Volume 36 No. 2 Summer 2007 Pu is published specifically ...
Modules 1, 2, 36 - Summer Work
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Transcript of Modules 1, 2, 36 - Summer Work
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Modules 1-4 - Summer WorkAP PsychologyMr. Cruikshank
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- The science of behavior and mental processes- Behavior: Observable actions of a person or
an animal- Mental processes: thoughts, feelings,
sensations, perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and other subjective experiences
Psychology – What is it?
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•Is Psychology a science??▫Science
An objective way to answer questions Based on observable facts/data and well
described methods•YES!
Psychology – What is it?
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•A set of questions about mental functioning▫ trace back to philosophy▫ Aristotle asked about memory, personality, emotions,
etc.•A set of theories and procedures for
asking and answering questions▫ the scientific method▫ evolved over centuries, first in physics
•A product of history▫ philosophy asked many of the basic questions▫ physiology used similar methods
Psychology – What is it??
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•Major question asked by many philosophers:▫How are the mind and the body related??
•Many different theories•Dualism – Mind and body are two separate
entities, however they are interrelated▫origins in medieval religion ▫soul is seat of intellectual function and will▫mind is product of the soul
mind not subject to scientific inquiry▫to challenge this was punishable by death
Developments from Philosophy
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•Dualism – Mind and body are separate•Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) came up
with a theory of modified dualism▫since animals have no soul, much behavior
does not require soul▫the body can therefore control much
behavior led him to study reflexes
▫the soul’s main function is thought, a uniquely human attribute
Developments from Philosophy
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• Other theories developed about the relationship between the mind and the body
• Materialism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) ▫mind is a product of the brain▫soul is not involved in human behavior
• Empiricism: ▫knowledge and intellect are acquired, comes from
experience▫science flourishes through observation/experiment ▫sensory experiences produce elementary ideas▫elementary ideas become associated into complex
thought and ideas
Developments from Philosophy
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• Another MAJOR question asked by early philosophers was: Where do our ideas come from?
• Empiricism vs. Nativism• Nativism: elementary ideas are innate• Empiricism: our minds are a blank slate, to be
filled by our experiences• If nativism is true…
▫What is the purpose of education?▫Can intellect be changed by experience
• NATURE VS. NURTURE
Developments from Philosophy
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Developments from Philosophy
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•Charles Darwin (1809-1882)•Theory of natural selection
(1859)▫ physical characteristics evolve
through natural selection▫ behavioral patterns also influence
selection▫ inborn knowledge and behavioral
tendencies with survival value are passed on
•Human beings are part of nature and can be understood through the methods of science
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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Foundations of Modern Psychology•Darwin’s theory encouraged scientific inquiry•19th century developments in physiology
demonstrated the approach to use ▫ based on scientific methods, controlled laboratory
experiments▫ influential beliefs from early physiology
reflexology - all human behaviors occur through reflexes localization of function - specific structures of the brain serve
specific functions in the control of mental experiences and behavior
•Separated from philosophy in 19th century▫ influences from physiology remain
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•Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)▫ First psychology lab in Leipzig,
Germany▫ wrote the first psychology
textbook▫ applied laboratory techniques
to study of the mind▫Used introspection –
self-examination of one’s own emotional states and mental processes No longer in use – too
unreliable/subjective
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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• Edward Titchener▫Was an English student of
Wundt▫Set up a psych lab at
Cornell in 1892.▫Established a school of
thought known as structuralism
• Structuralism – Consciousness can be broken down into basic parts using introspection techniques
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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•William James▫American Harvard Professor▫Wrote a well-respected
textbook Principles of Psychology (1890).
▫Founded school of thought known as functionalism Stressed looking at the
function/purpose of behavior and tried to apply findings to practical situations.
No longer in use but gave rise to behaviorism
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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•G. Stanley Hall (American)▫Established the first psych lab in the US at Johns
Hopkins (1883)▫Established the first psych journal in the US▫Founded the American Psychological Association
(APA) in 1892 and was its first president•Mary Whiton Calkins
▫Completed Ph.D. in Psych under James at Harvard but not granted degree because she was a woman
▫Received a lesser degree from Radcliffe. ▫First woman president of the APA in 1905
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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Foundations of Modern Psychology
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John B. Watson (1878–1958)
John B. Watson•Founder of Behaviorism•Studied only observable and objectively described acts•Emphasized objective and scientific methodology
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Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)•Behaviorist•Russian Physiologist•Studied learning
through associations in animals
•Emphasized the study of observable behaviors
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B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
•Behaviorist•American psychologist at Harvard•Focused on learning through rewards and observation•studied learning and effect of reinforcement
B.F. Skinner
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
•Austrian physician that focused on illness
•Founder of the psychoanalytic perspective
•Believed that abnormal behavior originated from unconscious drives and conflicts
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Freud’s Influence• Influence on “pop culture”
▫Freudian slips▫Anal-retentive
• Influence on psychology▫Psychodynamic theory▫Unconscious thoughts▫Significance of childhood experiences
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Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow(1902-1987) (1908-1970)•Helped to create Humanistic Psychology•Stressed the study of conscious experience and
an individual’s free will•Healthy individuals strive to reach their
potential.
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Wolfgang Kohler•Created Gestalt
Psychology•The whole is different
from the sum of its parts.
•Integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
Wolfgang Kohler(1865-1965)
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What do you see?
You See the whole picture first rather than the individual dots that make it up. – Gestalt Psychology
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• Margaret Floy Washburn▫First woman to earn a PhD in psychology▫2nd woman president of the APA
• Francis Cecil Sumner (US) ▫First African American Ph.D. in psychology▫Clark University▫Started Psych department at Howard University
• Kenneth Clark (US)▫Documented the harmful effect of school
segregation on Black children.▫First African-American APA president (1971)
Foundations of Modern Psychology
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•Basic Research▫Aim is to increase our scientific knowledge
base.▫Study is conducted to satisfy curiosity and
answer questions we have about behavior or mental processes.
•Applied Research/Psychology▫Aim is to solve practical problems▫Looks for ways that research psychology
can be made useful and helpful
Psychology’s Subfields
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Distribution of Fields:
Subfields in Psychology
Clinical 36%
Other Psychology
15%
Biological and
Experimental
16%
Industrial/Organizational 3%
Social/Personality 8%
Educational 3%
Developmental 6%
Counseling 10%
School 3%
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• Colleges and universities
• Clinical settings• Elementary and
secondary schools• Business• Government
Professional Work Settings
PrivatePractice
Government
Universities &College
Business& Industry
School
Employment Settings of Psychologists
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Psychology Careers• Clinical Psychologists
▫Largest group of practitioners▫Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders▫Duties include psychological testing,
interviewing and therapy• Psychiatrist
▫Medical doctor dealing with psychological disorders
▫Provide medical treatments as well as psychological treatment
▫Only one who can prescribe medicine!
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Psychology Careers• Counseling Psychologists
▫Often work with clients whose problems are of a moderate degree
▫Many specialize in marital or family counseling• School Psychologists
▫Concerned with social, intellectual, and emotional development of students
▫Often test students for special programs• Educational Psychologists
▫Involved in teacher training, curriculum design and other related educational processes
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Psychology Careers• Industrial/Organizational Psychologists
▫Work in business and industry▫Attempt to improve productivity▫May develop employee selection programs, work
with advertisers, study consumer behavior, etc.• Social Psychologists
▫Experimental psychologists who study social situations
▫Study topics such as conformity, obedience, leadership style
• Developmental Psychologists▫Research behavior changes occurring across the life
span that are due to maturation and development.
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Psychology Careers• Health Psychologist
▫Factors in prevention and treatment of illness▫Relationships between doctor/patient/family
• Forensic Psychologists▫Study topics include criminal behavior,
eyewitnesses, victims, jury selection• Sport Psychologist
▫Maximize athletic performance▫Benefits of exercise
• Human Factors Psychologist▫Making technology user friendly▫Works with companies who create new technology
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Psychological Perspectives•Method of classifying a collection of
ideas•Also called “schools of thought”•Also called “psychological
approaches”•To view behavior from a particular
perspective
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Perspectives •Perspective is a way of viewing
phenomena•Psychology has multiple perspectives
▫Neuroscience▫Psychoanalytic▫Behavioral▫Humanistic▫Cognitive▫Social-Cultural▫Evolutionary▫Behavior Genetics
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•Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior
•Looks at the physical causes of behavior▫Brain Chemistry/Anatomy▫Genetics▫Hormones
•Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences
Neuroscience Perspective
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•Focuses on environmental causes•Behavior comes from learning
▫Rewards and Punishment, Observational Learning
•Observable behavior is very important•Not interested in internal world
Behavioral Perspective
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•How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior ?
•Focuses on internal sentences, thinking/rationality and processing information
•Behavior is shaped by our way of thinking/interpreting information▫How do we process what is happening
around us?
Cognitive Perspective
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•Humanistic approach▫developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers▫behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’ ▫focus on conscious forces and self
perception• All humans are good• Approach stresses interpersonal relations• Important concepts: self-esteem, free will, choice,
self-direction – Our behavior is motivated by our desire to fulfill our needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)
Humanistic Perspective
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• both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
• behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
• drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior▫ Traumatic experience in childhood was repressed
to the unconscious and is shaping our behavior today
• Early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations
• Also looks at parental relationships
Psychoanalytic Perspective
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• The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups
• How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?
• Looks at group roles/expectations, along with family traditions
• Gender Roles/socioeconomic class• Peer Pressure/Family Pressure/Media Influences
Socio-cultural
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•Goes back to Darwin’s theory of natural selection
•Genes predispose us to act•Our motive is survival and to pass on
genes•All behavior is driven by survival of
species▫A behavior that we do today was helpful for
our ancestors to survive
Evolutionary Perspective
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Behavior Genetics
• Focus: How behavior is affected by genes and the environment
• Combines biology and behaviorism• Emphasis on the importance of both
genetic and environmental factors on behavior
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Perspectives Timeline
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The Scientific Method of Research• Definition: Assumptions, attitudes and procedures
that guide researchers in generating questions to investigate, in generating evidence and in drawing conclusions▫Assume behavior follows consistent patterns with
cause and effect▫Attitude of open mindedness and critical thinking▫Procedure of steps to follow in order to arrive at the
truth.• Empirical Evidence – data that is the result of
objective observation, measurement, and experimentation
• Pseudoscience – a FAKE or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence
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Problems that can occur:• Hindsight bias – the tendency to believe after learning
the outcome, that one would have foreseen it. ▫ Common Sense is often wrong!
• Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than we do
• Rule of Falsifiability – to scientifically test a claim there must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim false.
• We must have critical thinking when doing research. Do not blindly accept arguments/conclusions.▫ Instead, examine the evidence and look for alternative
solutions/explanations
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Problems that can occur:• Barnum Effect
▫“There’s a sucker born every minute”▫Statements can gull people into thinking they have
been accurately assessed by the speaker or test when in fact the outcome could apply to anyone.
▫Individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people
▫Provide partial explanations for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, and some types of personality tests
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Other Biases• Confirmation Bias – our tendency to search for information
that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that don’t • Researcher Bias – the tendency to notice evidence which
supports one particular point of view or hypothesis • Volunteer Bias – People who volunteer to participate in a
survey are different from those who do not
• Participant Bias – Tendency of research subjects to respond in certain ways because they know they are being observed.▫ Do you act the same way in the classroom that you do at
home?▫ Also known as Hawthorne Effect