a motivating physiological condition of an organism.

• Learned motives

1. Classical conditioning: (Pavlov) 2. Instrumental/operant learning: (Skinner) (Stimulus => response => reward) 3. Observational/social learning: (Bandura)

Incentive motivation:  it refers to goal-directed behavior (behavior that is "pulled" more than "pushed"). Seeking of rewards; avoidance of punishers.

Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement. The physical environment and actions

of the teacher are of prime importance.

Expectancy-value/VIE theory: (Vroom, 1964) it proposes the following equation: Motivation =

Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy) Connection of Success and Reward-- material benefit (Instrumentality) Value of Obtaining Goal (Valence, Value) (VIE = Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy)

Attribution theory: (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions."

Cognitive dissonance theory: it was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies.

Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with intrinsic motivation (i.e., goals).

Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of a person's active search for meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus, motivation is internal.

Internal External

No Control Ability Luck

Control Effort Task Difficulty

Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget, 1972, 1990)

According to Piaget, children are motivated to develop their cognitive or mental abilities in a predictable set of stages:

1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy, 0 to 2 years). 2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early

Childhood, 2-7 years).3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early

adolescence, 7-12 years). 4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and

adulthood, 12 years – adult).

Zone of proximal development (Lev Vygotsky, 1978) The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between the learner's actual developmental level and the level of potential development;

Students' needs, goals and interests must be the starting point if motivation is to occur. For motivation and progress to exist, instructional input to students must be Challenging & Relevant. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

Achievement motivation theories: (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974)

1. Need for achievement:2. Fear of success: 3. Fear of failure:

Goal-theory: (Locke & Latham, 1994) it has differentiated three separate types of goals:

1. Social goals 2. Performance/normative goals (also called ego-involvement

goals) 3. Mastery goals (also called learning goals)

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of fundamental influences:

Freud (1990) suggested that all action or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression).

Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that interpersonal and social relationships are fundamental. (=> cooperative learning)

Stage Age Expected Resolution

Trust vs.

MistrustInfancy

Child develops a belief that the environment can be counted on to meet his or her basic physiological and social needs

Autonomy vs.

Shame and DoubtToddlerhood

Child learns what he/she can control and develops a sense of free will and corresponding sense of regret and sorrow for inappropriate use of self-control.

Initiative  vs. 

GuiltEarly Childhood

Child learns to begin action, to explore, to imagine as well as feeling remorse for actions

Accomplishment/Industry  vs. 

Inferiority

Middle Childhood/ Elementary

Child learns to do things well or correctly in comparison to a standard or to others

Identity  vs. 

Role ConfusionAdolescence

Develops a sense of self in relationship to others and to own internal thoughts and desires (Later work has shown two substages: a social identity focusing on which

group a person will identify with and a personal identity focusing on abilities, goals, possibilities, etc.)

Initimacy  vs. 

IsolationYoung Adult

Develops ability to give and receive love; begins to make long-term commitment to relationships

Generativity  vs. 

StagnationMiddle Adulthood Develops interest in guiding the development of the next generation

Ego Integrity  vs. 

DespairOlder Adulthood

Develops a sense of acceptance of life as it was lived and the importance of the people and relationships that individual developed over the lifespan

Hierarchy of Human Needs: (Abraham Maslow, 1954).

The essence of the hierarchy is the notion of “pre-potency”, which means that you are not going to be motivated by any higher-level needs until your lower-level ones have been satisfied.

.

Hierarchy of Motivational Needs.(Alderfer, 1972)

Level of Need Definition Properties

Growth

Impels a person to make creative or productive effects on himself and his environment

Satisfied through using capabilities in engaging problems; creates a greater sense of wholeness and fullness as a human being

Relatedness Involves relationships with significant others

Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings; acceptance, confirmation, understanding, and influence are elements

Existence Includes all of the various forms of material and psychological desires

When divided among people one person's gain is another's loss if resources are limited

A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies

Level Introversion Extroversion

Growth

Self-Actualization (development of competencies

[knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character)

Transcendence (assisting in the development of others' competencies

and character; relationships to the unknown, unknowable)

Other (Relatedness)

Personal identification with group, significant others

(Belongingness) Value of person by group (Esteem)

Self (Existence)

Physiological, biological (including basic emotional

needs)

Connectedness, security

Self-Determination Theory:.(Deci & Ryan, 1985) it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy. It proposes that a person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding.

Intrinsic motivation: the performance of a task for its own sake. It values rewards gained through the process of task completion, regardless of any external rewards.

Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of some reward

external to the completion of the task, such as good grades. It is believed to undermine intrinsic motivation; individuals will often lose their intrinsic interest in a task if the task is seen as a means to an end.

Self-regulation: (Bandura, 1986, 1997) Self-efficacy: (Bandura, 1986, 1997)

H- Transpersonal / Spiritual Theories Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness

of our lives or ultimate meanings.

Theories of Motivation Summary

Theory Name Theorist/Year Components

A- Behavioral Theories => extrinsic motivation

Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement. The physical

environment and actions of the teacher are of prime importance.

1- Classical conditioning 2- Operant

conditioning 3-

Observational/social learning

1- Pavlov 2- Skinner 3- Bandura

1- Stimulus, response,

association (involuntary) 2- Stimulus,

response, reward = reinforcement 3- Modeling (imitation) +

Vicarious learning

B- Cognitive Theories => intrinsic motivation

Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of person's active search for

meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus motivation is internal.

1- Expectancy-value

2- Attribution theory

3- Cognitive dissonance

1- Vroom / 1964

2- Heider, 1958 /

Weiner, 1974 3- Festinger /

1957

1- Expectancy of success + Instrumentality (see the connection between activity & reward) + Value

the results. 2- Attribute success/failure to factors

that are: internal/external/under control/out of control

3- Act to resolve conflict or discrepancies.

C- Cognitive Developmental Theories

1- Stages of cognitive

development. 2- Zone of proximal

development

1- Piaget / 1972, 1990

2- Vygotsky / 1978

D- Achievement Motivation Theories

1- Need for achievement

2- Fear of failure 3- Fear of success

4- Goal theory: Mastery goals Performance

goals Social goals

1- 2- 3- Atkinson &

Raynor / 1974

4- Locke & Latham /

1994

E- Psychoanalytic

1- Life & Death 2- Social/interpersonal

relationships 3- Power

4- Search for soul

1- Freud / 1990

2- Erikson, 1993 /

Sullivan, 1968 3- Adler /

1989 4- Jung / 1953,

1997

F- Humanistic Theories

Humanists stress the need for personal growth. They place a great deal of

emphasis on the total person, along with the

related news of personal freedom, choice and self-

determination.

1- Hierarchy of Needs 2- Hierarchy of

Motivational Needs 3- Self-determination

1- Maslow / 1954

2- Alderfer, 1972

3- Deci & Ryan, 1985

1- Self-actualization, esteem, belongingness, safety, physiological. We are not motivated by any higher-level needs until our lower-level ones

have been satisfied. 2- Growth, relatedness, existence needs. Alderfer showed how people regress if their higher order needs are not met.

3- Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic motivation- A person must be able to initiate and

regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically

rewarding.

G- Social Cognition 1- Self-efficacy

2- Self-regulation 1- 2- Bandura / 1986, 1997

1- Judging one's own ability 2- Establishing goals and developing a

plan to attain those goals.

A- Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model

They introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation.

McDonough (1981)noted that there are two types of integrative motivation: “Assimilative motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group (give up one's own culture to assimilate into the target culture), and “Affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social contact with target language speakers.

B- Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories: Learners' motivation to acquire a second language is determined by:

Effort

Valence (perception of degree of attractiveness of goals/ its value)

Expectancy (perception of the probability of attaining the goals)

Ability (appraisal of their ability to achieve the goals).

Instrumentality (connection of success and reward)

C- Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model-

Schumann suggested three strategies taken by adult learners:

o Assimilation: o Rejection of target culture: o Acculturation:

D- Gardner (1985):.Gardner explored four other motivational orientations:

Gardner (1985) describes core second language learning motivation as a construct composed of three characteristics:

the attitudes towards learning a language (affect), the desire to learn the language (want) and motivational intensity (effort).

E- Deci & Ryan (1985): Self-Determination (autonomy) Theory: it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy.

Extrinsic motivation: Intrinsic motivation:

F- Dornyei (1990): "Instrumental motivation might be more important than

integrative motivation for foreign language learners."

G- Crookes & Schmidt (1991): They identified four areas of SL motivation:

the micro level, the classroom level, the syllabus level, and a level involving factors from outside the

classroom.

H- Oxford and Shearin (1994): They analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning:

*attributes * beliefs about self * goals * involvement * environmental support * personal * attitudes

I- Dornyei (1994):.His taxonomy of motivation is comprised of three levels:

the Language Level, the Learner Level, and the Learning Situation Level.

J- Wen (1997): He incorporated expectancy-value theories and identified four motivational factors:

motivation of instrumentality intrinsic motivation expected learning strategies and efforts passivity towards requirements.

K- Dornyei (1998):.He suggests seven main motivational dimensions:

1. the affective/integrative dimension:

2. the instrumental/pragmatic dimension; 3. the macro-context-related dimension 7. the significant others-related dimension 5. the goal-related dimension; 6. the educational context-related dimension 4. the self-concept-related dimension

Models of Motivation Summary

Theorist/Year Model Name Components

A- Gardner/Lambert (1959/1972)

Socio-Educational Model

Instrumental and Integrative motivation + Assimilative & Affiliative

B- Vroom (1964) Expectancy Value

Theories:

Effort Valence Expectancy Ability Instrumentality

C- Schumann (1978/1986)

Acculturation Model

(for adults)

Assimilation: total adoption Rejection of target culture Acculturation: learning to function in the new culture while maintaining one's own identity.

D- Gardner (1985) Four other

motivational orientations

(a) reason for learning, (b) desire to attain the learning goal, (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and (d) effortful behavior.

Theorist/Year Model Name Components

E- Deci & Ryan (1985)

Self-Determination (autonomy) Theory

Intrinsic & Extrinsic motivation

F- Dornyei (1990)

Motivational construct

Instrumental Motivational Integrative Motivational Need for Achievement Attribution about past failures.

G- Crookes & Schmidt (1991)

1- Four areas of SL motivation

2- Structure of Motivation

1- Micro level, Classroom level, Syllabus level, and Outside the classroom level. 2- Internal factors (interest, relevance, expectancy, outcomes) & External factors (decision, persistence, activity level)

H- Oxford & Shearin (1994)

Six factors that impact motivation in language

learning

Attitudes Beliefs about self Goals Involvement Environmental support Personal attributes

Theorist/Year Model Name Components

I- Dornyei (1994)

Taxonomy of motivation Language Level, Learner Level, and Learning Situation Level.

J- Wen (1997) Incorporated expectancy-

value theories

Motivation of instrumentality Intrinsic motivation Expected learning strategies and efforts Passivity towards requirements.

K- Dornyei (1998)

Seven main motivational dimensions

1. affective/integrative 2. instrumental/pragmatic 3. macro-context-related 4. self-concept-related 5. goal-related 6. educational context-related 7. significant others-related

Internal Factors

Age cf. Piaget, Maslow, Alderfer, Erikson, Vygotsky, ...

Gender Girls are known to acquire languages faster than boys. Hence, their motivation would be higher.

Religion .

Goals Why the learner is studying the language.

Need How much the learner needs to study this language.

Interest (and curiosity)

How interested the learner is in learning this language.

Attitude How the learner views this language and its speakers.

Expectancy How much the learner expects to succeed.

Self-efficacy / Competence

Judging own ability and competence. How capable of success they think they are.

Native language proficiency

The more academically sophisticated the student's native language knowledge and abilities, the easier it will be for that student to learn a second language, then the more motivated s/he will be.

First foreign language

.

External Factors

External Factors

Teachers

Encouragement Expectations Feedback Scaffolding Task presentation Teaching strategies & techniques Rewards

Strategies for Teaching Culturally Diverse Students

Course content & Classroom atmosphere

Relevance Attractiveness Challenge Relaxed, positive atmosphere (low affective filter)

Social Identity (Peer groups)

Teenagers tend to be heavily influenced by their peer groups. In second language learning, peer pressure often undermines the goals set by parents and teachers. Peer pressure often reduces the desire of the student to work toward native pronunciation, because the sounds of the target language may be regarded as strange. For learners of English as a second language, speaking like a native speaker may unconsciously be regarded as a sign of no longer belonging to their native-language peer group. In working with secondary school students, it is important to keep these peer influences in mind and to foster a positive image for proficiency in a second language.

Role models Students need to have positive and realistic role models who demonstrate the value of being proficient in more than one language.

Home support

Support from home is very important for students' motivation to learn a second language. If parents value both the native language and English, communicate with their children in whichever language is most comfortable, and show support for and interest in their children's progress, the children will definitely be more motivated to learn the second language.

Learning environment

In order for the students to be motivated, the learning environment needs to be free from axiety; the student should not feel threatened or intimidated. In order for him/her to speak, s/he needs to feel s/he will be heard and that what s/he is saying is worth hearing.

External Factors

The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985

Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985) To measure intensity of motivation.

The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987). It requires students to rate 36 ARCS-related statements in relation to the instructional materials they have just used.

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989) To measure language learning strategies.

Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989) A 47-item ARCS-based instrument for evaluating the motivational characteristics of an instructor's classroom delivery.  

Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996) To measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997)

The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997) It is an instrument used for designing and assessing the motivational quality of World Wide Web sites.

Teachers:

Dornyei (1994) suggests

developing students' self-efficacy, decreasing their anxiety, promoting motivation-enhancing attributions, encouraging students to set attainable sub-goals, and increasing the attractiveness of course content.

 

 Dornyei (1998:131) suggests

"Ten Commandments for Motivating Language Learners”

1. Set a personal example with your own behavior. 2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom. 3. Present the task properly. 4. Develop a good relationship with the learners. 5. Increase the learner's linguistic self-confidence. 6. Make the language classes interesting. 7. Promote learner autonomy. 8. Personalize the learning process. 9. Increase the learners' goal-orientedness. 10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Oxford & Shearin (1996:139) also offer Practical Suggestions for Teachers:

1. Teachers can identify why students are studying the new language.

2. Teachers can help shape students' beliefs about success and failure in L2 learning.  

3. Teachers can help students improve motivation by showing that L2 learning can be an exciting mental challenge, a career enhancer, a vehicle to cultural awareness and friendship and a key to world peace.

4. Teachers can make the L2 classroom a welcoming, positive place where psychological needs are met and where language anxiety is kept to a minimum.

5. Teachers can urge students to develop their own intrinsic rewards through positive self-talk, guided self-evaluation, and mastery of specific goals, rather than comparison with other students. Teachers can thus promote a sense of greater self-efficacy, increasing motivation to continue learning the L2.

Keller (1983)

1. arousing interest in the topic/ Attention, 2. creating Relevance to students' lives, 3. developing an expectancy of success and

feelings of being in control / Confidence, 4. producing Satisfaction in the outcome

through intrinsic/extrinsic rewards.

Keller (1987).The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a well-known and widely applied model of instructional design. Simple, yet powerful, the ARCS Model is rooted in a number of motivational theories and concepts, (see Keller, 1983) most notably expectancy-value theory (e.g. Vroom, 1964; Porter and Lawler, 1968).

Intrinsic Extrinsic

Explain or show why learning a particular content or skill is important

Create and/or maintain curiosity

Provide a variety of activities and sensory stimulations

Provide games and simulations

Set goals for learning Relate learning to student

needs Help student develop plan of

action

Provide clear expectations Give corrective feedback Provide valuable rewards Make rewards available

1- Why do people learn a second/foreign language? 2- Definitions of Motivation 3- Sources of Motivation 4- Theories of Motivation 5- Models of Motivation 6- Factors that Affect Motivation 7- Instruments for Motivation Assessment 8- Implications & Strategies

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Corder, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.  

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