Module 2 study guide

OVERVIEW

The ESL (English as a Second Language) program has become an essential part of our educational system today. As our communities grow more and more multi-cultural, there is a need to make teaching English a more vital part of our curriculum. The following section will discuss different methodologies, strategies, and activities for teaching ESL to elementary through high school-aged students.

Second language teachers need to understand the basic principles of the process of language acquisition, which include BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communications Skills) and CALP (Cognitive- Academic Learning Process) (Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, Colin Baker,p. 11) as well as the Iceberg Analogy [Baker, p. 134].

Second language acquisition can be compared to first language acquisition. In fact, if a teacher thinks through the process of learning a language from infancy, he/she will better comprehend second language acquisition.

When a child is born, he/she has no language. The baby goes through what is known as a silent period—he/she listens to language spoken to him/her and process the sounds, without attempting to produce any of his own. As the child grows and becomes more comfortable with the language, he/she begins to produce sounds. From monosyllabic sounds the baby moves to two-letter syllables and finally to words. He/she then begins to put the words together into short phrases and eventually, sentences. This process takes one to two years. When applied to second language acquisition, this stage of development is called BICS. Research tells us that LEP children will move from the silent period to language production in one to two years. However, it is very important to remember that, even though a child has BICS (they can carry on a conversation with you), they are not at this stage capable of meeting academic challenges in their new language. One must keep in mind that a child who has learned English from infancy enters school having to then learn academic concepts.Therefore an LEP child needs one to two years in school simply to develop the verbal language that a native English-speaking child possesses upon entering school. Unfortunately, in actual educational situations, due to necessity and lack of time, LEP children are usually forced to move to production much more quickly. Once a child has BICS, he/she is ready to begin learning academics. Accordingto Cummins, it takes a minimum of five to seven years to reach native proficiency in CALP and to be able to function successfully without help in a monolingual English classroom. During the time thatan LEP student is developing CALP, the teacher should be working with him/her on reading andwriting techniques and strategies, as well as specifics about the structure of the English language.

There are many different approaches that an instructor can take when building CALP. The following section explains a number of approaches. It is divided into four sub-sections: listening, speaking reading, and writing. Under each section you will find methodologies, strategies, and simple activities for each. A good instructor is an eclectic one; one who uses different strategies when appropriate.There will never be “one way” to teach ESL. The teacher must know his/her students: the stage of

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English as a Second Language V2.0



language they are in, and which method or strategy will work best for the material that each individual needs at the time (see continuums).

FIVE HYPOTHESES ABOUT SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

KRASHEN’S THEORY

1. The Acquisition I Learning Hypothesis

We have two different and independent ways of developing ability in second languages.

Acquisition - a subconscious process similar, if not identical, to the way children develop ability in their first language.

Learning - conscious knowledge of the rules of grammar of a second language and their application in production.

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

Acquisition of grammatical structures (primarily morphemes) proceeds in a predictable order when that acquisition is natural (i.e., not via formal learning). This order can be altered by first language (L1) influence but not by the effects of instruction.

3. The Monitor Hypothesis

Acquisition is the sole initiator of all second language (L2) utterances and is responsible for fluency, while learning (conscious knowledge of rules) can function only as an “editor” or “monitor” for the output. This monitor operates only when there is sufficient time, the focus is on form, and the language user knows the rule being applied.

4. The Input Hypothesis

Acquiring understanding by: Aiming for meaning (focusing on what is said, not how it is said).

Applying our knowledge and experiences of the world into a new context.

Going through the silent period and increasing the accuracy of speaking in the second language by listening and comprehending.

Applying the new input presented to the developmental language structures that have been innately acquired since birth.

5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Comprehensible input can have its effect on acquisition only when affective conditions are optimal. The following affective variables are related to success in L2 acquisition:

Anxiety - The lower the level of anxiety, the better the language acquisition.

Motivation - Higher motivation predicts better L2 acquisition.

Self-confidence - The acquirer with more self-esteem and self-confidence tends to do better in L2 acquisition.



SURFACE AND DEEPER LEVELS OF LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

CUMMINGS’ THEORY

Cummings, J. (1984) Bilingual and Special Education: Issues in Assessment and Pedagogy. San Diego: College-Hill.



CHECKLIST OF LANGUAGE SKILLS FOR USE WITH LIMITED ENGLISH PROFICIENT STUDENTS

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS)



ListeningSp. Eng.

1. Follows classroom directions.2. Points to classroom items.3. Distinguishes items according to color, shape, size, etc.4. Points to people (family relationships).5. Distinguishes people according to physical and emotional states.6. Acts out common school activities.7. Distinguishes environmental sounds.

SpeakingSp. Eng.

1. Gives classroom commands to peers.2. Exchanges common greetings.3. Names classroom objects.4. Describes classroom objects according to color, shape, size, etc.5. Describes people according to physical and emotional states.6. Describes what is happening when given an action picture of a

common recreational activity.7. Appropriately initiates, maintains and responds to a conversation.8. Recites ABCs, numbers 1-10.9. Appropriately answers basic questions.10. Participates in sharing time.

ReadingSp. Eng.

1. Recognizes common traffic/safety signs.2. Recognizes familiar advertising logos. (e.g., McDonalds, HEB)3. Recognizes basic sight words.

WritingSp. Eng.

1. Writes personal name.2. Writes ABCs, numbers 1-10.3. Copies shapes.



Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

ListeningSp. Eng.

1. Follows specific directions for academic tasks according to curriculum guide.

2. Understands vocabulary for academic tasks according to curriculum guide (i.e., word meaning, word synonyms for operations).

3. Understands teacher’s discussion and distinguishes main ideas from supportive details.

4. Understands temporal concepts (e.g., do this first, second, last).5. Distinguishes sounds for reading readiness activities.6. Listens to a movie or other audio-visual presentation with academic

content.Speaking

Sp. Eng.1. Asks/answers specific questions regarding topic discussions.2. Uses academic vocabulary appropriately.3. Uses temporal concepts appropriately.4. Asks for clarification during academic tasks.5. Expresses reason for opinion.6. Actively participates in class discussions.7. Volunteers to answer questions in class regarding subject matter.

ReadingSp. Eng.

1. Uses sound/symbol association.2. Uses mechanics of spatial skills (i.e., top-to-bottom, left-to-right).3. Understands rules of punctuation/capitalization.4. Understands reading as a process (i.e., speech-print relations,

syllables).5. Reads for comprehension.6. Follows along during oral reading activity and responds at his turn.7. Appropriate use of text (i.e., index).8. Demonstrates an interest in reading.

WritingSp. Eng.

1. Completes written expression activities according to curr. guide.a. Completes simple sentences frames.b. Generates simple sentences.c. Writes from dictation.d. Writes short paragraphs.

2. Transfers from print to cursive at the appropriate grade level.3. Understands spatial constraints of writing (i.e., lines, top-to-bottom,

left-to-right).4. Understands the mechanics of writing (i.e., punctuation,

paragraphing).5. Demonstrates an interest in writing.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DEALING WITH ERRORS

Recommendations For Teachers

1. Try to analyze errors. Remediate errors which

Are the result of incorrect learning. Seriously interfere with comprehensibility. Are inappropriate at the learners’ stage of development.

Don’t worry about errors which Are signs of incomplete learning. Do not interfere with communication. Are persistent for all learners.

2. The learner’s ability to “monitor” is limited at first. Expect that the learner will not have conscious control over more than a few features of the language. Teach one thing at a time.

3. Avoid direct methods of correction. Identification Explanation Correction

4. Attempt to use indirect methods.

Use of peers Opportunities for communication and interaction Clarifying accuracy Modeling

5. Be aware that many errors are a result of the affective -emotional state and feelings of confidence. Drawing attention to errors does little to promote a learning environment in which language acquisition is accelerated.

6. Identify situations in which formal accuracy is important. Teach editing and proofreading skills, use of reference books, daily journals, etc., to be used when the need arises.



THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE

Language is everywhere. It permeates our thoughts, mediates our relations with others, and even creeps into our dreams. Most human knowledge and culture is stored and transmitted in language, which is so ubiquitous that we take it for granted. Without it, however, society as we now know it would be impossible.Despite its undeniable importance in human affairs, language is poorly understood. Misconceptions about it are legend, even among well-educated people, and not even professional linguists can claim to understand it fully. It is a radical mistake to assume that the nature of language is self-evident or that we know all about a language just because we speak it. Gradually, however, linguists and other scholars are gaining a better understanding of this remarkable instrument of human communication. The purpose of this book is to summarize a significant portion of what is known about language for the benefit of those with little or no previous training in linguistics. An accurate appreciation of language is worth acquiring for several reasons.

First, many serious problems in today’s world involve language in an essential way. To what extent are language differences barriers to understanding? Is a universal language feasible or desirable? Should a massive reform of English spelling be undertaken? How should children be taught to read? Should the writers of dictionaries bow to popular usage? Is it worthwhile for the government of a multilingual nation (like India) to try to impose one language on all speakers as an official national language? If so, which one? At what level should foreign languages be taught in our schools? To what extent are the members of minority groups and the lower classes handicapped in their social and economic advancement by their speech? It is not our concern here to provide answers to these very difficult questions, but anyone interested in finding valid answers to them should not set out without at least a minimal understanding of language.Second, insights about language are of immense intellectual significance, with direct and indirect relevance to other disciplines. Philosophers, for example, are greatly concerned with language. It is important for our view of man that we know whether language is entirely learned or largely innate. Language, in other words, could be one of the grounds on which to settle a long-standing debate between rationalists and empiricists.

a) The rationalist claim is that people are born with innate ideas, that much of an individual’s psychological organization is “wired in” and genetically transmitted.

b) Empiricists, on the other hand, claim that a person is born as a blank slate, psychologically speaking, and that psychological organization is determined almost entirely by experience, not by genetic inheritance. Both rationalists and empiricists have turned to language to find support for their views on this important question. Philosophers are also concerned with language as an instrument of philosophical analysis. Are human languages viable as the media of philosophical inquiry and theory? Can philosophical errors be attributed to the misuse of language? What is the relationship between language and logic?





c) Language is also relevant to psychology in a number of ways. In fact, since language is a largely mental phenomenon, its study may be considered a branch of psychology. Any adequate theory of human psychology must give some account of thought processes; language is of central importance here because so many of our thoughts assume linguistic form. The relationship between language and concept formation is of great interest to psychologists, since many, if not most, of our concepts are given verbal labels of some sort. Language also provides a significant test for theories of psychological organization. Languages are highly structured, and we have learned to identify and describe their

structures in considerable detail; any theory of psychological organization, therefore, must adequately accommodate the kinds of structures we know to be characteristic of human languages.

The concepts and techniques of linguistic analysis have also influenced the other social sciences to some degree, anthropology in particular. Since language is more obviously structured than other facets of human psychology, such as systems of belief or networks of social organization, social scientists interested in these other domains may learn something of value from the analysis of language.

Third, an introduction to the nature of language is important to anyone interested in the practical applications deriving from linguistic research. Fundamental insights about language should certainly prove valuable to anyone studying or teaching a language (even the native language of the student or teacher). Accurate machine translation, if it can be accomplished at all (and this appears quite doubtful at present), can hardly be programmed without a reasonably sophisticated knowledge of language on the part of the programmer. Anthropologists must know the language of a people for their investigation of its culture to be most fruitful. Missionary work in uncivilized areas requires a great deal of practical and theoretical knowledge about language; the language of the natives must be learned quickly and well, and considerable understanding is needed to devise and teach an adequate writing system for the native tongue.Fourth and finally, an accurate appreciation of language is valuable since no one can be considered truly well educated if he remains ignorant about the instrument of so much of his instruction. Since language permeates virtually all human affairs and is central to so many of them, an appreciation of language can hardly be considered peripheral. An introduction to language really needs no other justification. Anyone who wishes to know and understand himself must come to understand in some measure the character of the linguistic system that plays such a fundamental role in his mental and social life. In short, language should be understood “because it is there.”

LEVELS OF LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

B I C S



asic nterpersonal ommunication kills

Language proficiency needed to function in everyday interpersonal contexts Pronunciation Grammar Vocabulary

Communicative capacity, which all normal children acquire; it reaches a plateau soon after a child enters school.

Not related to academic achievement Universal across all native speakers BICS are attained after two years in host country.

C A L P

ognitive cademic anguage roficiency

Language proficiency needed to function in decontextualized, academic settings Skills needed to manipulate language outside of the immediate interpersonal context Dimension of language related to literacy skills CALP in L1 and L2 overlap, in spite of important differences in the “surface features” of

each language. CALP develops throughout the school years, following a general curve for cognitive

development.

CONVERSATIONAL AND ACADEMIC LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY

BICS CALP

Length of time required to achieve age-appropriate levels of each type of proficiency in a second language.

Legend

- - - - Native English Speakers

ESLLearners



LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY



“DUAL ICEBERG” REPRESENTATION OF BILINGUAL PROFICIENCY



LANGUAGE

What is Language?The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association defines language as a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols used in various modes of communication and thought.A SYSTEM is organized, governed by rules, and works toward a purpose. Automobile engines and the digestive tract are examples of systems. LANGUAGE is a system - it is ordered and purposeful. The essential purpose of language is COMMUNICATION.Language is an orderly combination of conventional symbols. The symbols are the words we use to label objects, actions, and ideas that we perceive in our reality. These symbols are conventional–that is, we assign a socially agreed upon symbol to objects and ideas so we can talk about them. We all agree on a name for a particular object or idea for purposes of communication.



The Nature of LanguageSome Basic Premises About the Nature of Language

Language is a uniquely human activity. Language is universal and has universal properties. Every language has its own system or code and

o is sufficiently complete for its speakers to carry out their daily activities.o reflects the socio-cultural organization and environment of its speakers.o is composed of a limited number of distinctive sounds with which its speakers can

form an unlimited number of words and utterances.o has devices which allow speakers to talk about themselves and others, to ask

questions, and to express denial or acceptance.



Some Major Functions of LanguagePersonal - to express one’s emotions, needs, thoughts, desires and attitudesInterpersonal - to maintain good social relations with individuals and groups; expressions of praise, sympathy, joy at another’s success; inquires about healthDirective - to control the behavior of others through advice, warnings, requests, persuasion, discussionReferential - to talk about objects or events in the immediate setting, environment or cultureMeta Linguistic - to talk about language (e.g., What does mean?)Imaginative - to use language creatively in rhyming, poetry

LEVELS OF PROFICIENCY

Level I (Pre-Production Stage)



Minimal comprehension No verbal production

listen point move mime match

draw select choose act/act out circle

Level II (Early Production Stage)

list categorize tell/say answer

Limited comprehension

One/two word response namelabelgroup respond(with one/two words)Level III (Speech Emergence Stage)

Increased comprehension Simple sentences Some errors in speech

recall retell define explain compare

summarize describe role-play restate contrast



Level IV (Intermediate Fluency) Very good comprehension More complex sentences

analyze create defend debate complete

evaluate justify support example describe

The Cummins’ ModelWith Show, Tell, Try, Do Incorporated

Check Your Delivery



UNDERSTANDING THE DEMANDS OF CONTENT AREA INSTRUCTION

Cognitively Undemanding

Cognitively Demanding

a = The concepts are not mentally demanding and the context is experiential, and related to concrete items. “Hands on” type activities are examples of “a”; this is the earliest area for students.

b =

c =

d =

The concepts are not mentally demanding but because the context is not rich (textbook, printed material) this area is more difficult.The concepts are mentally demanding but the context is concrete, experiential, “hands on.” This area is next to the easiest.The concepts are mentally demanding and the context is reduced, not concrete, more abstract. This is the hardest area.

C Ea b

C RO M O EN B N DT E T UE D E CX D X ET E

Dc T D

d





How would you rate these activities? a b c or d

Drawing sequential pictures

Projects (e.g., Relief map, building a dam, experiments)

Fill-in-the blank using vocabulary

Using a dictionary to find guide words, pronunciation, definitions or sentences with words in contexts

Telling someone else how to do an activity

Classifying (grammatically or semantically), (e.g., rock, stone, pebble, or hard, rough, round, large)

Using charts, graphs, maps, pictures

Matching words to pictures

Retelling an experience or lesson to a peer, teacher, or a tape recorder

Matching words with an example, (e.g., vehicles, car, bus, train)

Student summarizing a lecture or discussion or tutor (or student) writeing it down

Outlining

Module 2 study guide

Education

Transcript of Module 2 study guide