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Module Five

Process Analysis

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Module Status• Next module

– Continue to review information on effective writing

– Build on skills for writing vividly and descriptively

– Develop additional skills by using process analysis

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Next Module

Process Analysis

• Instructions• Process Description

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Terms

• Instructions– Step-by-step organization– Usually in chronological order– Often written from a "command" point of view to

direct reader to perform a task• Process description

– Explanation of process– Logical order– Explain how something is done without actually

commanding reader to complete each step

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Point of View

• Instructions usually written in the second person – “You" or "you understood"

• Process descriptions usually written from third person – “People," "they," "them," "their,"

"person," "he," "she," "one," "it."

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Process Analysis• Tells how to do something or how something

functions• Give directions and explain behaviors• Organized according to time or logic

– Chronological order• Often proceeds step by step • Example: How to register for class at Sandhills

– Logical order• Need to arrange points in a logical order

– Step-by-step approach by might not work • Examples:

– How to maintain your weight and eat healthy– How to live within your budget

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Process Analysis

• For both kinds of process writing, need analysis– Analyze material before beginning to

create draft– Include background information, steps,

and pitfalls (important decision made by author on what is needed and what to include)

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Planning Body Paragraphs• List steps or stages of process as you think of

them – Space items on a list widely apart, so you can add

points you might forget the first time through– Keep events in order

• Read through steps when complete and visualize process to pinpoint anything forgotten

• Avoid using the technique known as flashback, a device that presents material that occurred earlier in an chronological sequence

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Guidelines• Terms: Define terms unfamiliar to most

readers or common word used in an unfamiliar way

• Explicit: Writing has to stand alone. – Gestures can’t be used to show additional

information (such as size, space, dimensions)– Use precise language

• Reasons: Readers can understand process better if reasons for taking certain steps are provided

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Guidelines• Warnings with “don’ts”

– Warn readers if common or uncommon (but disastrous) mistake could occur

– Example: Don’t remove component parts until you have turned off all power.

• Pitfalls: Let readers know if things can go wrong despite directions given – Example: Baking a cake and temperature rises

too quickly or over desired temperature, the cake could fall.

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Guidelines

• In reviewing body paragraphs, ask yourself several questions – How are transitions made between

paragraphs? Are there transitional words or phrases within paragraphs?

– Could you follow this process? Are steps clear? Are there questions a reader would want to ask the author?

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Opening Paragraph• Identify: Readers should know what

process you are going to describe– Thesis statement

• Establish credibility: Why are you credible and able to write the paper?

• Motivate: Mention advantages of knowing how to perform this process

• List: List any materials involved (particularly for a how-to paper), so all necessary items are named in one place

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Closing Paragraph• Often hard to prepare in process writing • Consider one of these strategies

– List advantages of knowing the process• But don’t repeat the introduction

– Speculate on the results of completing process – Mention related or complementary processes

reader might be interested in • If reader could use same technique for similar process

– Give reader a few words of encouragement– Maintain your credibility

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Questions to Consider• Why is process important? • Who or what does the process affect? • How many steps are involved?

– Why is each step important? – What difficulties are involved in each step?

How can they be overcome?– Are there different ways of doing the process?

If so, what are they? • How long does the process take? Is the

outcome always the same?

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Questions to Consider• Does process have definitions that need to

be clarified? • What skills/equipment are needed? • Do any cautions need to be given? • Does reader need to understand what

should not be done or why something should be done?

• Are other processes similar and could help illustrate the process that you are writing about?

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Review Checklist• What do you find out about the topic in the

introduction? Can you identify the process or the purpose of the essay?

• Do readers have enough background information to understand the process? Is there too much?

• Are materials or equipment needed listed at the beginning and is everything necessary included?

• Are steps given in chronological order? Are any steps missing? Are reasons given for doing a step (if they would be helpful)?

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Review Checklist• Where is the thesis statement given? Is

it stated or implied?• Could you follow this process? • How are transitions made between

paragraphs? Are there transitional words or phrases within paragraphs?

• Are unfamiliar terms defined?

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Review Checklist• Are any “don’ts” or pitfalls involved in

this process that should be mentioned?• Does the conclusion use a strategy? Is it

effective?• Does ending give readers a sense of

closure?

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Assignment: Overview• Write essay on one of the following topics

(avoid overlap with previous essay topics)

– Option 1: Write instructions to perform a task (but do not write a recipe for this assignment) — make sure instructions that you write about are something that you know how to do

– Option 2: Write a process description essay that explains how something works

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Apostrophe

• Unlike other punctuation marks that separate words

• Is part of a word to indicate– Possession– Omission of one or more letters

• Grammar, style, or spell checkers are not always helpful

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Apostrophe• Uses

– Form possessives of nouns and indefinite pronouns

• The student’s book is here.• Everyone’s test has been graded.

– Form contractions• “They’re” for “they are”• “It’s” for “it is”• “Don’t” for “do not”

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Apostrophe

• Distinguish between plural and possessive

• Misuses– Do not use apostrophe to form plurals

of nouns• Wrong: The book’s are on the shelf.• Right: The books are on the shelf.

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Apostrophe• Misuses

– Do not use apostrophe to form possessive of personal pronoun

• Wrong: It’s roof has a missing shingle.• Right: Its roof has a missing shingle.

– Do not use apostrophe plus –s to form possessive of plural noun ending in –s (use apostrophe alone after the -s that forms the plural)

• Wrong: The boy’s fathers are at work.• Right: The boys’ fathers are at work.

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Apostrophe• Be modern — don’t use apostrophe

to mark plural dates or abbreviations• Examples

1990s1940sMDsPhDsFew PhDs were awarded in the 1940s.

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Numbers

• Spell out numbers of one or two words– This class has twenty students.– The cafeteria serves eighty lunches a day.

• Use numerals if more than two words needed to spell out numbers– Moore County has 75,600 residents.– The phone book has 455 pages.

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Numbers• Use all numbers or all words when

several numbers appear together– The textbook has 958 pages, and every

page is appreciated by all 15 students. • Use combination of numerals and

words for round numbers over a million– My checking account has 10 million

dollars in it.

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Numbers• Use a comma to separate numerals in long

numbers– 12,345– 12,345,678

• Spell out numbers that begin sentences– Awkward: 8.7 million people live in our state.– Better: Our state has a population of 8.7 million.

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Numbers• Use standard convention in dates, addresses,

and other information (even if can spell out with one or two words)– Addresses

• 4 Azalea Circle• Pinehurst, NC 28374

– Dates• June 28, 2004• 1999

– Exact amounts of money• $4.50

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Pronouns• Terms

– Pronoun: Word used in place of a noun (eight types of pronouns)

• Personal: I, you, we, he, she, it, they• Indefinite: Everybody• Others (relative, interrogative, intensive,

reflexive, demonstrative, and reciprocal)– Antecedent: Noun that the pronoun

substitutes for

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Clear Reference• Be clear in link of pronoun to its

antecedent– Problem: Jim told Seth that he was not

invited.• How to be clear?

– Agree in person, number, and gender– Refer to single, close, and specific antecedent

• Grammar and style checks do not recognize unclear reference

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Clear Reference• Make pronoun refer clearly to single

antecedent• Place pronoun close to its antecedent• Make pronoun refer to specific antecedent

(not implied)• Use pronoun “it” only one way in a

sentence• Use “who,” “which,” and “that” for

appropriate antecedents

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Clear Reference• Make pronoun refer clearly to one

antecedent• Usual problems

– More than one possible antecedent• Joe is often compared to his brother Jacob, but he is

quite different.– Antecedent too far away

• Students should consult with advisers who want to register for next semester.

– Antecedent only implied• Many students study on their own, but this should

include group study.

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Incorrect Examples

• There is a difference between drummers of today and drummers of the last century; they have bad rhythm.

• Music fans still admire Eminem, Madonna, and Britney Spears, even though they are not perfect.

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Clear Reference• Use pronoun “it” only one way in a

sentence– It is raining.– It is true that that too much rain is irritating to

Mario.– Too much rain is irritating to Tiffani, but she

appreciates the benefits that it provides.• Two uses in same sentence are confusing

– It is true that the car is new, but it has been driven many miles.

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Appropriate Reference

• Use “who,” “which,” and “that” for appropriate antecedents– “Who” refers to persons – “Which” refers to animals and objects– “That” refers to animals and objects

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Appropriate Reference• Use “who,” “which,” and “that” for

appropriate antecedents– “Who” refers to persons

• A student who studies each day scores high on quizzes.

– “Which” refers to animals and items (in nonessential clause)

• Moore County, which is in the Sandhills, has a nice climate.

– “That” refers to animals and items (in essential clause)

• The horse that bit Chris needs more discipline.

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Appropriate Reference• Misuse of “who,” “which,” and “that” as

antecedents– A student that studies each day scores high on

quizzes.• “Who” refers to persons

– Moore County, that is in the Sandhills, has a nice climate.

• “Which” refers to animals and items (in nonessential clause)

– The horse who bit Chris needs more discipline.• “That” refers to animals and items (in essential

clause)

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Misplaced Modifier

• Modifier: word or group of words that limits or qualifies meaning of another word or word group

• Types– Adjective– Adverb– Word, phrase, or clause that acts as

adjective or adverb

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Misplaced Modifier

• What is the problem?– Meaning of sentence not clear– Reader cannot relate modifier to what it

modifies• Why?

– Too far from term it modifies– Too close to another term it could

modify

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Misplaced Modifier• Example

– Jordan played with firecrackers that he bought illegally in the field.

– Jordan played in the field with firecrackers that he bought illegally.

• Result– Awkward– Confusing– Sometimes unintentionally funny

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How to Fix

• Be careful– Place phrase so it clearly modifies

intended word — not something else– Usually link modifying word or phrase

to nearest word it can modify• Example

– Carter served pizza to the students on paper plates.

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How to Fix• Be careful

– Place phrase so it clearly modifies intended word — not something else

– Usually link modifying word or phrase to nearest word it can modify

• Example– Carter served pizza to the students on paper

plates.• Revised

– Carter served pizza on paper plates to the students.

– Carter served the students pizza on paper plates.

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How to Fix

• Usually link modifying word or phrase to nearest word it can modify

• Example– Many dogs are killed by automobiles and

trucks roaming unleashed.• Revised

– Many dogs roaming unleashed are killed by automobiles and trucks.

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Limiting Modifiers• Modify expressions that immediately

follow them• Examples

– Almost– Even– Exactly– Just – Nearly– Only– Simply

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Limiting Modifiers

• Place limiting modifiers carefully• Unclear

– Kenán only scored a field goal in the final quarter of the game.

• Revised– Kenán scored only a field goal in the final

quarter of the game.– Kenán scored a field goal in only the final

quarter of the game.

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Proper Placement of “Only”

• Modify expressions that immediately follow them– Only John hit Joe in the nose.– John only hit Joe in the nose.– John hit only Joe in the nose.– John hit Joe only in the nose.

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Placement• Adverbs

– Location usually flexible as long as sentence not awkward

– Awkward: You take sometimes a test in this class.

• Adjectives– Specific order before a noun– Awkward: Cotton red many shirts are in

my closet.

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Adverbs

• Adverbs of frequency• Adverbs of degree• Adverbs of manner• Adverb “not”

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Adverb Placement

• Adverbs of frequency– Examples: always, never, often,

sometimes, usually– Location

• At beginning of sentence• Before one-word verb• After helping verb in verb phrase• Always after verb form “be”

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Adverb Placement

• Adverbs of frequency– At beginning of sentence

• Sometimes you take a test in this class.– Before one-word verb

• You sometimes take a test in this class.– Awkward

• You take sometimes a test in this class.

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Adverb Placement

• Adverbs of frequency– After helping verb in verb phrase

• I have sometimes contributed to fund raisers.

– Always after verb “be”• I am sometimes late for class.

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Adverb Placement

• Adverbs of degree– Examples: almost, completely,

especially, extremely, only– Location: just before word modified

(adjective, other adverb)• Example

– My classes are especially useful this semester.

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Adverb Placement

• Adverbs of manner– Describe how something is done– Examples: badly, beautifully, openly,

rightly, well– Location: usually after verb

• Example– Students study quickly for an exam.

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Adverb Placement

• Adverb “not”• Location: after helping verb (when

modifying a verb)• Example

– Some students do not like math.

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Adjective Placement• Specific rules in English for placement of

two or three adjectives before noun• Order depends on meaning of adjective

– Determiner (a, the, all, many)– Opinion (fine, great)– Size or shape (round, square, big, oval)– Color (red, blue)– Origin (African, Thai)– Material (wooden, cotton)– Noun used as adjective

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Adjective Placement• Specific rules in English for placement of

two or three adjectives before noun• Order depends on meaning of adjective

– Determiner (a, the, all, many)– Opinion (fine, great)– Size or shape (round, square, big, oval)– Color (red, blue)– Origin (African, Thai)– Material (wooden, cotton)– Noun used as adjective