Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and ... · 4/1/2020 · specific frameworks...

VOLUME 2 ISSUE 1 APRIL 2020

Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literatue Vol. 2 Issue 1. April 2020.

Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature

Volume 2 Issue 1 April 2020

Chief Editor

Leah Gustilo, Ph.D.

Co-Chief Editor

Rouhollah Askaribigdeli

Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literatue Vol. 2 Issue 1. April 2020.

Table of Contents

A Genre-based Rubric for Peer Feedback

Farhad Jafari Basmenj 1

Differences in Teaching Styles and Oral Language Proficiency of

Non-native English Speaker Teachers: As Perceived by the Iranian EFL Students

Mohammad Javadi 10

The morphology and semantics of conjuncts: The case of MA theses

in the Philippine setting

Jennifier T. Diamante 31

Rhetorical Structure of Research Acknowledgment Sections

in Master’s Thesis Manuscripts

Elizabeth B. Alibangbang, MALT

Donnie M. Tulud, Ph.D. 51

Characterizing the language features and rhetorical moves of argumentative essays

written by Filipino ESL senior high school writers

Marites B. Querol

Marilu Rañosa Madrunio, Ph.D. 62

Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature Vol. 2 Issue 1. April 2020

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A Genre-based Rubric for Peer Feedback

Farhad Jafari Basmenj University of British Columbia

[email protected]

Abstract

Peer feedback in writing is considered an important stage of pedagogy. Peer feedback in L2 writing has been investigated through different lenses. Although a genre-based rubric for writing assessment is offered in the literature of feedback, a well-defined, principled and expert-like rubric with genre specifications is missing from peer feedback literature. This study offers a literature review of peer feedback literature, pinpoints the gaps, and provides a new, student-friendly 3x3 rubric for argumentative genre in writing through the amalgamation of frameworks in the literature. The pedagogical implication and application stages of the new genre-based rubric are discussed at the end. Keywords: Genre, rubric, argument writing, peer feedback Feedback: Expert and Peer

Feedback is an important part of teaching which can reinforce the input and help with the prevention of wrong output fossilization. It is that stage of the pedagogy wherein learners negotiate meanings with their experts or their peers, and their learning consolidates. Corrective feedback is defined as “responses to a learner’s nontarget-like L2 production” (Li, 2010, p. 309) and has been empirically shown to have positive impacts on students’ writings (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Bruton, 2009; Greenslade & Felix-Brasdefer, 2006; Hyland, 2003). Often treated as ancillary to instructor feedback, peer feedback has also drawn a lot of attention (Hu & Lam 2010; Liu 2012; Yang 2011; Yu & Lee 2014, 2015; Zhu &Mitchell 2012; Zhao 2010, 2014). Peer feedback is “the use of learners as sources of information and interactants for each other in such a way that learners assume roles and responsibilities normally taken on by a formally trained teacher, tutor, or editor in commenting on and critiquing each other’s drafts” (Liu & Hansen, 2002, p.1). In the literature, peer feedback has been studied from different perspectives with diverse methodological approaches in different contexts: comparisons between instructor and peer feedback with mixed findings about their efficacy and superiority (Birjandi &Tamjid, 2012; Chang, 2012; Chen, 2010; Lam 2013; Memari Hanjani, 2013; Ruegg, 2014), its benefits for feedback givers (Berggrenn 2015; Rosalia 2010), computer-mediated peer feedback and L2 earners’ perceptions of it (Ciftci & Kocoglu, 2012; Chang, 2012, Chen, 2012), the role of training on writing quality (Rahimi 2013; Yang & Meng 2013), and students’ level and peer feedback (Chong, 2017).

One problem about the current literature is that it either does not provide a well-defined,

descriptively detailed rubric for peer feedback (Chong, 2017; Diab, 2010; Hu & Lam, 2010; Lam, 2013) or, if it does, it is heavily embedded in the traditional holistic binary of micro-macro features of the text, and is devoid of any genre-based specifications and guidelines for learners (Birjandi & Tamjid, 2012; Vorobel & Kim, 2017). The penury of rubric in literature emanates from a reductionistic view that strips writing of its generic properties. Writing in the


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literature of peer feedback is hardly considered as a genre, and the instruction and training for feedback is rarely based on the rigors of genre. One interesting study on feedback is Anson and Anson’s (2017) investigation of a corpus of 50000 peer responses. Their study results confirm that an “expert principled response to writing” is concentrated on audience, organization, focused support, purpose, idea development and coherent structure, features hardly explored in peer feedback rubric and literature. It seems that genre-based pedagogy and SFL (Systemic Functional Linguistics) could bridge this gap in peer feedback by the provision of a framework which is inherently grounded on the rules of a genre. In the rest of this article, a basic definition of genre is provided, and conceptualization of argumentation as a genre is explained. A peer feedback rubric for argument genre is developed through integration of three frameworks in the literature, and a new version of Teaching and Learning Cycle (TLC) pedagogy with the component of peer deconstruction is provided at the end.

Genre and argumentation

Genre is “a term for grouping texts together, representing how writers typically use

language to respond to recurring situations” (Hyland, 2008, p. 544). Writing such texts is a practice based on a series of conventions that communities of practice expect of a writer. The author has a purpose, and the moves that s/he follows should align with the expected conventions. Genre-based writing instruction has many advantages: It is explicit and clear, supportive (in that it scaffolds); systematic (by providing a framework), critical (as it shows resources of discourses, and raises consciousness (Hyland, 2008). And perhaps the biggest advantage of genre is that it is recognizable by the “communities of practice” (Wenger, 1998), and that the writer gains a sense of belonging to the community through following the conventions of the genre (Hyland, 2008). The key principle in teaching through genres (genre-pedagogy) is raising students’ awareness of textual features and grammatical repertoire that the writer uses to achieve a particular purpose. Here, grammar does not signify the rules that exist independent of texts, but the rhetorical features that bind the text together and help the writer communicate his purpose.

The prevalence of argumentation in SLW (second language writing), evidenced by its

appearance in proficiency exams such as IELTS and TOEFL, makes it an important genre to consider in EAP/ESP contexts. As Hirvela (2017) observes, argumentation in the literature is conceptualized as either a form of reasoning (Toulmin, 2001) or inquiry (Kuhn, 2005). In argumentation as a form, the focus is on logic and the reasoning through which the writer renders a persuasive and convincing end product. In inquiry, argumentation is utilized to deepen analytic skills, a vehicle to solve problems. It appears that both concepts of arguments can be useful in EAP/ESP contexts.

Genre-based rubric

Fang and Wang (2009) critique the 6-straits writing Rubric, prevalent in American schools, on the basis that it is neither objective nor exact. Furthermore, according to them, the rubric is insensitive to genre, functions, and register requirements. Although their critique is targeted at rubric for teachers, as the review of above literature on peer feedback demonstrated, lack of genre-specific rubric is an obvious gap in the literature. Thus, it appears that a generic framework (for argumentative genre) for peer feedback can be devised with reference to literature of genre.

The genre-based rubric has been put forward in several studies. Humphrey et al. (2010) offer a 3x3 framework in the hope that it can be used to “inform the development of genre-


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specific frameworks for analysing, modelling, and assessing texts in particular disciplines” (p. 186). It is a “principled overview of resources” to “make it explicit the expectations of academic writing” (Humphrey et al., p. 187). It is a 9-square matrix composed of 3 metafunctions of language (ideational, interpersonal and textual) and 3 linguistic strata (social activity, discourse semantics, and grammar and expression). Ideational meaning represents “experience and connect events” (field), interpersonal metafunctions “negotiate attitude and relationships” (tenor), and textual meaning “weave ideational and interpersonal meanings into a coherent whole” (mode) (Humphrey et al., p. 191). As for stratification, social activity refers to the overall purpose and the staged goals of the genre realized though social registers such as field, tenor and mode, often assessed by content lecturers. At discourse semantics strata, students often use the repertoire of linguistic patterns which construe meaning within phases and paragraphs. The grammar and expression strata refer to linguistic resources which link clauses within sentences. They use the 3x3 framework to analyze a report summary genre in biology discipline. However, the framework, as they suggest, can be exploited and adapted to the requirements of other disciplines. Students can also be scaffolded to create their own resources.

Another less elaborate and more practical framework is the one provided by Mahboob

(2015). Drawing on the findings of SLATE project (Mahboob, Humphrey, Webster, Wong and Wong, 2010), Mahboob’s (2015) model proposes the idea of cohesion and coherence in feedback. The project was an online language and literacy program to help students ameliorate literacy skills in core academic units and was founded on Systematic Functional Linguistics (SFL), genre pedagogy (Rose and Martin, 2012) and Teaching Learning Cycle (TLC). According to Mahboob (2015), cohesion refers to the “purpose, audience and organization” of feedback, whereas coherence is achieved “when various instances … on a student’s text work together to scaffold a student into developing a deeper understanding of particular (selected) issues in their writing” (p. 358). He provides a framework and an assessment rubric where three different strata of language are addressed in the provision of cohesive feedback: Purpose and structure of the text (Criteria A), Development of meanings across paragraphs (Criteria B), and Grammar and expression (Criteria C) (p. 359). Findings of SLATE project suggested that Criteria A should be given priority followed by Criteria B and then Criteria C. Coherence, on the other hand, refers to the continuum of explicitness in the feedback and the rationale that the teacher provides. In a feedback, the teacher can provide an overtly explicit remark (such as provision of a correct grammatical form, or another word) or be implicit by just asking question and eliciting a correct form. In doing this, the teacher can also point out to the underlying linguistic reasons why a given form is not allowed in a genre.

Pessoa, Mitchell and Miller (2017) provide a more elaborate framework based on genre

pedagogy and SFL. In their examination of university students’ history argumentative essays, they adapt the 3x3 framework originally proposed by Humphrey et al. (2010). 3x3 is an educational toolkit which allows instructors a better understanding of important features of an academic genre and helps them “consider subtle ways that student writing does and does not meet genre expectations” (Pessoa et al., 2017, p.46). This toolkit utilizes three SFL-based metafunctions of language: ideational (resources to expand the form knowledge of the content), interpersonal (resources to posit an authoritative voice) and textual (resources to organize a clear text). These three metafunctions are studied at 3 levels of text, paragraph and sentence. The ideational meaning is concerned with writing in clear stages in response to the prompt “with accurate, relevant, and sufficient content from the source text(s)” (p. 48). The information should proceed from general to specific logically with quotes from the text. Interpersonal meaning refers to the stance that the writer assumes in defending and reinforcing


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an overarching proposition in order to persuade the reader. The linguistic resources such as tentativeness, counterarguments, accepting other perspectives or justifying one’s own view are considered in interpersonal analysis. The textual analysis is concerned with “the organization of the text and its effectiveness in following, predicting, signposting, and scaffolding the writer’s ideas” (p. 48). Although their framework is aligned with a more generalist rubric of the history instructor (based on Argument, Evidence, Clarity, Synthesis and Analysis), it explicitly makes reference to the linguistic requirements for the expectations of a genre.

The following rubric is based on the three frameworks and is intended to use for peer

response purposes. Students can make use of this rubric to comment on each other’s writings.

Whole text Paragraphs sentences/Clauses Ideational Meanings

Ideas are developed to form an analytic framework.

There is a main claim and sub claims to support it.

Noun groups in topic sentences.

The answer to the prompt is consistent.

The information moves from general to specific, point to elaboration, evidence to interpretation, claim to evaluation.

Technical and formal vocabulary Verb tenses are consistent.

Interpersonal Meanings

Answer to the question is convincing and critical. The position is reinforced, justified and defended to persuade the reader.

Authoritative sources are used to support the claim.

• Interpersonal objective metaphors (It is clear instead of I think)

• Subject and verb agreement The language is impersonal and objective. Response to the question is persuasive and shows a critical stance.

Writer’s stance is developed through patterns of evaluation.

• Modality (may, can, might), hedging devices (probably, likely) and booster (clearly, obviously) are used appropriately.

• The transitional markers are used to create a logical flow:

• Add (besides, in addition, etc.) • Compare and concession

(whereas, however, although, conversely)

• Justification (since, because, for the same reason)

• Example (for instance, in this situation, on this occasion)

• Summarize (to sum up, therefore, accordingly)

• Correct use of conjunctions • Justification (because)

Textual Meanings

The text has an introduction, body and conclusion paragraphs.

Topic sentences in sub-claims match the ideas in the introduction.

• Articles are used properly. • Active and passive voice are

used properly The text is cohesive and signposted. Cohesive devices create a logical

flow of information. Information flows from abstract to concrete.

• Pronouns are used properly in referencing.

• Punctuation and spelling are used properly.

Figure 1. Argumentative Genre Peer Feedback Rubric

The rubric in Figure 1 is an amalgamation of three frameworks intended to provide L2

writers with a more student-oriented rubric. Three levels of ideational, interpersonal and textual levels are the prominent features of this framework. The three traditional rhetorical moves of logos, ethos and pathos are included in the interpersonal at both whole text and paragraph levels. Through these moves, the writers first establish an authoritative claim and sets out to persuade the reader though evaluation and engagement. Micro features of the text such as the hedgers, booster and transitional markers are placed at sentence level. Although this adapted framework lacks the elaborateness of original frameworks, it should not be forgotten that it is designed for students who are not expert in either genre or its SFL-based grammar. It is also assumed that students are already familiar with the terminology of genre pedagogy; and in


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order to achieve this purpose, adoption of Teaching and Learning Cycle in pedagogy is imperative.

Teaching and Learning Cycles

In order to familiarize students with the grammar of a text, genre-based pedagogy follows Teaching Learning Cycle (TLC) (de Oliveira & Lan, 2014; Feez, 2002; Rose & Martin, 2012). TLC comprises three phases: first, a text is deconstructed with the students; second, a new text is jointly constructed with the teacher scaffolding the students; and third, students are encouraged to construct their own text. The use of the word “construct” instead of “produce”, “create”, or “write” is noteworthy here since it evokes the construction of a building with an architectural plan in which everything is at work in order to achieve the purpose of constructing a building similar to other structures. The teacher presents a model, argumentative genre for example, and analyzes it. During the Deconstruction phase, the focus is on the “genre’s social purpose and typical organizational structure” at a whole text followed by decoding the text at a sentence-level during which the resources that help create the content, meet audience expectations, and present a coherent message are illuminated (Ramos, 2019, p 51). At this stage, the teacher builds metalinguistic awareness through introducing SFL-based terms such as nominalization and processes, strong modality, causal links, conjunctions, synonyms and referents. During the Joint Construction, the teacher scaffolds the students to write a generic text by providing academic language resources. This stage involves collaboration and is another opportunity for a discussion on how the academic and linguistic resources help realize a coherent message. Students write their own genre-based text at the Independent Construction stage since they now have a growing knowledge about textual functions, rhetorical features and linguistic resources of a genre. Ramos (2019) practiced TLC with ELL students from different backgrounds in a secondary school setting. Her experience showed that students managed to master academic resources in argumentative genre, and that their language shifted away from conversational register in their writing to more academically genre-endorsed style.

TLC has slightly different versions, too. For instance, in de Oliveira (2017), the element

of “collaborative construction” has been added to the cycle on the rationale that it is “a bridge between the joint construction and independent construction phases” (p.3). The collaborative construction follows joint construction during which students discuss, negotiate, brainstorm and write together in groups (de Oliveira, 2017). This new phase could be particularly useful in EFL contexts where students’ exposure to language outside classroom is severely constrained and this intermediary stage between joint construction and independent construction can scaffold students with further exposure to genre requirements. In Feez (2002), the process comprises 5 stages: a) building the context, b) modelling and deconstructing the text c) joint construction of the text d) independent construction of the text and e) linking related texts. Different from other TLC formats is the inclusion of the first and last stages. In the first stage, the teacher “designs opportunities for learners to experience and explore the cultural and situational aspects of the social aspect of the target text” (p. 66) through activities such as listening or chatting to others, brainstorming, video, realia and pictures. In fact, before the text, the teacher at this stage activates the schemata and prepares them for the next stage. In linking related texts, students compare texts and discuss their different effectiveness.


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Figure 2. Integrated Model

For the purpose of this study, Feez’s (2002) TLC version is integrated with that of de

Oliveira (2017) and a new phase is added. The new integrated model comprises six stages: Building the Context, Deconstruction, Joint construction, Collaborative Construction, Independent Construction, Peer deconstruction (Figure 2). The new model borrows Building the Context from Feez’s (2002) and Collaborative Construction from de Oliveira (2017). The rationale for the integration of Building the Context is that it is “foundation step for second language learners” (p.66). Here, the “teacher designs opportunities for learners to experience and explore the cultural and situational aspects of the social context of the target text” (p. 66). These activities may include brainstorming, reading and discussing relevant material, discussing pictures, guided research and fieldtrips. In order to train L2 learners to use the rubric, it seems scaffolding at every stage of the lesson is indispensable. Scaffolding is realized at every stage of the new model through the instructor at the Building the Context, Deconstruction, Joint Construction, the peer at Collaborative Construction and Peer Deconstruction, and the rubric at all levels (Except Creating the Context). The elements of the new rubric need to be repeated at every stage of a genre pedagogy, and in the new model this is realized in all five stages except for Building the context. In the peer Deconstruction phase, students’ writings are deconstructed by their peers through comments on the text scaffolded by a rubric. In fact, this stage is the mirror phase of Deconstruction where the instructor analyzes different features of the text with students. Here, it is not the teacher but the learner-expert who deconstructs the text written by their peers. This Peer Deconstruction stage has several advantages: the generic features of a student-produced-text will be critically analyzed by students. In this way, the peer feedback offers further opportunities for students to engage with the genre. Since at this stage each learner has access to the rubric, the constant reference back and forth the text and the framework will consolidate the generic features. Furthermore, the students will assume the role of an expert and this expertise is a guarantee of the achievement of learning goals. Finally, students will obtain a sense of agency as the peer feedback in the model not only provides an opportunity to grapple with the generic features but also transpositions them from peripheral to full participation in the practice of text construction.


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About the Author

Farhad Jafari Basmenj is a graduate student of TESOL at the University of British Columbia, with over ten years of worldwide experience in the field. His areas of interest are genre-based writing, peer feedback, digital literacy, vocabulary learning, and computational assessment of vocabulary.


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Differences in Teaching Styles and Oral Language Proficiency of Non-

native English Speaker Teachers: As Perceived by the Iranian EFL

Students

Mohammad Javadi Yasouj University, Iran

[email protected]

Abstract

Non-native English speaker teachers’ (NNESTs) dominant teaching styles and oral language proficiency have recently garnered considerable attention of researchers during the past several years. To determine whether they have been effective teachers from their students’ perspectives, this study intended to scrutinize the possible differences of Iranian senior BA and MA students’ perceptions of their non-native ESTs’ dominant styles of teaching together with oral language proficiency in between and across the universities on the whole. To this end, 103 senior EFL senior BA and MA students participated in the study by the use of multistage cluster sampling procedure from three universities of Isfahan, Shiraz, and Yasouj. For the purpose of data collection, one teaching style questionnaire (TSQ) and one analytic scale for assessing the oral proficiency (ASAOP) were utilized. Through inferential statistics, the results showed that no significant differences for teaching styles and oral proficiency were seen between BA and MA students perhaps due to being exposed to the same university teachers, educational environments, and inter- and intra-communications. Further, the students perceived the dominant teaching styles of their teachers across the three universities quite differently significant, for which history of universities, experience, educational facilities, educational environments, academic ranks of professors, research productivity, and teachers’ marking criteria were influentially involved. Subsequently, as regards the students’ perceptions of their NNESTs’ oral language proficiency, no crucial differences were reflected to occur among the three universities. Presumably, apart from their accent and pronunciation, NNESTs’ interestingness, over-preparedness, qualification, and professionalism have considerably affected their students’ perceptions. Through this study, one can reap benefits from the pedagogical implications of the attained results within the academic settings of the Iran country. Keywords: dominant teaching styles; oral language proficiency; NNES Teachers; students’ perceptions, Iranian universities

Introduction

Considering English as the unsurpassed world language as well as its substantial part as in a juggernaut sounds to be quite commonplace enough to discuss among all language students and teachers throughout the world. Fishman’s claim, “the sun never sets on the English language” (1982, p.18), sheds a great deal of light on the assumption that although English is no longer a guarantee of remaining eternal hegemony due to the emergence of many a common language across the world, it is believed that the language of English is bound to continue to rule almost all the countries for many more periods. Therefore, English use has become indispensible in one’s life and thus having a proficient basis of the English language is now


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unavoidable for everybody. This is why, a large number of people, especially in Iran, have gradually been attempting to learn English with an estimated one and a half billion English language apprentices as from 2015 (Gamlo & Noack, 2015). In addition, this difficult enterprise is claimed to be in need of good and skillful English teachers, two important characteristics of whom could be their oral language proficiency and dominant teaching styles.

Needless to say, teaching is deemed one of the most fundamental elements in educational planning which is a crucial factor in conducting educational plans (Bidabadi et al., 2016). In line, “teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), in expanding circle, is of vital importance” (Noughabi, 2017, p.217). Based on some empirical research projects, effective teaching qualities bring about students’ cognitive outcomes (Muijs, Campbell, Kyriakides, & Robinson, 2005) and to some extent recognize students’ achievement (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Kaplan & Owings, 2002; Goldhaber & Anthony, 2003). Dewar (2002) characterizes a good teacher by what students actually learn in the educational environment through the rundown of organizational objectives and goals. In addition, it is recommended that an English teacher be orally proficient in the language and have some specific teaching styles, contributing to students’ success in learning English. One of the most significant issues of teaching English in an EFL context is the matter of NNE speaker teachers (NNESTs) as being exceeded 80 per cent of the whole English teachers in comparison with NE speaker teachers (NESTs) throughout the world (Canagarajah, 1999).

For well over several decades N and NN English speaking teachers were deemed two

crucially discrepant categories. Albeit the controversial dispute of native ESTs and N-native ES teachers distinction as a hot topic in the world of academia, there are few studies conducted (e.g. Medgyes, 1994) in this area of investigation, reflecting the analyses of differences of these two categories. After all, it is believed that NNESTs are superior to NESTs due to some reasons; for example they are capable of sharing their mother tongue where and when needed for clarity, they can solve their students’ problems more easily with a sense of empathy, and their cultural and educational backgrounds could be of relevance to those of their students which lends itself well to a better path of learning (Llurda, 2005). Thus, students have certain perceptions of their teachers that have to be duty-bound to be looked attentively at for the betterment of their teachers' teaching styles as well as oral language proficiency. The currently startling piece of study has been set out to elicit the Iranian EFL students’ opinions of their N-native ES Teachers’ dominant styles of teaching as well as proficiency of oral language, and determining whether or not senior undergraduate students' perceptions of their NNESTs differ from those of their senior postgraduate counterparts holistically across the three Iranian universities of Shiraz, Isfahan, and Yasouj.

Literature Review

Despite the research projects carried out in such areas as the NNES teachers’ self-perceptions along with NNES teacher’ perceptions of their learners, less attention has been paid to learners’ perceptions of their NNES teachers, especially NNESTs, who come from discrepant language backgrounds (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002; Mahboob, 2003; Moussu, 2006). For that matter, Moussu (2002) conducted a quantitative study on four NNESTs from Switzerland, Ecuador, Argentina, and Japan and eighty four ESL students by administering two sets of questionnaires. The findings revealed the positive perceptions of the students towards their NNESTs at the commencement of the academic year. Additionally, teachers gained immense satisfaction from 68% of the students like NSTs, 79% showed respect and admiration for their NNESTs, and lastly 84% of the participants paid attention to the positive aspects of having such a teacher as


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a new experience. Nevertheless, Chinese and Korean students expressed dissatisfaction and discontentment with their NNES teachers, holding negative perceptions.

In the same way, Liang (2002) undertook an investigation on twenty ESL students’ standpoints of their six ESL non-NESTs’ accents and speech features with different language backgrounds. Listening to brief audio accounts of teachers tape-recorded before, the students were exposed to a scale of preferences through which they were able to express their opinions regarding their accents and speech features. The results implied that the students reflected positive perceptions of their NNESTs with no attention to their pronunciation and/or accents. Moreover, some experimental studies done in this realm of investigation have led to the conclusion that students hold idiosyncratic perceptions of their NNESTs regarding the same classroom events (Huang, 2006; Block, 1996; Breen, 1991). In a comprehensive study, Mahboob (2003) took both NES and NNES teachers into account which was followed by some yin and yang feedback on the students’ behalf. To put it more cogently, on one hand, NESTs received positive comments regarding their use of vocabulary, oral skills and culture; however, the negative comments reflected their methodology and grammatical structures. On the other hand, NNESTs’ positive comments were concerned with oral and literary skills, grammatical structures, vocabulary, culture, industriousness and question-answering ability; nevertheless, the negative comments yielded evidence for oral skills and culture of the NNESTs.

Barratt and Kontra (2000), in the same vein, considered two groups of learners’

perspectives of their instructors both in China and Hungary, asking them to write down about their experiences freely. Generally, NNESTs were given positive comments in the light of language authenticity, humorous and flexible personalities, the utilization of newfangled methodologies, error correction, and culture knowledge. Nevertheless, NESTs were written about such negative comments as poor teaching styles, culture knowledge, educational values, lack of pedagogical and professional organization and preparation, low understanding of students’ learning difficulties together with different English accents problems.

Taking everything into consideration, the present study addressed the research

questions and hypotheses as follows: 1) Do senior BA students' perceptions of their NNESTs' teaching styles differ from those of

their senior MA counterparts significantly? 2) Do senior BA students' perceptions of their NNESTs' oral proficiency differ from those of

their senior MA counterparts significantly? 3) Do the Iranian senior EFL students' perceptions of their NNESTs' teaching styles vary

among the three universities? 4) Do the Iranian senior EFL students' perceptions of their NNESTs' oral proficiency vary

among the three universities?

As regards the nature of quantitative method design and the above-mentioned research questions, the null hypotheses were constructed as jotted down:

Null Hypothesis 1: No difference exists between the senior BA students' perceptions of their NNESTs' teaching styles and those of their senior MA counterparts significantly. Null Hypothesis 2: No difference exists between the senior BA students' perceptions of their NNESTs' oral proficiency and those of their senior MA counterparts significantly. Null Hypothesis 3: No differences exist between the Iranian senior EFL students' perceptions of their NNESTs' teaching styles among the three universities significantly.


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Null Hypothesis 4: No differences exist between the Iranian senior EFL students' perceptions of their NNESTs' teaching styles among the three universities significantly.

Methods In order to examine and detect the underlying elements present in participants’ perceptions of their NNESTs, this research adopts a quantitative method approach combining an analytic scale of oral language proficiency and a teaching styles questionnaire. Besides, on the word of Cohen et al. (2007), whenever different participants are investigated at a single point of time, the study refers to a “cross-sectional” one. Thus, the cornerstone of this study has been laid on a descriptive cross-sectional survey method.

Participants

Through multistage cluster sampling, a total of 103 EFL senior BA (75.7%) and MA (24.3%) students from Isfahan, Shiraz and Yasouj universities of Iran were selected to take part in the survey due to their easiness of accessibility. All participants (65 females [63.1%] and 38 males [36.9%]) were majoring in TEFL whereas they failed to be of the same level of education, English study years (from 5 to at least 13 years), age (from 22 to 32), university (Isfahan [32.0%], Shiraz [36.9%], and Yasouj [31.1%]), and, gender. The reason behind choosing senior students as the participants was their long-term familiarity with their NNES teachers’ seminal issues as in dominant teaching styles and oral language proficiency.

Instruments Teaching Style Questionnaire (TSQ)

To achieve the study objectives, use was made of a Teaching Style Questionnaire (TSQ) developed by Benke and Medgyes’s (1994) with the purpose of eliciting students’ perspectives of their N-native E speaker Ts’ dominant teaching styles. The five-point Likert-type questionnaire comprised 23 items and 2 components. The former component refers to classroom management issues (13 items) and the latter one is concerned with the personal characteristics (10 items). Then, TSQ was first observed by two TEFL PhD holders for the establishment of face and content validity. After they confirmed its validities, TSQ was randomly piloted with 40 senior university TEFL students from Yasouj University similar to the study participants for the purpose of reliability. To this end, TSQ attained the desired reliability level with Cronbach's alpha quantified at the point of 0.88 for 23 items. Furthermore, for the sake of construct validity, an attempt was made to run confirmatory factor analysis to show factors numbers as being measured along with the relationships which exist between the factors. Before that, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and Bartlett's Sphericity Test was required for determining data acceptability and appropriateness to determine whether the items are factorable enough in order to run the factor analysis. (See Table 1)


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Table 1

KMO and Bartlett's Test for TSQ

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy 0.615 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 458.256

Df 521 Sig. 0.000

According to Field (2000), if the value of KMO is 0.5 or more, then the data driven from the sample will be highly likely to become factorable. Table 1 shows the value of sampling adequacy KMO measure is 0.61, being greater than 0.5 value as suggested by Field (2000). As mentioned above, the KMO value revealed that factor analysis could admittedly be run on the pilot sample. Additionally, as can be seen in Table 1, the Bartlett's Sphericity Test (Bartlett, 1954) was statistically reported to be meaningful with the level of confidence more than 99% (p<0.001), designating a significant correlation between the variables. Additionally, Table 2 serves as the illustration for descriptive statistics of the whole items of the questionnaire which were determined mathematically.

Table 2

Descriptive Statistics

Item Mean SD Item Mean SD Q1 4.12 1.042 Q13 4.10 1.081 Q2 3.72 1.339 Q14 3.05 1.449 Q3 4.12 1.113 Q15 2.12 1.399 Q4 4.45 0.904 Q16 3.22 1.476 Q5 4.05 1.153 Q17 2.72 1.568 Q6 4.05 1.084 Q18 3.02 1.510 Q7 3.35 1.387 Q19 3.12 1.453 Q8 3.25 1.171 Q20 3.10 1.428 Q9 3.95 1.153 Q21 3.55 1.338 Q10 3.92 1.248 Q22 3.12 1.435 Q11 4.12 1.136 Q23 3.02 1.510 Q12 4.30 0.882

As shown in Table 2, the highest mean (M4=4.45) refers to Item 4 which is concerned with a lot of homework assigned to the students by NNESTs that is relevant to the classroom management component. On the other hand, the lowest mean (M15=2.12) belongs to Item 15 dealing with personal, albeit teaching-related characteristics of NNESTs, i.e., personal characteristics component. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that Item 4 seems to be greatly significant in the TS questionnaire. Moreover, Table 3 clarifies eigenvalues and total variance explained for each factor retained in the final analysis of factor.


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Through Principal Component Analysis (PCA), the number of components was verified. In fact, PCA is a statistical technique to share various resemblances to confirmatory factor analysis and to determine whether different groups of items are set together for making a distinct component (Brown, 1996; Gorsuch, 1990; Stevens, 2009; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2013; Wintergerst, DeCapua, & Itzen, 2001). Accordingly, the three criteria, i.e., Kaiser's rule of keeping components together with eigenvalues higher than 1, the scree plot of eigenvalues, and the component solution of the items, as suggested by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007), were considered to specify the component numbers to rotate. To this end, based on Table 3, use was made of an opening examination so as to measure eigenvalues meant for every single component throughout the whole data. Besides, rotation sums of squared loadings revealed that the two components were provided with eigenvalues higher than 1, indicating 68.84 % of the total variance in the participants' responses. In line with the method used, none of the components were detached from the questionnaire. Also, scree plot was defined as one of the procedures used in establishing the factors numbers so as to be maintained in the analysis of factoriality (Cattell, 1966). Thus, the factors’ numbers equal the points’ numbers above the break (See Figure 1).

Figure 1. Scree Plot of the Components The plot of scree demonstrates two big drops above one, which purports to be the

number of components for keeping the rotation to an interpretable solution to be constructed as depicted by Figure 1. The eigenvalues with a value more than 1 refer to the first two components. Between component two and three, there appears to be a big drop in eigenvalue as shown in the figure above. At the cliff base on the scree plot, there does appear component 1 and 2, below which component 3 up until 23 stands out as the scree.

The two determined components of 1 and 2 represent 69% of the total proportion of variance. Therefore, the first two components were selected to be kept. The following rotated

Table 3

Total Variance Explained

Components

Initial Eigenvalues Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance

Cumulative % Total % of

Variance Cumulative %

1 9.897 43.032 43.032 8.424 36.628 36.628 2 5.936 25.809 68.841 7.409 32.214 68.841


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component matrix table of confirmatory factor analysis pertained to the TSQ illustrates loading of items on each factor below.

Table 4

Factor Analysis of TSQ and Loadings of Each Item on Each Factor

Rotated Component Matrix Factor Factor 1 2

Q 6 0.841 Q 2 0.839 Q 9 0.837 Q 1 0.810 Q 3 0.778 Q 10 0.767 0.354 Q 5 0.751 0.411 Q 4 0.736 Q 13 0.654 Q 12 0.642 Q 11 0.638 Q 8 0.612 Q 7 0.600 Q 22 0.970 Q 18 0.954 Q 23 0.954 Q 14 0.946 Q 20 0.945 Q 16 0.911 Q 19 0.911 Q 21 0.287 0.767 Q 17 0.747 Q 15 0.345 0.617

As is evident from Table 4, each factor loading is illustrated after rotation. According to Kinnear and Gray (1994), the aim of rotating data is to make the data structure simple and understandable. When an actual value of loading is equal or greater than 0.30, that item is loaded on the component (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Thus, an attempt was made to adjust the same criterion in order to opt for the item loadings on each component. By the same token, no item was deleted as all item loadings were higher than 0.30. Table 4 shows four items were loaded on more than one component, so use was made of choosing the most fitting item according to a criterion established by Rezvani (2010) who maintained that once the difference between cross loaded items is determined as a point higher than 0.15, one must choose the greater item loading in that case. In Table 4, it is clear that thirteen items were loaded and listed under the first component (i.e., items of 6, 2, 9, 1, 3, 10, 5, 4, 13, 12, 11, 8, and 7). As items 5 and 10 were loaded on the two components, Rezvani (2010) suggested that one should take the greatest loading value into account. As such, considering the considerable differences between the loading values on the two components for items 5 and 10, the higher loading values, namely, 0.411 and 0.354 respectively, being under the first component, were taken as the real loading values. For that matter, while items 5 and 10 were listed under the first and second components at the same time and because their difference was greater than 0.15, they were


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retained under the first component in which they were loaded more strongly. Therefore, all the above-mentioned items were loaded only under one component, namely, component one whose item loading values were higher than 0.30. As a result, there was no item deletion in this component. On the other hand, one can see that the rest of items, i.e., 22, 18, 23, 14, 20, 16, 19, 21, 17, and 15 were loaded under the second component. In addition, items 21 and 15 which should be merely loaded under the second component are listed under component one as well. It is worthy of note that their loading values, i.e., 0.767 and 0.617, are considered as the highest values under the second component in comparison with the first component, so they were placed under component two. It should be noted that their contents were in line with the second component. Consequently, all items were put in order successively in light of their real loading values on each component and the final draft of the TSQ with 23 items, enjoying an acceptable value of Cronbach's alpha reliability (0.88) was established.

Analytic Scale for Assessing Oral Proficiency (ASAOP)

The Analytic Scale for Assessing Oral Proficiency (ASAOP) was employed to elicit the students' perceptions of their NNESTs' level of oral language proficiency (www.nclrc.org, 2015). This four-point Likert-type scale fell into four components of ‘pronunciation’, ‘fluency’, ‘grammar/language use’, and "vocabulary". As for its face and content validity, ASAOP was given to two TEFL PhD holders. When face and content validities of the ASAOP were confirmed, an attempt was made to re-validate it since being used in a new context. Therefore, the ASAOP was piloted with a sample of 15 subjects from Yasouj University with comparable features of the main participants, after which the test-retest reliability method was applied with a three week interval.

Table 5

Test–retest Reliability for ASAOP 1 and ASAOP 2

A 3-week interval Pearson Correlation SD Mean N Sig.

ASAOP 1 (test) .704** 0.33 2.96 15 0.003

ASAOP 2 (retest) .704** 0.29 3.10 15 0.003

Note: ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). As depicted by the fifth table, correlation of test-retest was significant at the alpha value

of 0.003, hence a positive relationship flanked by the two sets of scores obtained from ASAOP 1 and ASAOP 2 at a three week interval among the respondents (r=.704, p<0.01) with an acceptable reliability coefficient.

Data Collection Procedure and Analysis

In order to gather the required date, the instruments were administered to the participants. The TSQ and ASAOP were in English and were sent to the students through Whatsapp, Email, Telegram, LinkedIn, and some were handed in directly. They were given enough time with full explanation of how to fill in the questionnaires. It must be mentioned that before administering the questionnaires to the participants, the researcher had already


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obtained their permission for ethical issues of research. All in all, one hundred and twelve students responded to the questionnaires accurately, nine of whom were excluded from the total number of the questionnaires in the aftermath of missing data. As a result, both inferential and descriptive statistics were applied to analyze the collected data by SPPS.

Results

As regards the initial research question on comparing means of the two groups, independent sample t-test was employed to analyze means of the two groups, i.e., the senior B.A. and M.A. students. In this connection, standard deviation, number of participants, and means of the groups were precisely gaged in the following table.

Table 6

Groups' Statistics

Level of Education N Mean Std.

Deviation Std. Error

Mean Teaching

Style B.A. 78 85.74 14.729 1.667 M.A. 25 78.56 20.910 4.182

As it is obvious in Table 6, 78 senior B.A. students and 25 senior M.A. students of the three universities participated in the present study. Accordingly, B.A. students' mean (85.74) was reported to be by far discrepant from the M.A. students’ mean (78.56). By the same token, standard deviation in B.A. group was 14.729 and the standard deviation of M.A. group was estimated to be 20.91 by the use of SPSS. The following table presents the independent sample t-test results.

Table 7

The Result of Independent Samples t-test

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Teaching Styles

Equal variances assumed 2.859 .094 1.905 101 .060 Equal variances not

assumed 1.596 31.988 .120

Table 7 exhibits the non-existence of any difference concerning all B.A. and M.A. students' perceptions of their NNES teachers at the universities in the light of teaching styles in a significant manner. Not to put too fine a point on it, since the significant level of alpha is more than 0.05; therefore, no statistically significant difference (t=1.905, df=101, sig.2-tailed p>0.05) was found to exist between the two groups (sig=0.060). In the same way, the first null hypothesis was confirmed underpinning the first research question.


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In like manner, the subsequent question was correspondingly motivated to ascertain the presence of a significant difference concerning all B.A. and M.A. students' perceptions of their NNES teachers' level of oral language proficiency. Consequently, independent sample t-test, mean, and also standard deviation were computed for that matter. (See Table 8)

Table 8

Groups' Statistics

Level of Education N Mean Std.

Deviation Std. Error

Mean

Oral Proficiency

B.A. 78 2.84 0.477 0.054 M.A. 25 2.83 0.524 0.104

The figures in Table 8 indicate that 103 students participated in this research project, 78 of whom were B.A. and the rest were M.A. students of Shiraz, Isfahan, and Yasouj universities. Mean score of the first group was estimated to be 2.83 with standard deviation of 0.477 and mean score of the second group was 2.84 with 0.524 level of standard deviation. In parallel with the procedure used for the previous question, independent sample t-test was utilized and relevant findings were achieved as follows:

Table 9

The Result of Independent Samples t-test

Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig.

Oral Proficiency

Equal variances assumed 1.170 .282 .030 101 .976 Equal variances not

assumed .028 37.666 .978

Generally speaking, based upon Table 9 above, no meaningful discrepancy was discovered between all B.A. and M.A. learners' perceptions of their university NNES teachers in the light of oral language proficiency. This is owing to the fact that the significant level of alpha was calculated more than 0.05 (p>0.05, t=0.030, df=101, sig=0.976) understandably. Let these above figures suffice to reveal that underpinning research question number 2, the second null hypothesis was supported.

Considering the third question which combed for discerning meaningful differences among the Iranian senior EFL learners' perceptions of their NNESTs' dominant teaching styles across the three universities of Shiraz, Isfahan, and Yasouj, use was made of One Way ANOVA. Furthermore, a posthoc Tukey Test was also performed for additional scrutiny so as


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to compare and imply results gained from the three groups of universities. In so doing, Table 10 initially displays the descriptive statistics chosen from each university separately.

Table 10

Descriptive Statistics of ANOVA for TS

Universities N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Shiraz 38 86.52 11.924 1.934 Isfahan 33 87.72 11.096 1.931 Yasouj 32 77.15 23.261 4.112 Total 103 84.00 16.620 1.637

As Table 10 denotes, a small difference was identified across the three groups. All senior B.A. and M.A. students of Shiraz University were 38 alongside the standard deviation of 11.924 as well as the mean score of 86.52. Moreover, 33 students were from Isfahan University accompanied by the mean score of 87.72 in addition to standard deviation of 11.096. And finally, 32 students were from Yasouj University with the mean score of 77.15 and a value of 23.261 for standard deviation. On balance, 103 students possessing the mean score of 84 plus the deviation of standard equal to 16.620 responded to the TSQ. The following table demonstrates the analysis of variances across the three groups.

Table 11

One-Way ANOVA Results for Students' Perceptions of their NNESTs' Teaching Styles across the Three Universities

Teaching Styles Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 2199.762 2 1099.881 4.234 .017 Within Groups 25976.238 100 259.762

Total 28176 102

As evident in Table 11, the F-observed value is 4.234. Furthermore, the acquired alpha value was appraised lesser than 0.05 (F (2, 100) = 4.234, (p=0.017)). That being the case, because the level of alpha value is meaningful at the point of 0.017 (p<0.05), groups were statistically different in terms of their perceptions of their NNESTs' all-embracing teaching styles. Moreover, a Tukey HSD test was additionally utilized as encapsulated in Table 12.


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Table 12

Multiple Comparisons (Tukey HSD)

(I) University

(J) University

Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig.

Tukey HSD

Shiraz Isfahan -1.200 3.835 .947 Yasouj 9.370* 3.866 .045

Isfahan Shiraz 1.200 3.835 .947 Yasouj 10.571* 3.998 .026

Yasouj Shiraz -9.370* 3.866 .045 Isfahan -10.571* 3.998 .026

*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. As displayed in Table 12, a slightly significant difference was found between Shiraz

and Yasouj university language learners' viewpoints on their N-native E speaking T’s styles of teaching with the significant value of 0.045 at the level of (p<0.05). In addition, the students of Isfahan and Yasouj universities were also different in terms of their perceptions with the statistically significant value of 0.026 at the level of (p<0.05). Albeit the above-mentioned computations, no meaningful discrepancy was observed among the Isfahan along with Shiraz University students' perceptions (sig=0.947, p>0.05). Furthermore, underpinning question three, the third null hypothesis was refuted as the students of at least two universities did show differences when their perceptions were compared. As such, a graphic plot of means related to the mean differences across the three universities is illustrated below. (See Figure 2)

Figure 2. Means Plots of Three Groups on the Teaching Style Variable

As shown in Figure 2, the mean scores of Shiraz and Isfahan Universities were approximately close to each other (86.52 and 87.72 respectively) whereas one can spot a noticeable gap between the Yasouj University mean score (77.15) and the two other universities.

Similarly, the fourth question sought to investigate the differences between all B.A. and M.A. students' perceptions of their NNES teachers' level of oral language proficiency across the three universities. Thus use was made of One Way ANOVA once again so as to compare the three intended categories in terms of mean marks. Descriptive statistics are shown below (See Table 13).


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Table 13

Descriptive Statistics of ANOVA for Oral Proficiency

Universities N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Shiraz 38 2.71 0.469 0.076 Isfahan 33 2.93 0.463 0.807 Yasouj 32 2.85 0.515 0.0911 Total 103 2.83 0.486 0.047

As illustrated in Table 13, the mean score of the senior B.A. and M.A. students of Shiraz University was 2.71 along with deviation of standard as being 0.469 and mean of 2.93 with standard deviation of 0.463 belonged to Isfahan university students. Finally, Yasouj University received a mean score of 2.85 as well as a gained value of 0.515 for deviation of standard. The findings underlying One Way ANOVA F-test are posed in the following chart.

Table 14

One-Way ANOVA Results for Students' Perceptions of their NNESTs' Oral Proficiency across the three Universities

Oral Proficiency Sum of Squares df Mean

Square F Sig.

Between Groups .906 2 .453

1.947 .148 Within Groups 23.267 100 .233 Total 24.174 102

As indicated in table 14, the F value (F (2, 100=1.947)) failed to reach the statistical significance (Sig. =0.148). As the alpha value failed to statistically be meaningful (p>0.05); therefore, no meaningful relationship existed across the three groups of universities. In addition, the fourth null hypothesis was confirmed in the aftermath of detecting not any gap among the three categories.

Discussion

As regards the findings of the first research question, no meaningful gap was pinpointed in a statistical manner as related to two groups of senior BA and MA learners’ perspectives of their N native ES Teachers’ styles of teaching. Perhaps this lies in the assumption that both groups were enjoying the same university teachers, educational environments, and inter- and intra-communications among themselves. Thus, they, to a great extent, shared similar perceptions of their teachers with regard to the styles of teaching. Likewise, this could be justified by a similar study conducted by Zhang and Liu (2007) who explored the students’ preferences for their NNESTs owing to the numerous strategies they opt for teaching which were favorable to their tastes. Other studies purport to be in harmony with the results of this study in a sense that the presence of NNESTs at academic environments was deemed to be an indispensable issue because of apportioning similar cultural milieu together with undifferentiated first language as a result of which their teaching styles could be more helpful, intelligible, and effective, as


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perceived by the students (Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2002; Madrid, 2004; Torres, 2004; Mahboob, 2003; Moussu, 2006).

In like manner, the second research question was presented to investigate whether or not there is any statistically significant difference between all B.A. in addition to M.A. learners' attitudes toward their N native ESTs' level of oral proficiency. For that matter, t-test for independent samples got employed for the purpose of verifying the possible dissimilarity. In consequence, no substantial gap was reported to exist among two aforesaid groups on the basis of the statistical figures. Possible reasons for this gap could be congruent with the probable justifications for the previous research question in that B.A and M.A students have the same teachers, educational environments, and intra- and inter-personal communications throughout the universities. Another probable reason for the similarity of perceptions could be due to the cultural bias in which overlooking the cultural differences and preferring one’s culture to the other would occur, affecting minorities on diverse levels of education (Bondy & Peguero, 2011; de Jong & Harper, 2008).

So it is recommended that one take culturally-appropriate environments and possible bias into consideration while deciding on and opting for assessments and deciphering the achieved results. The result obtained by this research question is in line with other studies with different foci, showing no significant difference and connection flanked by learners’ assessing of their professors besides the level of education in that it makes no significant difference whether they are undergraduates or postgraduates (Thomas & Aleamoni, 1980; Rothermel & Divoky, 1988).

The third research question was motivated to delve into the gaps as to students' viewpoints on their non-N English STs' dominant teaching styles across the three universities by means of One Way ANOVA. In this connection, Tukey's Test was also run and significant differences emerged between all three groups in such a way that Isfahan and Shiraz university language learners' attitudes towards their teachers' styles of teaching failed to statistically different; however, Yasouj counterparts’ differed from them significantly. One of the main reasons for this could lie in the assumption that Shiraz and Isfahan Universities were founded in the fourth and fifth decades of the 21th century in that they have a long history in terms of experience, educational facilities, educational environments, and scientific atmospheres. However, Yasouj University has been established since two recent decades; therefore, it enjoys different educational methods accompanied by different teachers with diverse teaching styles, backgrounds and the like. Perhaps it is a critical issue influencing the students' attitudes in this regard. To put it better, the source of this difference could be found in the ranks of NNESTs at the universities which affected learners’ attitudes in that teachers of higher academic rank receive higher student ratings of their teaching styles (Walker, 1969; Gage, 1961). Curious as it may seem, Shiraz and Isfahan university teachers with an enriched background of knowledge and higher academic ranks might have affected their students’ positive perceptions of their teaching styles agreeably rather than those of Yasouj university teachers with lower academic ranks disagreeably.

To put it into perspective, in a study conducted by Aleamoni (1981), students perceived their teachers positively in that they were considered friendly, warm, and humorous in the classroom context; however, once their course objectives along with their stimulation methods exigencies failed to be met properly, teachers were to blame and criticized frankly on the behalf of the students. Last but certainly not least, one of the most probable reasons for the addressed gap could be likely because of the positive correlation between the participants’ ratings of their NNESTs and their true or expected score they gain in a course of instruction from their instructors. Basically, students are usually satisfied with a teacher, from whom they receive good marks (Callahan & Goldberg, 1991; Wilson, 1998; Rodabaugh & Kravitz, 1994). In line with literature, perhaps Yasouj students perceived their NNESTs quite strict about scoring that


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is mentioned in the TSQ as well (Item 21: My teachers are too harsh in marking), reflecting their dissatisfaction at any rate (Barratt and Kontra, 2000).

The last research question was motivated to determine the differences between students' perceptions of the three universities toward their NNES teachers' level of oral language proficiency. Using One Way ANOVA, the results were indicative of existing no significant differences among them. Probably, the most salient justification behind the lack of a significant difference in this regard is that the professors in current study are all non-NE speakers; therefore, they share their non-nativeness while pronouncing words, producing lexical phrases and meaningful sentences using a good command of grammatical structures with an effortless, smooth and speedy speech. Although, there may exist some identifiable deviations in NNESTs’ pronunciation with a range of limited phonemic errors, their accents which are in a way marked with occasional mispronunciations fail to necessarily impede understanding.

In agreement with the literature, this finding corroborates the ideas of Liang (2002), who suggested that in spite of the students’ ratings of their ESL teachers’ pronunciation and accent in their speech significantly, such elements failed to have some bearing on the perceptions of the students respecting their former N-native E Speaking Ts in their home countries. Generally, they reflected positive perceptions of their teachers because such personal factors as interestingness, overpreparedness, qualification, and professionalism affected their attitudes more preferably than their accent and pronunciation which were somewhat considered two extraneous features from an initial impression. As stated in the literature, Mahboob (2003) also pinpointed the issue by referring to the NNS teachers’ oral skills as being mostly perceived positively by the participants or perhaps not as important as other elements to be considered.

Conclusion

In summation, the existent study was conducted for determining whether or not Iranian EFL senior undergraduate students’ perspectives of their Non-N English STs’ styles of teaching plus proficiency of oral language are different from those of their senior postgraduate counterparts on the whole and among the three Iranian universities of Shiraz, Isfahan, and Yasouj. In so doing, a teaching style questionnaire (TSQ) developed by Benke and Medgyes (1994) was adopted comprising two major components. Granted that the questionnaire was to be used in a new context, the validation process was an indispensable prerequisite. Thus for the pilot study, it was administered to 40 TEFL students randomly selected from University of Yasouj with similar characteristics of the main sample of the study. Then two TEFL experts confirmed the questionnaire in terms of its content and face validities. To examine its construct validity, use was made of confirmatory factor analysis. After the process of factorial analysis, 13 items were loaded under the initial component and the rest under the subsequent one. Finally, respecting the questionnaire reliability, Cronbach's alpha was calculated through SPSS (0.88) without any item deletion.

An analytic scale for assessing oral proficiency (ASAOP) taken from the George Washington University Website (www.nclrc.org, 2015) was also utilized to measure the NNESTs' level of oral language proficiency. Its face and content validity were established by two experts. It included four items of fluency, grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation. As for its reliability, use was made of test-retest reliability with a three-week interval. The correlation statistics showed a positive relationship (p<0.05) in a meaningful manner between the two sets of scores (r=0.704, sig=0.003), representing the reliability of ASAOP. The participants were chosen through multistage cluster sampling strategy from three universities of Shiraz, Isfahan, and Yasouj. Then as regards the first and second research questions for determining the possible differences between two groups of B.A. and M.A. students' attitudes towards their Non-N English STs' dominant styles of teaching over and above oral language proficiency, t-tests for independent samples were proceeded. According to the findings, no statistically


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meaningful difference for teaching style was seen. On the other hand, as regards the possible difference between perceptions of B.A. and M.A. students' towards their teachers' level of oral proficiency, again, no statistically significant difference was reported to exist. Perhaps that was because of being exposed to the same university teachers, educational environments, and inter- and intra-communications. Moreover, the third research question was designed to measure the possible gaps among the students' perspectives of their teachers' dominant teaching styles across the three universities. For that matter, ANOVA test was utilized in that the alpha-value was smaller than 0.05, hence significant. Then in order to show the differences among the three groups of universities, Tukey's Test was run and the findings disclosed differences among Yasouj university and the other two universities significantly; however, no significant difference was found between Shiraz and Isfahan universities. Possible reasons for this could have been due to history of universities, experience, educational facilities, educational environments, academic ranks of professors, research productivity, and teachers’ grading or marking which affected their students’ ratings. Finally, the last research question sought to ascertain the gaps, if any, of the learners’ perceptions of their NNESTs’ level of oral language proficiency among the three universities, for which no significant differences were found. Possibly, NNESTs’ interestingness, overpreparedness, qualification, and professionalism influenced their perceptions other than their accent and pronunciation.

In the end, N-Native English STs can make the most of the study findings to better apply diverse and helpful teaching styles, to fill in the gaps they think they fail to have, to obtain considerable insights into the use of reflective practices, and finally to improve their language literacy and proficiency in case of any failure. Besides, they can use the results to practice their own teaching styles in the classroom context, enhance awareness of their positive and negative consequences of understanding the effectiveness of their oral proficiency, if at all, and finally have a voice in both EFL and ESL contexts.

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Appendix A: Teaching Style Questionnaire (TSQ) On non-native teachers Dear respondent, This questionnaire has been devised with the aim of investigating into eliciting the university students' perceptions of their teachers' dominant teaching styles. To this end, your careful completion of the present questionnaire will help the researcher to gather the real data that is crucial for more accurate results. Please, check the box and decide whether the following statements are typical/true of your non-native university teachers of English and indicate the extent to which you agree with them.

Gender: Male Female Age: ……. Level of education: B. A. M. A. Field of study: English Literature English Translation TEFL Marital status: Single Married Years of English study: …….. City: Shiraz Isfahan Yasouj Strongly disagree: (1) Disagree: (2) Neither agree, nor disagree: (3) Agree: (4) Strongly agree: (5)

No Items 1 2 3 4 5 1 My teachers put emphasis on grammar rules. 2 My teachers assess learners' language knowledge realistically. 3 My teachers set a great number of tests. 4 My teachers assign a lot of homework. 5 My teachers apply group work regularly in class. 6 My teachers apply pair work regularly in class. 7 My teachers rely heavily on the course book. 8 My teachers prefer traditional forms of teaching. 9 My teachers speak most of the time during the lesson.

10 My teachers use ample supplementary material. 11 My teachers focus primarily on speaking skills. 12 My teachers correct errors consistently. 13 My teachers stick rigidly to lesson plan. 14 My teachers are interested in learners' opinions. 15 My teachers are impatient. 16 My teachers run interesting classes. 17 My teachers are happy to improvise. 18 My teachers prefer teaching 'differently'. 19 My teachers direct learners towards autonomous learning. 20 My teachers prepare conscientiously for the lessons. 21 My teachers are too harsh in marking. 22 My teachers prepare learners well for the exam.

23 My teachers provide extensive information about the culture of English-speaking countries.


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Appendix B: Analytic Scale for Assessing Oral Proficiency (ASAOP)

Dear respondent, How do you perceive your NNES (non-native English speaking) teachers' level of oral language proficiency?

PRONUNCIATION 4 Excellent -- No consistent or conspicuous mispronunciation; approaches native-like pronunciation with good intonation and juncture. 3 Good -- Some identifiable deviations in pronunciation, but with no phonemic errors. Non-native accent evident with occasional mispronunciations that do not interfere with understanding. 2 Fair -- Identifiable deviations in pronunciation with some phonemic errors. Non-native accent requires careful listening, and mispronunciations lead to occasional misunderstanding. 1 Poor -- Frequent pronunciation errors with a heavy non-native accent. Many phonemic errors that make understanding difficult.

FLUENCY 4 Excellent -- Speech is effortless and smooth with speed that approaches that of a native speaker. 3 Good -- Speech is mostly smooth but with some hesitation and unevenness caused primarily by rephrasing and groping for words. 2 Fair -- Speech is slow and often hesitant and jerky. Sentences may be left uncompleted, but speaker is able to continue, however haltingly. 1 Poor -- Speech is very slow and exceedingly halting, strained, and stumbling except for short or memorized expressions. Difficult for a listener to perceive continuity in utterances and speaker may not be able to continue.

GRAMMAR/LANGUAGE USE 4 Excellent -- Very strong command of grammatical structure and some evidence of difficult, complex patterns and idioms. Makes infrequent errors that do not impede comprehension. 3 Good -- Good command of grammatical structures but with imperfect control of some patterns. Less evidence of complex patterns and idioms. Limited number of errors that are not serious and do not impede comprehension. 2 Fair -- Fair control of most basic syntactic patterns. Speaker always conveys meaning in simple sentences. Some important grammatical patterns are uncontrolled and errors may occasionally impede comprehension. 1 Poor -- Any accuracy is limited to set or memorized expressions; limited control of even basic syntactic patterns. Frequent errors impede comprehension.

VOCABULARY 4 Excellent -- Very good range of vocabulary with evidence of sophistication and native-like expression. Strong command of idiomatic expressions. Infrequent use of circumlocution because particular words are rarely lacking. 3 Good -- Good range of vocabulary with limited evidence of sophistication. Some expressions distinctly non-native but always comprehensible. Limited evidence of idiomatic expressions. Speaker is comfortable with circumlocution when lacking a particular word. 2 Fair -- Adequate range of vocabulary with no evidence of sophistication. Some distinctly non-native expressions or errors in word choice may impede comprehension. No evidence of idiomatic expressions. Speaker has difficulty with circumlocution when lacking a particular word. 1 Poor -- Limited range of vocabulary. Lack of repertoire and frequent errors in word choice often impede comprehension. Speaker shows no attempt at circumlocution when lacking a particular word.


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About the Author

Mohammad Javadi is an MA graduate of TEFL from Yasouj University, Iran. His research interests include critical discourse analysis (CDA), perception, metaphor analysis, curriculum development, meta-analysis, interdisciplinary studies, bilingualism, and multilingualism. He currently teaches General English Courses at Yasouj University. (email: [email protected])

Acknowledgments

The researcher would like to show appreciation for the guidance and support he received from his professors in his graduate studies at Yasouj University. Furthermore, the researcher cannot find words of thanks adequate to all those who cooperated with him to complete this startling piece of research.


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The morphology and semantics of conjuncts: The case of MA theses in the Philippine setting

Jennifier T. Diamante

Western Philippines University [email protected]

Abstract

This study explores the morphology and semantics of conjuncts as characterized in the introduction sections of 42 Master of Arts (MA) thesis manuscripts from various tertiary institutions in the Philippines. The data were analyzed employing the seven categories of conjuncts proposed by Quirk et al. (1985). The manual analysis was complemented by a concordance software known as Antconc. Results revealed that, morphologically, one-word conjuncts were widely employed in the data over their phrasal counterparts. Semantically, conjuncts conveying a high degree of formality were used predominantly while those exemplifying conversational tones were variably utilized in the data. Findings further disclosed the ubiquity of concessive conjuncts and the scant presence of inferential conjuncts in the data indicating their discourse and semantic roles in the concerned research section. Conclusions drawn from the results yield pedagogical implications to English language teaching derived particularly on the usage and non-usage of conjuncts reflected in the MA dissertation texts.

Keywords: conjuncts, adverbials, academic writing, Philippines English

Introduction

The dynamism of English as a language of the academe and the publishing world has paved the way to a substantial body of work focusing on the different features and aspects of English research articles. Studies exploring the macro-structure and the rhetorical organization of this genre acquaint academic writers and researchers with the conventions of the research writing enterprise. For instance, the classic Introduction-Method-Results-Discussion (IMRD) framework has gained popularity both in the academe and in the publication world. A “conventional” research article that follows this framework can be divided into four major sections: Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion sections with the Introduction as the only stand-alone section in the opening phase (Lin, 2014). Abstract, though not mentioned in the IMRD model, is also part of a research article. In fact, Bhatia (1993) found it to be intriguing to put Abstract and Introduction together, one after another, in one article. He claimed that “even expert members of an academic community sometimes fail to make a proper distinction between the two” (p.76) but he was convinced that these two research sections have distinct communicative purposes. Hence, placing them together in a research article is justifiable, with the Abstract giving the overview of the whole paper and the Introduction providing the context, rationale, and contribution of research to a particular field of study.

In the Philippines, although the higher educational institutions do not seem to have a unified format for the macro-structure of research papers, most of them generally subscribe to the IMRD framework. The IMRD format, as mentioned above, provides an organizational structure for the writers to ensure that the essential information is found in the research paper


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and that this information is conveyed meaningfully to the readers. In this regard, some scholars believe that the greater challenge confronting researchers may not be the organizational structures of the papers but on the writing competencies of the students, particularly on basic cohesion and coherence. Kennedy (2003 in Lin, 2009), for instance, asserts that some writers have difficulty making their outputs cohesive and coherent, especially the longer texts such as theses or journal articles. Thus, it can be argued that even if these writers observe the IMRD sections and the structural elements under each of them, the research report might not read well because of the organizational fluidity of the ideas in the sentences and the interconnection of paragraphs might be problematic. For Halliday and Hassan (1976), cohesion, commonly realized by linguistic lexico-grammatical cues, is an element of good writing as it serves as the nexus that semantically ties the sentences and paragraphs of a text into one coherent meaning. This view has been affirmed by other scholars who provided empirical evidence to this claim (Karadeniz, 2017; Li, 2013).

According to Swales and Feak (2012), writing a research paper (RP), particularly the Introductions, can be challenging to many writers because they aim at stimulating the readers’ interest. Hence, Swales (1990) advanced the influential “Create-a-Research-Space” (CARS) framework which could serve as a guide for students to effectively structure their RP introductions. The model follows a three-move structure such as establishing a research territory, a niche, and a claim. In the first move, the writer has to assert the centrality of the topic, state current facts or knowledge, or ascribe to key characteristics of the topic or field of interest. In the second move, the writer needs to indicate the gap in the previous researches or studies, which the current investigation aims to bridge, raise a question, or extend a finding. In the last move, the writer states the purpose of the present research undertaking or provides the outline of the proposed study. The amount of work just specified seems to validate Swales and Feak’s (2012) assumption on the difficulty of writing an RP’s introduction and how challenging it could be to some writers.

Meanwhile, Dudley-Evans (1989) forwarded a six-move structure framework that characterizes the introduction section of the Master of Science dissertations. These six moves which he found prevailing in his data include: introducing the field, the general topic (within the field), the general topic (within the general topic), defining the scope of the particular topic, preparing for the present research, and introducing the present research. One significant difference between Swales’ (1990) and Dudley-Evans’ (1989) frameworks is that the latter followed more elaborated moves when establishing the topic in a field of study as it provides a detailed account of the previous studies. One possible consideration that could explain the difference is the allowable spatio-temporal space allotted for the writers.

Since the advent of the grand IMRD framework, several studies had already been

conducted, zeroing in on the macro structures of the research papers either on the abstract section (Briones, 2018; Wan, et al. 2011) or on the introduction part of RPs (Lin (2014; Ozturk, 2007; Samraj, 2002). Fernandez (2016) focused on the rhetorical structures and discourse patterns employed in 79 undergraduate thesis introductions. Apparently, most of the studies just mentioned only covered the rhetorical structure of RP introductions and failed to consider their linguistic features, except for Fernandez (2016) who touched on the cohesion and rhetorical structure of RPs.

Thus, this study investigates the linguistic characteristics of research papers,

specifically the Introduction section of MA theses/dissertations. As Swales and Feak (2012) stated, RPs compete for recognition and acceptance of the discourse community, and to win this acceptance, authors have to employ a widely recognized organizational pattern. Bhatia (1993) claimed that certain usage of some lexicogrammatical resources allow the writers to


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conform with the acceptable criteria set by the discourse community they are writing to, and fulfill the communicative purpose of their written text. According to Zareva (2009), the broad category of adverbials is significant in RPs because they used to establish spatiotemporal references and other deictic parameters of situations and processes. Therefore, this paper focuses on conjuncts, one of the three types of adverbials (adjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts) outlined by Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1985), that performs a conjunctive function in different levels of discourse (Dewi, Indrayani, & Citrarismana, 2015). Conjuncts are considered a subset of linguistic devices that improve the overall cohesion and coherence of texts (Biber et al., 1999; Halliday & Mattiessen, 2004; Karadeniz, 2017; Li, 2013).

Some Sorting of English adverbials

Adverb is traditionally defined as a word that modifies verb, adjective, and other adverb, while “adverbial” extends the class of single modifier to prepositional and noun phrases, and clauses which are elements of the main verb rather than constituents of other phrases (Biber et al., 1999 in Yan 2014; Quirk et al., 1985). Given the multifunctionality of adverbial, it is not surprising to find some variations, if not deviations, in its categorization.

For instance, Huddleston and Pullum (2002 cited in Yan, 2014) call linking adverbials

as “connective adverbials” while Quirk et al. (1985) term them as “conjuncts.” Figure 1 presents the conjunction and conjuncts (adverbials) as categorized by Biber et al. (1999) and Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) and discussed in Yan (2014).

Biber et al. (1999) Halliday and Matthiessen (2004)

Conjunctions

coordinator Conjunction paratactic conjunction (linker)

Clause complexing (logical)

subordinator hypotactic conjunction (binder)

Adverbials linking adverbial Adjunct Conjunctive adjunct

Conjunction (textual)

stance adverbial Modal adjunct Mood (interpersonal)

Circumstantial adverbial

Circumstantial adjunct

Transitivity (experiential)

Figure 1. A comparison of categorization of conjunctions and conjunctive adjuncts

One difference between the two approaches is that Biber et al. (1999) distinguished conjunctions and adverbials in terms of their lexical categories, while Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) differentiated the lexico-grammatical items with respect to their functions. The term “lexicogrammar” was introduced by Halliday to highlight the interdependence of lexis (vocabulary) and syntax (grammar). Despite the terminological differences used, they both note that adverbials fulfill coordinating functions that are necessary in achieving text coherence.

Moreover, Halliday and Hassan (1976) classified conjunctive adverbials according to

four broad categories such as additive, adversative, causal, and sequential. The definition of


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these four general categories has been summarized as follows: (1) “additive” adds new information; (2) “adversative” presents a contrasting idea to the ones presented in the preceding clause or clauses; (3) “casual” involves both true causes and logical inferences; (4) “sequential” concerns with either real-time relationships or sequential relationships in a text.

Another classification of adverbials was proposed by Quirk et al. (1985) who grouped

them into two categories based on whether or not they are embedded or part of the clause. Adverbials that are integrated into the clause structures to some extent are called adjuncts. Those adverbials that are not part of the clause structures are then termed as disjuncts and conjuncts. Quirk et al. (1985) further classified the conjuncts into seven categories: listing, summative, apposition, resultive, inferential, contrastive, and transitional.

Furthermore, Quirk et al. (1985) enumerated the three criteria required for a conjunct

such as (1) it can appear initially before a negative clause, (2) it cannot be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative interrogation, and (3) it cannot be contrasted with another adverbial in alternative negation. It was likewise pointed out that a conjunct cannot serve as a response to an interrogative sentence. In addition, conjuncts share similar characteristics with disjuncts in which conjuncts can be treated grammatically independent from the clauses, sentences, or even paragraphs preceding them. Thus, Quirk et al. (1986) and Halliday and Matthiesen (2004) treat conjunctions as “superordinate” elements in the clause.

The brief sorting of adverbials presented above have shown their overlapping semantic and syntactic functions posing a challenge to writers on which linguistic item to use and in which linguistic environment such is more appropriate. Likewise, researchers and grammarians face a similar difficulty in arriving at adverbials’ neat classification and in drawing the line that delineates one from the other. As what Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2008, p.5) argued, “Linguistic grammar are often inaccessible except to those specially trained to work within a particular paradigm,” and that linguistic categorization is always fraught with difficulty.

Thus, the purpose of this paper is to characterize the use of conjuncts in the introduction section of MA thesis/dissertation manuscripts of Filipino graduate students employing Quirk, et al.’s (1985) system. The researcher replicated two of the four questions posed by Dita (2011) in her study on adverbial disjuncts, and these questions are as follows:

1. Morphologically, what are the common forms of adverbial conjuncts employed in MA theses of Filipino graduate students?

2. Semantically, what do the cognitive contents suggest?

Methodology

Data This study utilized 42 introduction sections of MA thesis/dissertation manuscripts collected from Luzon, Visayas, and the National Capital Region in the Philippines. The researcher collected the data from the humanities and social sciences (HSS) departments in some of the tertiary institutions in the country by convenient sampling. The distributions of the data from the respective regions are presented in Table 1.


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Table Distribution of MA Theses/Dissertations per Region

Region Provinces Number of MA theses II – Cagayan Valley Nueva Vizcaya 2 III - Central Luzon Tarlac, Bataan 11 IV-A MIMAROPA Palawan, Romblon 7 V – Bicol Albay, Sorsogon 2 VII – Central Visayas Cebu 2 VIII – EasternVisayas Leyte 4 NCR Metro Manila 4 XIV – CAR Benguet 10 Total 42

The consideration for collecting the data from the HSS departments is based on the

assumption that they contain non-technical language as compared to those from the pure sciences or engineering and technology fields. To reiterate Swales and Feak (2012), writers of RPs structure their papers based on what is perceived to be acceptable by the members of the discourse community they are writing for. In this paper, the researcher only included the section of the RP introductions under the sub-headings: Background and Its Setting/ Rationale/ Introduction/ Background of the Study/ The Problem/The Problem and Its Background. All these titles were subsumed in one title and termed Introduction. Notably, different institutions adopt different research standards and formats which they deemed most appropriate for their institutional goals and objectives. The lengths of the sub-sections from which the data were drawn range from two to 10 pages (747 to 5,000 words), averaging 1,600.33 words per thesis introduction.

Procedure

Using the taxonomy of conjuncts advanced by Quirk et al. (1985), the researcher traced the linguistic items in the data by reading through the data at least once (Please see Quirk et al., 1985, pp 521-522 for the complete list of conjuncts). This step was considered necessary because this study aimed at characterizing conjuncts as employed by the writers. To establish the frequency of usage, conjuncts were individually searched in the data using Antconc 3.4.3w, a freeware concordance toolkit for text analysis. Since some forms of conjuncts can have multiple functions, weeding out and further classifications of the items were carried out manually. For example, the result of the concordance in Figure 3 shows that there were 234 hits of also, a listing conjunct. However, upon scrutiny, it was found that only 24 times, this conjunct functions as such and the rest as an adjunct (please see the categorization in Table 2 and sample concordance result in Figure 3).


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Figure 3. A sample concordance result of the conjunct also using Antconc 3.4.3w

Results and Discussion

The distribution of conjuncts in each category is individually given in tabular presentation and followed by a discussion and exemplification of their occurrences in the data. Table 2 shows that of the three types of listing conjuncts, additive reinforcing (59.63%) dominated the data followed by enumerative (26.61%), and finally by the additive equative conjuncts (13.76%). Among the reinforcing conjuncts further, furthermore and moreover are widely used while too, most and again were infrequently utilized in the data. This finding is quite expected because writers have to conform with the prescriptive structure of RP introduction, typically formal, concise, and coherent.

Table 2 Summary Distribution of listing conjuncts in MA Theses Introductions

Listing Conjuncts Frequency Percentage Additive- Reinforcing 195

59.63

Further 48

14.67

Furthermore 35 10.70 Moreover 29 8.87 Also 24 7.33 Then 22 6.73 In addition 20 6.11 Too 7 2.14 More 6 1.83 Again 4 1.22 Enumerative

87

26.61

First 17 5.19 Then 15 4.59 Finally 11 3.36 On the other hand 10 3.06 Lastly 7 2.14


37

According to Quirk et al. (1985) further, furthermore, and moreover are conjuncts that

can be used in formal setting while “also, again, and then have less force than other reinforcing conjuncts in conveying an incremental effect” (p. 665) and could be more appropriate to other genres (e.g. literary pieces), hence the finding. Lexically, also marks the highest number of occurrence (234 times) in the data. A more careful analysis, however, revealed that it was used only 24 times as conjuncts and the rest as adjuncts. Some of its cases are exemplified below:

(1) Furthermore, such thinking and processing skills are heavily dependent [for]

their development on maturation, but also depend on environmental factors such as quality of schools, home background, school marks and the general cultural milieu. (RP01)

(2) It is also at this point that such study was conducted. (RP05)

(3) Students respond differently in different methods of teaching. Also, the students have their unique way of demonstrating the knowledge acquired and absorbing the information that is imparted. (RP02)

As indicated in (1) also does not function as conjunct but as part of the correlative conjunction not only…but also, as it joins the two clauses in the sentence. Quirk et al. (1985) note that the not only clause advances an information that is to be reinforced by the but also clause. In (2) also could be considered as the focusing adjunct because it is emphasizing the part of the clause element denoting time ‘at this point’ which can be rephrased as ‘now.’ The presence of also in (3) suggests that it was indeed used as a conjunct, showing that it is part of the cataloging of students’ responses which started in the preceding sentences and more likely to continue in the succeeding statements.

In terms of enumerative conjuncts, first is the most predominantly used followed by

then and finally while the least used are third and fourth. Some exemplifications are illustrated in extracts (4) to (8).

(4) First, Echols (1991) investigated the possibility that infants aged 8 to 10 months old

might differently and selectively attend to events which were named compared to events which were not in study. (RP06)

Second 7 2.14 Secondly 5 1.53 Third 3 0.92 Fourth 2 0.61 Additive – Equative 45

13.76

Similarly 18 5.50 Likewise 13 3.97 Equally 8 2.44 In the same way 3 0.91 Correspondingly 3 0.91 Total 317

100


38

(5) First, acquiring the meaning of a word is only limited to the reduction of intentional inference. (RP08)

(6) They recognize what they need to do, act accordingly and purposefully, and then evaluate outcomes so as to guide their future behavior and dispositions (Bandura, 2006...) (RP11)

(7) Then in the 1940s, a shift on problem-solving ability as opposed to knowledge through drill and memorization was emphasized. (RP01)

(8) Both favor conversions, agent nouns, and formations preceded by the morpheme co-, which attests to the influence of North American English on Philippine English; third, new coinages… as regards Philippine English…; fourth, Philippine English is not productive when it comes to using relatively recent categories…; and lastly, the vocabulary and word-formation of Philippine English show a great potential for continuous lexical expansion and linguistic progress. (RP12)

The highlighted lexical items in extracts (4-8) clearly show that they served as conjuncts in all the statements where they appeared. It is, however, noticeable that the ly-form enumeratives (finally, lastly, and secondly) were relatively few in the data, which means that they were not the linguistic choices of the writers. This observation reflects the seeming adherence of Filipino writers to the American English standard which has perhaps been deeply influenced by the colonial history of the Philippines. Borlongan (2016, p.232) claimed that even if the country has long achieved its independence from the United States and has been able to formulate its language policies independently, “there remains residual linguistic conservatism.” Note that the –ly forms of listing conjuncts are more likely dominant in British English oriented papers since it is one of its lexical features (Quirk et al., 1985).

As to equative conjuncts, similarly is widely employed followed by likewise and

equally. The least preferred among the list are in the same way and correspondingly, while by the same token was absent in the data. The preference for similarly over correspondingly may point to its accessibility to the writers as it appears to be more commonplace than the other. Another possible reason could be tied to the general orientation that when writing an academic text, shorter or more familiar words are encouraged to simplify the message and to facilitate understanding of the common readers. This notion can be related to Bhatia’s (1997) concept of language’ “easification for the specialist audience and simplification for the lay audience” (p. 146). In other words, easification is a process of simplifying a text by using a rhetorical structure and language that everyone can understand.

Although quite cumbersome because of its four-word structure, in the same way, found

its way in the data. Some exemplifications of equative conjuncts follow.

(9) Similarly, relatedness can be affirmed partly by the motivational support provided by the school principal, but together with it must be the positive impression that the teacher herself and her colleagues are coherently working on common goals. (RP15)

(10) In the same way, Serrano and Rustia (1992) affirmed that a good command

of English will keep anyone abreast with the changing times. (RP15)


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Both similarly and in the same way respectively function as conjuncts in (9) and (10), but the first one seems to display a more formal tone than the latter. Likewise, the conjunct similarly allows the writer to be concise and avoid verbosity, which could be the reason for its prevalence in the data. According to Swales and Feak (2012), there is a tendency for academic writers to use single-word construction when possible. Dita (2011) also found that single-word -ly disjuncts were more prevalent than their phrasal counterparts in the one-million-word corpus of the International Corpus of English-Philippines. Hence, this linguistic preference of the academic writers to one-word conjuncts (and disjuncts) may also be considered as a feature of Philippine English.

Table 3 Frequency Distribution of Summative Conjuncts in MA Theses Introductions

Summative Frequency Percentage

Thus 49 54.44 Therefore 28 31.11 Then 8 8.89 In sum 3 3.33 To conclude 1 1.11 To sum up 1 1.11 Total 90 100

Table 3 reveals the widespread of the summative conjunct thus (54.44%) followed by

therefore (31.11%). As can be seen, more than half of the total percentage of the items in Table 3 is attributed to the presence of thus. This finding signifies its grammatical importance in the introduction section of an RP. As with the previous observation, the writers seemed to avoid phrasal conjuncts as suggested by their low frequencies in the data. Other phrasal conjuncts in this category, i.e. to summarize, all in all, in conclusion were absent in the data. This finding reinforces the previous discussion about the writers’ willingness to conform with the conventions set by their academic community who will judge the acceptability of their writing output. Bhatia (1993) called the “gatekeepers” of the academic or professional community as “specialists”, who are credited with their knowledge of the communicative purpose and the internal structure of their genre.

The top two most and least frequently employed summative conjuncts are exemplified in (11 – 13) extracts.

(11) Thus, self-efficacy regulates the strength of directionality between personal

and social resources and the resulting job satisfaction. (RP 18)

(12) The overall purpose of this study, therefore, is to measure the level of effectiveness…(RP17)

(13) In sum, the findings of Tenenbaum and Xu’s (2000) experiments could not be easily explained by associationism since this theory is only sensitive to the statistical relations between features without considering the nature of the features. (RP 20)


40

All the conjuncts in extracts (11 to 13) were either used to sum up, or to conclude based on the previous statements. Summing up might be very obvious in (13) with the use of in sum while making a conclusion is seen in (11) and (12) with the use of thus and therefore respectively.

Table 4 sums up the appositive conjuncts used in the data. Table 4 Frequency Distribution of Appositive Conjuncts Employed in MA Theses Introductions

Apposition Frequency Percentage For example 25 28.08 For instance 23 25.84 Namely 20 22.47 That is 13 14.60 In other words 4 4.49 Thus 4 4.49 Total 89 100

Table 4 discloses the predominance of appositive conjuncts for example (28.08%), for

instance (25.84%), and namely (22.47%) in the data. Quirk et al. (1985) note that the top four conjuncts in Table 4 exclusively express apposition while the other two can be multifunctional. The appositive conjunct in other words could likewise serve as inferential and contrastive while thus can also operate as resultive and summative conjunct. The following are some instances where appositive conjuncts manifested.

(14) It is herein argued that teacher’s self-efficacy moderates between personal and

environmental factors. For example, highly efficacious teachers perceive themselves belonging to a competent team and are thus satisfied in the job…. (RP21)

(15) In a multilingual setting, it is not surprising to find that Filipinos codes-witch, that is, that they use more than one language in the course of a single communicative episode (Lorente,2000:25). (RP09)

(16) Wagner et al. (2008), for instance, who used a diary assessment in … secondary

schools, found girls to report more time on homework than boys. (RP15)

(17) Hence, the current research asks whether the positive contribution of supervisory

support on job satisfaction is more pronounced among the highly efficacious teachers than among the less efficacious ones. In other words, would teacher’s self-efficacy moderate the relationship of job satisfaction…? (RP18)

Appositive conjuncts, as can be seen in extracts (14 – 17), further define or identify the previously stated arguments by providing examples as explicated in (14 -16) or by reformulating the previously presented ideas as in (17).


41

Table 5 below presents the frequency distribution of resultive conjuncts as employed by graduate students in their thesis introductions.

Table 5 Frequency Distribution of Resultive Conjuncts in MA Theses Introductions

Result Frequency Percentage Hence 55 35. 71 So 29 18.83 Therefore 21 13.64 Thus 16 10.39 Consequently 12 7.79 Accordingly 9 5.84 As a result 8 5.19 Somehow 2 1.30 Now 2 1.30 Total 154 100

Although Quirk et al. (1985) observed that hence (35.71%) is less formal and conveys

a weaker force as compared with thus, it was still widely used in the data as compared to thus (10.39%) with a disproportionately low percentage. The frequency of so in the data is quite high (89 times) but only 29 times (18.83%) that it satisfied its function as resulting conjunct. This finding confirms the observation of Quirk et al. (1985) that sometimes “so seems to have lost all result force and introduces a summing-up or even links sentences that are chronologically related” (p.669). Compare, for instance, its manifestation in (18) and (19).

(18) For example, learning the meaning of the word “car” takes place when… associated with their actual experience at the time the word “car” is used. So, learning the meaning of the word “car” happens when the child is repeatedly playing with the toy car and naming the toy. (RP09)

(19) For example, the order of number two is always fixed. So, two follows after

one and is followed by number three, that is, one two three. (RP31)

The presence of so in (18) indicates that the writer is offering his/her generalization about what has been previously presented, while in (19) it is an implication that the next statement is related to the previous ones but not necessarily offering summation or generalization which then announces its function as coordinating conjunction. Oftentimes, so appears as modifiers of adverbs and adjectives, and sometimes as a verbal substitute, subordinator as exemplified below:

(20) The notion of variability must be taken so seriously that the range of possible

Englishes cannot be neglected. (RP34)

(21) Sibayan (2000) further explains that American efforts were so successful that English was extensively used in domains of government…. (RP11)

(22) With so many multilingual speakers using English in multilingual situations,

hybrid forms of English are likely to increase. (RP12)


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In (20), so modifies an adverb while in (21), it serves as a modifier of an adjective. According to Quirk et al. (1985), so is sometimes used absolutely as an empathic form of very as exemplified in these sentences: I’m so tired! The party was so delightful. (Murcia & Freeman, 2008, p. 742). Quirk et al. (1985) also mentioned that when so comes with many/much, it may also be used absolutely as emphatic forms of very much and many such as in (22).

Table 6 summarizes the use of inferential conjuncts in the MA thesis/dissertation

manuscripts of the selected Filipino graduate students. Table 6

Frequency Distribution of Inferential Conjuncts Employed in MA Theses Introductions

Inferential conjuncts Frequency Percentage Then 8 53. 33 In other words 7 46.67 Else 0 0.00 Otherwise 0 0.00 In that case 0 0.00 Total 15 100

Table 6 reveals that then and in other words were the only inferential conjuncts that

surfaced in the data with a very thin distribution. The measly manifestation of inferential conjuncts might be due to the fact that drawing inferences and making assumptions is not usually found in the thesis introduction sections but is expected in the conclusion part of RPs. Some instances on the usage of inferential conjuncts are presented below:

(23) When the students have learned the production and interpretation of sounds of

the English vocabulary, then, one can use the English language effectively. (RP32)

(24) Their expectancy and value beliefs in accomplishing their homework are

important to carry out certain actions…. In other words, student’s beliefs as a component of student’s homework motivation may hinder or enhance their homework behavior. (RP29)

Undoubtedly, then in (23) and in other words in (24) were respectively employed as inferential conjuncts. As observed, in (23), the writer is more likely giving his/her interpretation of the information provided in the primary clause, while in (24), it is explicitly declaring that what follows is just an assumption as implied by the use of modal may, which suggests weak inference.

Although else and otherwise appeared in the data, they were never employed as an inferential conjunct while in that case was nonexistent in the data. The case on the usage of else and otherwise are shown in (25) and (26).

(25) For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. (RP 19)


43

(26) This style can also help control a problem teammate when everything else has failed. (RP21)

Table 7 presents the summary of contrastive conjuncts found in the data. The substantial frequencies of conjuncts in this category indicate their significance in the introduction sections of RPs.

Among the four categories of contrastive conjuncts, concessive (63.67%) dominated

the data followed by antithetic (16.33%), replacive (11%), and finally by the reformulatory conjuncts (9%). The magnitude of concessive conjuncts in the data undoubtedly speaks for their significance in the RP introductions. Note that the main role of concessive conjuncts is to indicate that one idea is unexpected in the light of the other (Dewi, Indrayani, & Citrarismana, 2015). In the RP introduction sections, the writers usually attempt to position their ideas as distinct from or new in view of the existing body of knowledge, which explains the widespread use of concessive conjuncts in the data. Among the concessive conjuncts, however is widely used while still and only were variably utilized in the data. Other concessives (contrariwise, better, and alternatively) were not found in the data.

Table 7 Frequency Distribution of Contrastive Conjuncts in MA Thesis Introductions

Antithetic conjuncts, used for indicating contrast with what has preceded (Quirk et al.

,1985), were barely employed in the data as indicated in Table 7. This result is attributable to

Contrastive Conjuncts Frequency Percentage Concessive 191 63.67 However 109 36.34 Still 34 11.34 Only 27 9.00 Though 21 7.00 Antithetic 49

16.33

Then 2 0.66 On the other hand 11 3.66 In contrast 13 4.34 Instead 23 7.66 Replacive 33

11.00

Rather 22 7.34 On the other hand 5 1.66 Again 4 1.34 Worse 2 0.66 Reformulatory 27

9.00

Better 1 0.33 Rather 9 3.00 In other words 17 5.67 Total 300 100


44

the fact that one communicative purpose of an RP introduction section is for the writers to create a niche by providing bases and situating their study with the current research findings, hence, the dominance of concessive conjuncts. Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2008) stated that a concessive is used to express the text producer’s wish to grant the truth of one proposition while asserting the truth of another in such a way that the first proposition appears to have of lesser importance, as may be seen in the exemplars below.

(27) In addition, Anderson (1986) claimed that students see the inherent value of

homework if it is reasonable, varied, and challenging. However, despite these arguments, existing research does not offer empirical evidence…. (RP27)

(28) While some parents view homework in a negative way, still other parents

demand more homework for their children (Strother, 1984). (RP29)

Evidently, however in (27) acts as a concessive conjunct as the writer builds on the second proposition while downplaying the previous ones. The presence of ‘despite’ further reinforces the proposition introduced by the conjunct. The still in (28) also fulfills its function as a concessive because it alludes to the writer’s argument or evaluative comment.

As regards replacive conjuncts, rather gains higher frequency than in other words,

which is quite unexpected because perhaps of the latter’s notoriety to the academic writers. Quirk et al. (1985) noted that replacive conjuncts indicate that what follows them are alternatives to what has been previously provided, and signify that the proposed alternative is preferable. In (29), both clauses contain the modal should which suggests that the proposition is obligatory. However, the presence of ‘not’ in the first clause explicitly negates the premise, asserting the validity of the argument introduced by the conjunct, rather.

(29) He argues that the focus of education should not be in molding individuals

into a specific type, rather it should develop learners…. (RP34)

Another sub-category of contrastive conjuncts is reformulatory. According to Quirk et al. (1985), reformulation or the rewording of the previously stated information or lexical content comes in three types: (1) reformulation employing linguistic knowledge, (2) reformulation utilizing factual knowledge, and (3) using precise information.

The conjunct rather in (29) serves as a replacive conjunct, but in (30) it fulfills another function which satisfies the second criterion of reformulatory conjunct. As can be noted, what follows rather is a contrasting definition or a reformulation of the idea being presented. Here, the reformulation is not based on a linguistic knowledge which can be realized through the use of a synonymous expression, but instead, it is based more on factual knowledge about the context of the topic or the lexical content being discussed. Quirk et al. (1985) state that reformulation is used to provide a clearer interpretation of the idea being presented or of the lexical content of the first appositive as in (30).

(30) Indeed, language is not static; rather, it is an entity that is multiple and

changeable, which allows the individual to modify it according to the experiences she/he goes through. (RP08)

The summary of the frequency distribution of transitional conjuncts is presented in

Table 8, excluding other discoursal conjuncts (incidentally, by the way, by the by(e)) and


45

temporal conjuncts (meantime, in the meantime, in the meanwhile, originally) that gained zero frequency in the data.

Finally, transitional conjuncts are the last set of adverbials as categorized by Quirk et

al. (1985). Table 8 presents the linguistic items in this category that appeared in the data.

Table 8 Frequency Distribution of Transitional Conjuncts in MA Theses Introductions

Table 8 indicates that transitional conjuncts have minor roles in the RP introductions. Though the majority of them as listed by Quirk et al. (1985) appeared in the data, they rarely behaved as conjuncts. For instance, now has 28 hits in the software-generated list, but only twice that it served as a conjunct, oftentimes as time adverbials. Quirk et al. (1985) claimed transitional conjuncts are used to move the attention of the text recipient to another topic or a related idea. Thus, now in (31) encodes the writer’s shift of discursive position about the topic that is being discussed in the previous statement(s). It likewise allows the writer to move to a generalization after presenting a series of arguments about the topic in question. As opposed to (31) where now acted as a transitional conjunct, in (32), it simply operated as a time adverbial, reinforced further by the preposition ‘until’.

(31) ‘And they lived happily ever after’, for example, has a complete thought and

sentence structure elements and is grammatically correct…. Now, more or less, linguists and language teachers have come to the realization that these so-called rules are more into stylistic preferences…. (RP03)

(32) Though the body’s blood sugar level can be controlled, until now, there is still

no cure for this condition. (RP13)

Quirk et al. (1985) explained further that now usually performs either as a discourse marker to start a discourse or shift it fluidly to another topic, without much planning on the part of the speaker or writer. Shiffrin (1996) added that now as a discourse marker announces the text producer’s progression of thought by paying attention to the upcoming stretch of talk or ideas. According to her, distinguishing the time deictic and discourse marker functions of now is not always easy, but can be resolved by looking at its discourse context.

The frequency distributions of all the seven categories of conjuncts are summarized in

Table 9.

Transitional Conjuncts Frequency Percentage Discoursal Now

2

15.38

Temporal

Meanwhile 6 46.16 Subsequently 3 23.08 Eventually 2 15.38 Total 13 100


46

Table 9 Frequency Distribution of the Seven Categories of Conjuncts in the data

Category Frequency Percentage Listing 317 32.41 Contrastive 300 30.67 Resultive 154 15.74 Summative 90 9.20 Appositive 89 9.10 Inferential 15 2.55 Transitional 13 1.32 Total 978 100

Table 9 reveals that listing (32.41%) conjuncts are ubiquitous in the data as compared

to the other categories of conjuncts. This finding suggests their significant roles in the RP introductions. Listing conjuncts aid the writers in justifying the value of their current inquiry by presenting relevant studies, highlighting or deemphasizing their claims, and contrasting them with the proposed research endeavor. Contrastive (30.67%) conjuncts come a close second to the listing conjuncts. As discussed in Table 7, contrastive conjuncts have four sub-categories, dominated by the concessive conjuncts in terms of frequency in the data. Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2008) pointed out that concessive expression signals a contrast whereby the material in the main clause intends to have the primary focus, and the concessive item draws the reader/listener to inferences. Table 9 further reflects the infrequency of inferential (2.55%) and transitional (1.32%) conjuncts in the MA thesis/dissertation manuscripts, indicating their minor roles in the introduction sections of RPs.

Swales and Feak (2012) observe that graduate students tend to employ specific to general techniques in writing, in which, they try to give specific examples or details that lay the foundation for and justify the investigation of a larger concern. They realized such orientation by appropriating lexicogrammatical items necessary in achieving their communicative purpose. Celce-Murcia and Larsen-Freeman (2008) stressed that the structure of one sentence contributes to and is dependent on the linguistic context where it appears and the discourse around it. This means that the lexical items used by the writers served as the resource for creating and accomplishing their communicative intentions, showing a symbiotic relationship between grammar and words or a dialectical relationship (Fairclough, 1989) between language and context.

Conclusion

This study has attempted to describe how conjuncts as categorized by Quirk et al. (1985) were characterized in MA thesis manuscripts from various private and state universities and colleges in the Philippines. It was found that conjuncts could connect different levels of discourse units. They can connect sentence with sentence or with a longer stretch of discourse (previous groups of sentences).

Findings further suggest that academic writers strictly adhered to the writing conventions prescribed for this research genre as evident in the usage and non-usage of conjuncts, employing those that exemplify some degree of formality. As shown, however (109 times), hence (55), further (48), furthermore (35), and moreover (29) were the most prevalent


47

conjuncts in the data, and which were all classified by Quirk et al. (1985) as formal conjuncts. Moreover, the preference of the writers with the one-word-structure conjuncts over their phrasal counterparts is also noticeable.

While graduate students in the Philippines generally produced research papers (MA theses) that are acceptable to the academic community by following the standards prescribed by their respective institutions, there were also traces of overuse and misuse of conjuncts in some manuscripts. For example, there were instances when the correlative conjunct not only… but also was incorrectly used in the data by dropping the also in the clause where it is supposed to appear, making the sentence anomalous. Another is the prevalence of the listing conjunct first in the data but second and third (and other ordinal numbers) were surprisingly scant. It is presumed that when the writer used first when enumerating ideas or items, the succeeding ordinals will also be employed. Hence, further investigation on the usage of conjuncts may be conducted by utilizing a bigger corpus or a comparable corpus (e.g. Brown corpus of standard American English). This is also to note that one important concept of a linguistic inquiry is not only on how a particular linguistic item was used in the text but also the relevant connection between the actual use of language and the rationale behind such use (Bhatia, 1997). One way to do this is to include in the investigation the text producers and consumers within a community of practice to uncover factors that might have influenced such linguistic utilization. Another research angle could be the impact of conjunctions on the overall coherence of discourses, written or spoken. The results of these types of inquiries can inform language teaching in terms of how conjunctions enable writers to improve the cohesion and overall coherence of the text, making it more readable and cognitively satisfying to readers.

Finally, since cohesive devices contribute to the language accuracy and coherence of academic texts, particularly research papers, this study recommends that curriculum experts should consider them when devising language teaching instructions. They can attempt to make a review of their designed curriculum and course syllabi as to whether these linguistic devices were given salience in language classrooms. Capacete (2019) argued that the success of language instruction lies in teachers’ teaching capability and assessment practices. Thus, teachers should be equipped with various approaches to ensure that teaching of these linguistic items was carried out properly so that students could access these resources successfully when necessary.

Furthermore, the recommendations forwarded by this study re-echo Vergel and Valle’s

(2019) appeal to strengthen the teaching of writing, along with other communicative competencies, as it is one of the macro skills that they found to be least mastered by learners.

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Michigan, United States of America: The University of Michigan Press. Vergel, M.I. & Valle, G. (2019). Re-examining the learners’ language competency: A language needs analysis. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature, 1, 60-81. Yan, Z. (2014). Aversative and concessive conjunctions in Chinese writing: A functional

perspective. Retrieved March 12, 2015, from http://www.lib.polyu.educ.hk. Zareva, A. (2009). Informational packaging, level of formality, and the use of


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circumsntance adverbials in L1 and L2 academic presentations. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 55-68.

Appendix List of Data Sources

Region Tertiary Institutions Number of RPs

IV-A MIMAROPA Palawan State University 2 IV-A MIMAROPA Western Philippines University 4 IV-A MIMAROPA Holy Trinity University 2 IV-A MIMAROPA Romblon State University 1 III – Central Luzon Tarlac State University 1 VIII – Eastern Visayas

Leyte Normal University 4

V – Bicol Ateneo de Naga University 1 NCR Rizal Technological University 1 NCR De La Salle University 1 NCR Philippine Normal University 1 NCR Ateneo de Manila University 1 VII- CENTRAL VISAYAS

Cebu Normal University 1

VII- CENTRAL VISAYAS

University of San Carlos- Cebu

1

II- Cagayan Valley St. Mary’s College, Nueva Vizcaya

2

V – BICOL Sorsogon State College 1 XIV – CAR Benguet State University 10 III- Central Luzon Bataan Peninsula State

University 10

Total 42

Region Provinces Number of theses

Number of words

II – Cagayan Valley Nueva Vizcaya 2 1,719 III - Central Luzon Tarlac, Bataan 11 1,728 IV-A MIMAROPA Palawan, Romblon 7 1,696 V – Bicol Albay, Sorsogon 2 1,675 VII – Central Visayas

Cebu 2 1,695

VIII – Eastern Visayas

Leyte 4 1,687

NCR Metro Manila 4 1,713 XIV – CAR Benguet 10 2,137 Total 42 14,049 Original corpus = 67,887 words


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About the Author

Jennifier Tabernero-Diamante holds the degrees Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics from De la Salle University-Manila and MA in English Language Teaching from Palawan State University. She is currently an Assistant Professor at the College of Arts and Sciences of Western Philippines University where she teaches English and Philippine Literatures, Linguistics, and Research. Her research interests focus on language teaching and critical discourse analysis. Her dissertation is a critical discourse analysis of online news reports on the mining policies and practices in the Philippines. She presented her papers in various local, national, and international conferences (e.g. Japan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Cambodia) and published some of her works in peer-reviewed journals such as the Philippine ESL Journal. (Email: [email protected])

Acknowledgments The author would like to express her sincerest gratitude and appreciation to the Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences of Western Philippines University and the College Research Coordinator for their encouragement, and to the two anonymous reviewers for the valuable suggestions that greatly improved this paper.


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Rhetorical Structure of Research Acknowledgment Sections in Master’s Thesis Manuscripts

Elizabeth B. Alibangbang, MALT

Department of Education, Cotabato, Philippines [email protected]

Donnie M. Tulud, Ph.D. University of Southern Mindanao Kabacan, Cotabato, Philippines

[email protected]

Abstract

This study was conducted to establish the rhetorical patterns of master’s thesis acknowledgment sections in different masters’ degree programs of one of the leading state universities in the Philippines. The analysis of the fifty-one (51) randomly sampled research acknowledgments revealed that the research acknowledgments from different programs follow the general framework proposed by Hyland (2004). However, some specific moves and steps in the acknowledgments sections under study are not consistent with the model provided by Hyland. This implies that the research acknowledgment section can be written in a variety of styles depending on the orientation of the writer. Keywords: Rhetorical Moves, Acknowledgment Section, Thesis Manuscripts

Introduction Like any other academic genres or subgenres, acknowledgments play a significant role in research publications. Acknowledgments represent an appreciation for certain personal, social, financial, technological, intellectual, and philosophical support offered by certain organizations, agencies, colleagues, advisors, academics, or family affiliates (Cronin, 1995). It provides the writers with a platform to convey heartfelt gratitude for the people who supported them to complete their work in a more formal approach (Dunams, 2010). As Ben-Ari (1987) asserts, this section is a unique textual structure governed by rules and conventions; thus, it is considered distinct from the main text of research. He further points out that acknowledgment sections are formulations that take an intermediate place between the internal contents of ethnography and the people and relations beyond it, and that they are both an introduction to the intellectual substance and a reconstruction of the external contributions that have been made to it. Hence, one should be knowledgeable enough on the fundamentals of writing research acknowledgments. As Hyland (2004) affirms, a lack of awareness in the construction of acknowledgments can lead to inappropriate expressions of gratitude, which may characterize the incompetence of academic and social identity of students who are aspiring to complete their graduate degree programs. The status quo then can lead to poor knowledge of acknowledgment configurations, which may cause inappropriate acknowledgment writing (Rofess & Mahmood, 2015). Equally important, compared with other sections of theses, dissertations, articles, and books, acknowledgments have received less attention in the pedagogical environment.


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Students most often copy what others have written with no good awareness of their purpose. Student research writers therefore, should be taught of the essentials of writing, which might affect how they utilize the moves/steps, lexical, and grammatical choices. In addition, identifying keywords and structural patterns used in theses acknowledgments can serve as a reference for the students to show them the possible word choices and structures. Additionally, most scholars in the field of genre analysis consider acknowledgment sections as immaterial. For Swales (2004) it is a “part genre,” and for Hyland (2003), it is “a practice of unrecognized and disregarded value” (p. 242) and that “its importance to research students have been overlooked in the literature” (p. 243). In the past research on genre, acknowledgments have been considered insignificant and generally disregarded types of the academic genre (Giannoni, 2002). Therefore, by revealing the generic structure and examining how the writers frame their thanking expressions in research manuscripts, the researchers hope to highlight the importance of this genre, add to the literature, and provide the students and their instructors with a comprehensive understanding of the genre, and finally help the students write impressive and proper acknowledgments.

To this end, the study aimed to provide descriptions through genre-based inquiry as to how acknowledgments are written in graduate school thesis manuscripts. It also aimed to probe as to how graduate school research writers write their acknowledgments in relation to various linguistic features (lexemes and syntax) that realize acknowledging acts. This undertaking is relevant as it can serve as a basis for intervention in teaching students and prospective research writers on how to write conventional and customized acknowledgments. This research can also offer insights to scholars and researchers which will result in a consensus of presenting and accepting the most applicable pattern in writing acknowledgments for academic purposes. Theoretical Framework

The conception of this paper is anchored on Ken Hyland’s (2004) three generic structures (Reflecting, Thanking, and Announcing Move) in expressing gratitude in academic discourse. Hyland first concluded that the generic structure of academic writing acknowledgments reflects alterations in different disciplines as well as patterns of national disciplinary communities. Recognizing this fact, he analyzed the rhetorical structure of the acknowledgment section written by MA and Ph.D. graduates from Hong Kong Chinese-speaking postgraduates. Expounding Swales’ (1990) CARS model to his study, Hyland identified reflecting move as optional move, thanking move as an obligatory move, and announcing move as an optional move. Since then, this model of rhetorical structure for acknowledgments has become the basis for all the later similar studies on acknowledgment. The detailed system of order for research acknowledgments consists of Move 1: Reflective move; Move 2: Thanking move having four sub-steps namely: Step 1: Presenting Participants, Step 2: Thanking for Academic Assistance, Step 3: Thanking for Resources, and Step 4: Thanking for Moral Support; Move 3: Announcing move with two sub-steps namely Step 1: Accepting and Step 2: Dedicating the Thesis.


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Methodology

Data Analyses Using the three-move model of Hyland (2004), we analyzed 51 acknowledgment sections of unpublished thesis manuscripts of graduate school students of the University of Southern Mindanao Graduate School. The research acknowledgment section served as the genre and corpus of the study. Each research acknowledgment was labeled and evaluated for easy identification and interpretation in terms of their generic structures, linguistic choice, and acknowlegees. Sentences and paragraphs were analyzed if they indicate expressions such as words or phrases comparable to the indicators presented in Hyland’s model for the acknowledgment section. To analyze the corpus, every statement was coded and classified conforming to the rhetorical moves of research article acknowledgment of Hyland. To ensure the utmost confidentiality of the research writers, every thesis manuscript was coded with TMA1 to TMA51 (Thesis Manuscript Acknowledgment) to refrain from revealing the names of every researcher. Data Sources

There were two main materials used in this study. The first material was the 51 acknowledgment sections of thesis manuscripts from various Master of Arts graduate programs such as Language Teaching, Educational Management, Extension Education, Industrial Arts, and Home Economics Education while the second material was the three-move model of Ken Hyland (2004) for acknowledgment which was used as the basis in analyzing the move structure of thesis manuscript acknowledgment section.


Move 1: Reflective move

In this move, writers normally utilize reflective comment on their research experience.

This move relates the reader to the writers’ research undertakings that they have come across and the ordeals that they have surpassed and hurdled during research. The writers here tend to narrate their experience all throughout the research journey which usually involves a certain prophetic saying and direct quotation or proverbs. According to Hyland (2004, p. 49), this move is considered as “peripheral to the main purpose of the genre” which means it may or may not be included in the section. This move is optional since only 19 (37.25%) out of 51 used it. This step is illustrated in the following examples below.

We can only be said to be alive in those moments when our hearts are conscious of our treasure. (Thompson Wilder) TMA 12

Knowledge is empty save without labor. Labor is empty save without love. Love is empty save without others who willingly and selflessly share their thoughts, time, effort, resources in making this paper a success. TMA 37

Truly, the road to success is not an easy path. It squeezes our mental, emotional and physical strength drains the pocket as well. The outpouring of the spring of gladness and reward is priceless however. TMA 3


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Move 2: Thanking moves

In this move, the writers give recognition to the people and institutions who became part of the completion and success of the study. This move has four steps wherein, mapping credit to individuals and institutions is done by the writers. This move provides readers the participants who are expected to appear in the acknowledgment texts based on the contribution made by people and institutions involved in the research. Move 2 has two consequent steps, namely: Presenting participants and Thanking for academic assistance. Step 2.1: Presenting participants

In this step, writers convey appreciation to various individuals who served as participants and respondents of their study. This move is considered a conventional move since 46 (90.20%) out of 51 researchers used the step. The absence of this step can affect the full text since this step is principally textual wherein, the researchers are required to introduce the people to be thanked and that would be mentioned in the subsequent steps (Hyland 2004, p. 313). This is where the writer introduces the persons who are involved in the progress of the study. Some of the illustrations are the following:

It gives me great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to all the people who supported me and contributed in making this thesis possible specifically to the students who served as respondents of the study. TMA 14

The researcher wishes to express his immeasurable and deepest gratitude for the help and support extended by the following persons who have contributed in their own ways to make this study possible. To the principals of the different divisions who became my participants. TMA 18

The successful completion of this manuscript was made possible through the invaluable contribution of number of people particularly, SHS teachers who served as the respondents of my study. TMA 31

Step 2.2: Thanking for academic assistance

In this step, writers give thanks to the people who examined and gave constructive feedback to the research. Writers mention the name of the faculty and stakeholders in the academic institution for the scholarly support, concepts, and comments. This step is regarded as an obligatory step since it appeared in all the corpora analyzed. Hence, in the study of Al-Ali (2006, p. 707), this step is intended for those who have great involvement in inspiring or developing the research reported, and for those who have helped put the work into shape and form through their valuable concepts, insights, and views.

In realizing this step, mentioning expressions like valuable support, worthy suggestion,

great knowledge is evident. These expressions are in the form of descriptive adjectives that function as attributive adjective phrase modifier. The following illustrations below are the realization of step 2.2.


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Her intelligent and knowledgeable mentors for sharing their time, skills and expertise; TMA 11

My sincere thanks to the dynamic members of my thesis advisory and examining committee; Dr. Riceli C. Mendoza, Dr. Lawrence Anthony Dollente, Dr. Jacinta Pueyo and Dr. Consuelo Tagaro for generously sharing their time to offer valuable comments toward improving my work. TMA 14 Dr. Consuelo A. Tagaro, the dean of the Graduate School and chair of the panel as well as the panel members, Dr. Riceli C. Mendoza, Dr. Donnie M. Tulud, and Prof. Nora B. Bolences, my panelists for extending their time and professional expertise to patiently go through the content of my paper, for their constructive criticisms in order to refine this research which contributed much in improving this study; TMA 45

Step 2.3: Thanking for resources In this step, writers convey gratitude for the support received from colleagues, participants, and those who avail or provide assistance. This includes data access, clerical, technical, utilization of facilities such as apparatus and libraries (Yang, 2012). This is regarded as a conventional step since it has 90.20% occurrence in the corpora.

The most frequently recognized resource was data access, clerical assistance, technical help, and financial support. Thus, the most distinctive expression used is for encoding, for lending, for granting, for sharing, and for letting where gerunds are used as objects of the preposition for indicating purpose. Below are the illustrations of this step.

To her parents, Mr. Diogenes C. Aguilar and Mrs. Rebecca S. Aguilar and siblings; Raiza, Kryza and McDaniel, for unending financial and emotional, and for the inspiration and unconditional love; TMA 5

To Hon. Onofre Respicio and other members of the LGU, for granting the LGU Scholarship Program for Teachers in the Municipality of Makilala; TMA11

Kim, for encoding some of the stories needed in the study; Ateneo de Davao University Library for letting the researcher to use their graduate School unpublished thesis. TMA 20

Step 2.4: Thanking for moral support

Realizing this step, the writers give thanks to the persons who gave them moral support

during the progress of the study. To realize this step, writers mention various persons whom they have an immediate affinity. In this part, the writers tend to express their heartfelt gratitude to their parents, wife/husband, children, siblings, and friends. Based on the result, the occurrence of this step is considered obligatory since it was evident in all the corpora analyzed. This occurrence according to Al-Ali’s (2006) can be attributed to the religious affiliations specifically, on the teachings of divine scripts like Quran (Quran 31:14) which states that the first thing that God enjoins upon man is to show gratitude to Him and to one's parents as he says: Show gratitude to Me and to thy parents.


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In this step, abstract nouns like (love, care, support, prayers, encouragement,

understanding, considerations, inspirations, and friendship) are common expressions used as an object of the preposition for indicating a benefit. This step is realized in the following samples below.

The researcher extends her warm love and care to her beloved parent, Mr. Braulio Q. Diaz Jr. And Rosalinda C. Diaz for their inspiration, guidance and encouragement to finish the degree. Gratitude is also express to her brothers, sisters and relatives who extended their moral support. TMA 1

And those persons whom the researcher failed to mention but contributed much to the success and the realization of this study, the researcher is sincere and grateful. TMA 9

Dear Parents. Lorenzo I. Alcantara and Mrs. Francisca Alcantara, for being the ultimate reason of not giving up, for the love, care and inspiration. TMA 18

His son, Brennxor Yaesle, for serving as his inspiration and for making his life colourful; TMA 23

Step 2.5: Thanking God

Realizing this step, researchers acknowledged God and expressed their appreciation for

the help and provisions. Based on the result, almost all acknowledgments show evidence of Thanking God which usually appears in the last paragraph of the thanking move. As Al-Ali (2006) states, the inclusion of this step may be credited to religion which dominates researchers’ culture and belief. Moreover, this structure move is not evident in Hyland’s (2004) model structure for acknowledgment, which means this step is considered as a new reported structure in the acknowledgment section.

As can be gleaned from the result, this step can be regarded as a conventional step

since 49 (96.01%) out of 51 researchers employed this step.

My outmost gratitude goes to Allah, Almighty for His kindness in blessing me with good health, strength and most importantly endurance to successfully complete my work on time. TMA 16 And most of all, to GOD for HIS providence financially, physically, mentally, morally, and spiritually. The success of this work would not be realized without HIS presence and guidance. TMA 23

Most of all to our Almighty God, the source of life and provider of all blessings. For the infinite guidance, protection, providence and wisdom for this piece of work made possible according to his plan. TMA 50


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Move 3: Announcing Move

In this move, the researchers make a public declaration of accountability and inspiration through accepting responsibility and dedicating the thesis. Step 3.1: Accepting responsibility

This is an affirmation of authorial obligation for imperfections or errors that might have transpired during the conduct of the study. This move does not appear in all of the research articles. Hence, it is considered a non-evident move.

Step 3.2: Dedicating the thesis

In this step, the writer formally offers the research work to an individual(s), mostly parents and family. Researchers who use this step in this section feel “they have something of great value to offer, if only symbolical for the ‘addressee’ as a reward for a unique effort” (Al-Ali, 2006, p. 40). However, this step is realized using mass dedications in all the acknowledgment sections analyzed. Markers like to all, to all persons, to them, and to all of them are used in stating dedication. This step is considered optional since 6 (9.8%) out of 51 employed this step. Below are the illustrations of this step.

To all who contributed for the success of this endeavor, this study is wholeheartedly dedicated. TMA 3

Thus, this masterpiece is humbly dedicated. TMA 9 And to all persons not mentioned in the chapter who in some ways helped in the success of the pursuit, this academic accomplishment is humbly dedicated. TMA 13

Table 1

Occurrences of Moves in Thesis Manuscript Acknowledgment Section.

Moves in Acknowledgment section Occurrences Percentage

Move 1: Reflective Move Move 2: Thanking Move Step 1: Presenting participants Step 2: Thanking for academic assistance Step 3: Thanking for resources Step 4: Thanking for moral support Step 5. Thanking God Move 3: Announcing Move Step 1: Accepting responsibility Step 2: Dedicating the thesis

19 46 51 46 51 49 0 6

37.25% 90.20% 100% 90.20% 100% 96.01% 0% 9.8%

Note: 0%- non-evident move < 60%- optional move > 60%- conventional move 100%- obligatory move


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The present study investigated the rhetorical pattern or the sequence of moves that occurred in the thesis manuscript acknowledgment of selected Master’s theses. Findings revealed that every thesis writer has his/her own pattern in expressing gratitude. It can be observed that the writers from the dataset we analyzed did not follow the moves proposed by Hyland in writing research acknowledgments. Thus, there were some moves that appeared to be optional and conventional. Few of the writers applied move 1 in writing their acknowledgments, while all of the writers applied two steps in move 2 which were steps 2.2 and 2.4. There were also some who used move 2.1 and 2.3, but only a few of them used move 3 which indicates that these moves are peculiar. The result further implies that there are one or more moves omitted in every acknowledgment which indicates that research writers follow various conventions in putting their research acknowledgments into shape and form.

It is observed also that most of the thesis manuscripts used the thanking move.

Presenting the participants were in the initial paragraph, and some were in the second after the reflective move. Pattern PP, TAA, TMS, TR and TMS can be found in TMA27 and TMA28. Since some moves may occur repeatedly in every article, it means that some rhetorical patterns may also occur repetitively. This indicates that there is no universal pattern or format in writing acknowledgment in thesis manuscripts.

The move structures found in the corpus revealed that the writers do not follow any

rigid move structure in writing their acknowledgments. Despite the fact that the Graduate School of the university has institutionalized a research manual for the researchers to follow still, most of the thesis writers seem to follow their own pattern, and their educational context does not affect how they write their acknowledgment sections. Hence, the findings of this study corroborate the result of Hyland (2003, 2004), Hyland and Tse (2004), and Zhao and Jiang (2010) on Chinese research acknowledgments, which also revealed that variations are evident in presenting moves/steps and in using linguistic signals even though, research writers share a mutual writing norm. Factors such as academic standards, English language learning experience, contextualized values, individual viewpoints, associations with acknowledgees, and distinct writing styles may contribute to such variety. Thus, the results of this paper also conform to the argument of foregoing researches which claims that acknowledgment section is constantly changing, unstable, and can be heavily influenced by the writer’s orientation. Hence, rhetorical practices and styles are dependent on the specific settings which are affected by the writers’ desired choices and value systems.

In expressing gratitude, regardless of moves and steps, writers used various types of

expressions such as nominalization (my sincere thanks go to…., it gives me great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to…) performative acts (the researcher wishes to express his immeasurable and deepest gratitude to….) and passive voice (e.g., sincerest gratitude is given to…). Majority of the modifiers are used to strengthen feelings in thanking acts. Personal expressions in the form of axiological adjectives or adverbs are mostly evident in all the steps in move 2. The extent of expressing gratitude varies based on the status of the acknowledgees. In expressing thanks to mentors and professors, honorific, and superlatives such as deepest, sincerest, heartfelt were predominantly used to convey utmost deference and superiority. For minor personas such as external advisers and committee members, adjectival expressions such as intelligent, dynamic, professional, knowledgeable were frequently utilized. According to Hyland and Tse (2004), these adjectives are used because it makes thanking acts more formal. In thanking relatives, the writers used words showing intimacy such as dear, profoundly, deep, or especially. On the other hand, performative acts are commonly used with very limited modifiers to express gratitude for friends (the researcher would like to thank all his friends…or


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he would like to thank his friends…), which indicates a lesser amount of formality. This result affirms the finding of Afful and Mwinllaru (2010) which revealed that the variation of these lexical use depends on the degree of affinity between the acknowledger and acknowledges, which further implies that this kind of genre is a complicated type of discourse and that hybridization and variation of tones might be its salient characteristics. Implications for Educational Practice This paper provides practical implications for those involved in studying and teaching specific writing instruction. This study enables future research writers to become more cognizant of the conventions in writing specific chapters or sections of thesis manuscripts. To realize this, Valle and Vergel (2019) suggested the necessity of providing more authentic, practical, and meaningful exercises aligned with specific language skills in order to address students’ identified difficulties in learning. Also, David and Dumanig (2019) shared the same idea from their study which states that authentic materials do not only provide awareness about the English language, but they also enhance the learners’ English language skills. It substantiates the notion that learners who are exposed to actual authentic materials develop an awareness of the languages used in various contexts and writing environments.

Moreover, on the bases of the foregoing findings, academic writing classes can emphasize the functions of moves and steps by incorporating them in their institutional research manual and instructional materials, which will serve as a guide when writing impressive and effective research acknowledgments. Prospective writers should be taught with the fundamentals of writing acknowledgments applying the structures provided by Ken Hyland. In addition, presenting a model template to students can raise the consciousness of students who will be engaged in research writing.

References Afful, J. B. A. (2016). A genre study of undergraduate dissertation acknowledgements in a

Ghanaian University. E.S.P. Today, 4(2), 202-224. https://doi.org/10.18485/esptoday.2016.4.2.4

Afful, J. B. A., & Mwinlaaru, I. (2010). The construction of multiple identities in the acknowledgement section of a master’s dissertation. English for Specific Purposes World, 30(9), 1-26.

Afful, J. B. A., & Mwinlaaru, I. N. (2012). Sub-disciplinary variation and rhetoric in dissertation acknowledgements written by education students: The Case of the University of Cape Coast, Ghana. In D. D. Kuupole, & M. K. Kambou (Eds.), National development through language education (pp. 79-111). Cape Coast: Cape Coast University Press.

Al-Ali, M.N. (2004, September). Conveying academic and social identity in graduate dissertation acknowledgements. Paper presented at 5th International Conference of the European Association of Language for specific Purposes, Zaragoza, Spain.

Al-Ali, M. N. (2006). Conveying academic and social identity in graduate dissertation acknowledgments. Proceedings of the Fifth International AELFE Conference (pp. 35-42). Zaragoza: Prensas Universitarias de Zaragoza, Spain.


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Al-Ali, M. N. (2010). Generic patterns and socio-cultural resources in acknowledgements accompanying Arabic PhD dissertations. Pragmatics, 20(1), 1-26.

David, M.K. & Dumanig, F.P. (2019). Linguistic Landscape as a Pedagogical Tool in Teaching and Learning English in Oman. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature. 1(1), 1-13.

Giannoni, D. S. (2002). Worlds of gratitude: A contrastive study of acknowledgment texts in English and Italian research articles. Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 1-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/23.1.1

Hyland, K. (2004). Graduates’ gratitude: the generic structure of dissertation acknowledgements. English for Specific Purposes 23(3), 303-324.

Hyland, K. & B. Paltridge. (2011). The continuum companion to discourse analysis. London: Continuum.

Hyland, K., & Tse, P. (2004). Mata-discourse in academic writing: A reappraisal. Applied Linguistics, 25(2) 156-177.

Swales, J., M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings (pp. 49). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J., M. (1996). Occluded genres in the academy: The case of the submission letter. Academic writing: Intercultural and textual issues (pp. 45-58). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Valle, A. G. & Vergel, M. I. F. (2019). Re-examining the learners’ language competency: A Language Needs Analysis. Modern Journal of Studies in English Language Teaching and Literature. 1(1), 60-73.

Yang, W. H. (2012).A genre analysis of PhD dissertation acknowledgements across disciplinary variations. The LSP Journal, 3(2), 51-70.

Yang, R., & Alison, D. (2003). Research articles in applied linguistics: moving from results to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22(4), 365-385.

Yang, R., & Allison, D. (2004). Research articles in applied linguistics: structures from a functional perspective. English for Specific Purposes, 23(3), 264-279

About the Authors Elizabeth B. Alibangbang is presently connected at the Department of Education Division of Kidapawan City Philippines where she teaches English-related subjects in the elementary and secondary level specializing in reading and English for Academic Purposes. She holds a Master’s Degree in Language Teaching Major in English from the University of Southern Mindanao Kabacan, Cotabato Philippines. (email: [email protected]) Donnie M. Tulud finished his Ph. D. in Applied Linguistics at the University of the Immaculate Conception, Davao City in 2015. At present, he is an Assistant Professor 3, and the Program Head of Master of Arts in language Teaching Major in English at the University of Southern Mindanao (USM), Kabacan, Cotabato. (email: [email protected])


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Acknowledgments

The authors are indebted to the University of Southern Mindanao Graduate School and USM Research and Development Center for all the support and encouragement that made this academic pursuit successful. Above all, to Almighty God for making everything possible.


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Characterizing the language features and rhetorical moves of argumentative essays written by Filipino ESL senior high school writers

Marites B. Querol

University of Santo Tomas-Manila Saint Mary’s University- Nueva Vizcaya

[email protected]

Marilu Rañosa Madrunio, Ph.D. University of Santo Tomas-Manila

[email protected]

Abstract This study presents the Filipino ESL senior high school students’ strengths and weaknesses in writing an argumentative essay. In the context of an institution in the Philippines where English is used as a second language by learners with varied L1, and the learners are required to write in academic English, the aim of this study is to identify the language features and the rhetorical moves of the argumentative essays using Hyland’s model (1990). Analyzing the students’ essays as a requirement in the academe across disciplines could provide appropriate scaffolding in guiding the Filipino ESL writers. The original essays written within an hour by 51 (from 108) Filipino ESL senior high school writers were encoded and processed using the Antconc software to identify the language features that characterize the essays. The essays were coded by the researcher and an inter-coder verified the analysis in relation to the stages/parts and the rhetorical moves found in the essays. The top three most commonly used verbs in the argumentative essays of the Filipino ESL writers of English are non-action verbs–is, are, have. In writing argumentative essays, the Filipino ESL senior high school writers of English lack lexical verbs in the lexical level, and the thesis and conclusion parts in the discourse level. They were familiar with the argument part, but lack citation as support to their claims. Keywords: language features, rhetorical moves, argumentative essay, corpus analysis

Introduction

The primacy of English as seen in its application and impact around the world has been felt for several decades “for international communication” (Graddol, 2006, p. 3), as a “global language” (Rohmah, 2005; Crystal, 2003), as the lingua franca (McIntosh, Connor, & Gokpinar-Shelton, 2017; Jenkins, 2015; Yano, 2001), and as an international language (Rostan, 2011). The academe is one domain in which English is very influential. Learning English as a second or foreign language is imperative in our globalized world (Hashemnezhad, 2015). This makes English language teaching (ELT) prestigious through the years. However, although ELT assumed a monolingual context, the majority of ELT contexts at present are multilingual and multicultural (McKay, 2012) which shows that English has not confined itself to the areas of the native speakers. Rather, it has expanded its territory to reach the ends of the earth.

The English language has remained vibrant and so has the dynamism of English language Teaching (ELT) (Renandya & Widodo, 2016; Jenkins, 2015). With the increase of both the native and non-native users from all over the world, the use of English has become more diverse to include more functions and more varied contexts, including the academic


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arena. Renandya and Widodo added to the complexity of English and ELT underscoring the emergence of new varieties of English as shown in Kachru’s (2006; 1985, 1997) world Englishes. As a result, debates as to the inclusion of these new varieties in the second language classroom have arisen.

The introduction of K-12 curriculum in the Philippines as the government’s action to

address the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) integration in 2015 and the call for Education for All (EFA) by the United Nations in 2015 (Madrunio, Martin, & Plata, 2016), has posed a number of challenges to teachers, especially in the Senior High School. Writing, as a basic skill and a gauge for literacy, has challenged the teachers to facilitate writing among nonnative speakers and writers of English (or Filipino multilinguals). One basic requirement in writing is the argumentative essay that poses several challenges to L2 writers (Kanestion, Singh, Shamsudin, Isam, Kaur & Singh, 2016; Matsuda, 2015, 1998, 1997; Imtiaz & Mahmood, 2014; Connor, 2002, 1984; Hyland, 1990). The difficulty in writing could result from “inadequate understanding of how texts are organized” (Hyland, 1990, p. 66). Hence, the discourse features could facilitate the organization and consequently, the understanding of the written texts. Writing for the past decades has been affected by the perceived norms in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (McIntosh, Connor & Gokpinar-Shelton, 2017). Research has shown that genre has become a common point of reference in writing. Describing patterns of organization of a text has been utilized in analyzing a genre. Studies have found and supported the existence of a certain order or arrangement in every text. According to Hyland (2004), knowledge of the order or structure of a text facilitates one’s reading of the text. Results of studies on organizational moves can be used in teaching writing, especially among L2 writers like the Filipinos (Hyland, 2004; Swales, 1990). Though a number of genres have been studied to include academic and non-academic texts, the more common concern in the academic context is still the essay which is a primary written requirement in school. With the foregoing, the present paper, aiming to describe the language and rhetorical features of argumentative essays written in English by Filipino ESL writers, is deemed with great relevance to the present context. It may add to the literature of non-native and ESL writers of English as well as to studies in academic writing.

Specifically, the study aimed to answer the following questions: (1) What language features characterize argumentative essays of Filipino ESL senior high school writers?; and (2) What rhetorical moves are reflected in the various parts of the argumentative essays of Filipino ESL senior high school writers? Argumentative Writing of Non-native Writers of English

Several studies can be cited that focused on the argumentative writings of ESL. The field of Contrastive Rhetoric (more commonly known now as Intercultural Rhetoric) was pioneered by Kaplan in 1966 when he conducted studies on the organizational structures of essays written by non-native writers of English. This was followed by Connor’s (1990; 2002) with her studies focusing on a comparison of ESL and native speaker writings and Hyland’s (1990) study that outlined a framework in analyzing the parts and moves of an argumentative essay. Other studies followed which include Lorenzo’s (2007) on the argumentative writings of Filipino, Spanish and American writers and Salazar and Verdaguer’s study in 2009 which focused on polysemous verbs such as feel and modality. Korean studies were conducted by Kang and Oh (2011) on the possible impact of language and proficiency level in Korean argumentative writing, by Park (2013) on the use of conjunctive adverbials, and by Huh and Lee (2019) on possible culture-related patterns in Korean argumentative writing. Whereas


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Mitchell and Pessoa (2017) studied how a Qatari and a Korean were supported in their writing in English, Abdulaziz (2013) dealt with Pakistani writing of learners in multiple levels, and Imtiaz and Mahmood (2014) with a genre-based approach. Other studies focused on identity and voice especially among Japanese writers such as the one by Matsuda (2015). Malaysian writing was likewise examined by Kanestion, Singh, Shamsudin, Isam, Kaur and Singh (2016) with the aim of helping pre-university Malaysian students to write. Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin’s (2017) did another study this time to identify a framework for the Malaysian students’ writing skill. Ho and Li (2018) studied the argumentative essays of college freshmen by analyzing the students’ use of metadiscourse patterns focusing on the interpersonal aspect. Finally, Wu and Zhang (2017) took a more liberal and progressive perspective to focus on the impact of language-environments on second-year Chinese graduate students' English writing perceptions (using a self-designed 80-item questionnaire) and performance (in the two tasks: letter-writing and argumentative essay).

As regards local studies, Tarrayo and Duque (2011) explored the argumentation of

Filipinos in newspaper editorials while Gustilo (2016) analyzed argumentative essays of ESL college students in characterizing the less proficient and more proficient ESL writers. Results of her study indicated significant differences between the two groups in many aspects. Pablo and Lasaten (2018) analyzed the academic essays of Filipino senior high school students.

Linguistic Features

With respect to research focusing on linguistic and syntactic features, worth mentioning is the study of Liu and Deng (2017) that investigated the N-be-that construction in popular and professional science articles. Cai (2016) explored on the pedagogical aspect of groups of words also known as formulaic sequences, the sets of words that co-occur or co-exist with some specific words known as clusters (Hyland, 2008) or lexical phrases (Nattinger & De Carrico, 1992 in Cai, 2016), or lexical bundles (Salazar, 2014). Hajibayova and Jacob (2016) conducted a study that advanced a method to understand abstract ideas on the most familiar groups of concrete nouns in English. Another study worth citing is the study of Kanestion, Singh, Shamsudin, Isam, Kaur and Singh (2016) which investigated lexical verbs in Malaysian writing. Four types of lexical verbs surfaced in the essays - past tense, -‘ing’ form, past participle and –s form. The –s form was the most common. Lorenzo, in her study conducted in 2007 found that the Filipino, Spanish and American writers used more modal verbs and adverbs with limited use of lexical verbs, adjectives and nouns. An interesting finding of Abdulaziz (2017) in her multi-dimensional analysis of Pakistani learner essay is the frequent use of the verb “have” among others. As for the study of Salazar and Verdaguer (2009), they analyzed lexical verbs with multiple meanings. They concluded that the non-native (Filipino and Spaniard) writers lacked full grasp of the meaning of lexical verbs. Finally, an earlier study of Ringbom (1998) focused on high-frequency verbs in the International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) corpus from which he was able to compare argumentative essays of learners from America and Britain, Holland, France, Germany, Sweden, Finland and Spain. Ringbom found that the non-native speakers of English generally used high frequency words that are function words. In terms of verbs, the most common verbs they used were be, have, will, can and do which were generally used as auxiliaries.

As regards studies in the local context, Tarrayo and Duque (2011) concluded in their

paper that linguistic resources found in discourse structure and textual metadiscourse influence a writer’s argumentation. Tibordo, Aceron, Sapungan, and Bañez (2018) investigated on the linguistic features of Filipino graduate theses focusing on verb tense-aspect, voice and


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dependent clause. Their study revealed that all the Filipino writers generally use present tense in the introduction and results and discussion sections. They, however, use simple past in the method section.

In this section, it is imperative to mention the two earlier studies in the Philippines that

ventured on discourse and linguistic features of Filipino writings. These are the studies of Bautista (2004) and Mojica (2002). Whereas the study of Bautista considered codeswitching (Taglish) a part of the discourse and a linguistic resource of Filipinos, advancing the idea that it may be a form of resistance to globalization, Mojica explored syntactic patterns in compliment-giving among Filipinos. Mojica’s study found possible variations in style of complimenting or non-complimenting that can be attributed to Filipino culture. Rhetorical Moves

It is to be noted that studies related to form and structure in writing are related to rhetorical moves and patterns. Some of these recent studies include Moreno and Swales (2018) who recalled the primary purpose of move analysis as a text analytical approach that was first developed by John Swales in 1981. They investigated the underlying generic structure of research articles (RAs) in terms of moves and steps for pedagogical purposes. Kawase (2018) analyzed the organizational patterns of 20 doctoral paper introductions in the area of applied linguistics. Compared to other disciplines, the writers in applied linguistics tend not to focus on problems and needs. They have longer discussions of introductions and shorter method descriptions. Such findings are considered discipline-related. Jiang and Hyland (2017) investigated the crucial role of the metadiscursive nouns in research article abstracts using corpus analysis. The results of their study showed that such nouns are frequently used to frame and establish coherence in their arguments while they aid the writers ascertain legitimacy and relevance to their study. Similarly, Tanko (2017) described the move structure of the literary research article abstracts from four international journals. Tanko found moves with their linguistic representations. The texts were examined manually and through the use of a software program. The analysis resulted in the identification of an eight-move structure.

The need for non-native writers of English to organize their written discourse (Hyland, 1990; Matsuda, 1997, 1998; Gustilo, 2016) suggests knowledge on text structure and text organization. As regards rhetorical moves, Tibordo, Aceron, Sapungan, and Bañez, (2018) found that the Filipino writers follow distinctive rhetorical moves in writing the article format of their theses. Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin (2017) explored the rhetorical move patterns used in Malaysian argumentative essays using Hyland’s (1990) framework. Significant findings from the study include the presence of moves basic for the three parts or phases of the essay. However, not all moves suggested by Hyland were present. Pakistani argumentative writing was examined by Imtiaz and Mahmood (2014). Hyland's model (1990) was used to analyze the moves structure of the essays. In most of the argumentative essays, the three stages with the obligatory moves were followed although some new moves were also identified. Among the local studies cited, it was the paper of Gustilo that proposed the expansion of knowledge in composing including content, structure, and text organization. Another local study that ventured on moves analysis is Tarrayo and Duque’s (2011) who analyzed newspaper editorials and forwarded the importance of rhetorical moves in effective writing. They found that the common move used in the two Philippine broadsheets was the two-move pattern in the three parts of a newspaper (Orientation - orientation/focusing; Exposition - inquiry/response; Summation - rounding off/final stance). Finally, Tibordo, Aceron, Sapungan and Bañez (2018) claim that rhetorical structures reveal the identity of the authors.


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Clearly, the trend of the studies on rhetorical moves is to advance a possible pattern

that could facilitate writing especially among second language writers. The same aim is adapted in the present study using argumentative essays. Framework of the Study

Many linguists and language educators recognize ESL learners’ need for sufficient and ‘appropriate grammar’ and lexis to write an academic text such as the argumentative essay (Gustilo, 2016; Hyland, 2004; Lorenzo, 2007). Hyland further suggests the importance of the principle of form and function to facilitate the teaching and learning of writing. By identifying specific forms for specific communicative functions, writing and communicating the intended meaning are assisted. Hence, the traditional functional approach to language teaching still finds relevance in L2 writing. Teaching, for instance, the elements of a verb phrase to include the meanings and uses of tenses aside from the other elements may be beneficial to L2 pedagogy. The study further adopts the model of Hyland (2009; 1990) to describe the rhetorical moves of the argumentative essays of Filipino ESL writers. A move functions as a unit that provides the general aim of a text (Swales, 1990). A logical connection exists in each move. At least one proposition is found in each move. A clause, a sentence, a paragraph or even several paragraphs can be considered a move. Hyland provides moves in each of the three parts/phases of the argumentative writing (Theses part - (1) gambit, (2) information, (3) proposition, (4) evaluation, (5) marker; Argument part – (1) marker, (2) restatement, (3) claim, (4) support; Conclusion part – (1) marker, (2) consolidation, (3) affirmation, (4) close.

Methods Participants

The present study included 51 ESL Grade 11 senior high school students from the

Grade 11 English class in a private non-sectarian institution in the northern part of the Philippines. The sample set was randomly selected from nine small senior high schools (with less than 500 students) for the preliminary study of a bigger research. (Note: Grade 12 students were out during the gathering because of their on-the-job immersion). The sample is composed of Filipino students, 25 males and 26 females. The majority of students have been schooled from elementary years in Philippine schools whose medium of instruction in most subjects is Filipino with the aid of Ilocano, the lingua franca. With the inclusion of English subjects from elementary to Junior High School, the average number of years of English language learning exposure of the students is 10 years. Instruments and Data Sets

Argumentative writing task. The task given the students was to write an argumentative

essay in an hour, on a given topic using a writing prompt. The writing prompt included a brief background of a national issue in the Philippines at that time – Extra Judicial Killing (EJK). Aside from the prompt, three statements on EJK were given. The students were asked to write an argumentative essay of at least 1000 words that would present their stand on EJK. They were supposed to use the given statements as guide in their discussions. Said task was facilitated by the subject teacher who administered the writing activity. The task served as a typical class activity. The task was administered during the first quarter of 2019 in which the school participant was towards its end of school year. It is to be noted that one of the


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requirements in the senior high school includes the writing of an argumentative essay. The written essays included basic profile information such as name, sex, and age. The student’s profile which included the student’s address was verified from the teacher. The address was necessary to ensure that the students come from the same province or city. The address could help approximate the language school experience of the students. In the case of the sample school, all the students come from the same province.

Procedure

The English teacher played a special role in the data gathering because she made the

task a common task. That means there was no need to create an abnormal atmosphere. The task was administered within an hour after giving the students preliminary instructions and information such as the consent form. After the essays were written and collected, they were encoded as is. No editing or revision was done on grammar mistakes, spelling, and mechanics. The data were then processed using Antconc, a free software that facilitates word count. Since the content words found in the top rank were verbs, and considering the value of verbs in utterances, this study focused on the verbs as well as verb tense that are most commonly used. Hylands’ classification of moves was likewise employed in analyzing the argumentative essays as regards their parts and the rhetorical moves used. The essays were coded by the researchers. An inter-coder identified the parts of the argumentative essay and the moves found in the essays. In instances when the codes varied, the researchers and inter-coder discussed the disparity in their findings and arrived at a consensus.

Unit of analysis

This study adopts the model of Hyland (1990) in analyzing argumentative essay. In Hyland’s model, the main unit being described is the text and its genre as argumentative essay. Thus, the argumentative essay is analyzed in relation to its purpose which is for the writer to persuade readers towards his/her stand on an issue. As regards its organization, this genre follows “the three-stage structure of Thesis, Argument and Conclusion” (Hyland, 1990, p. 68). In each stage, a structure is presented using moves. A move is identified based on a sense of connected ideas that reinforce the writer’s stand in the issue. A move is expressed in varied ways and levels. A move could be realized at the lexical and at the grammatical level.

In this study, the unit of analysis for the linguistic features was the sentence. According

to Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1985), the sentence is generally considered “the highest-ranking unit of grammar” (p.47). Hence, descriptive grammar could be based on any possible analysis of the sentence (Quirk et al.). The linguistic features, on which the sentences of the argumentative essays were based, are the following: (1) the simple sentence, which is considered the core of grammar, is composed of an independent clause; and (2) the multiple sentence, which is composed of more than one clause, could either be complex (consisting of one independent clause and at least one dependent clause) or compound (consisting of at least two independent clauses and connected by coordinators). Analysis of the sentence included identifying the elements of the clause (independent or dependent) and identifying the sentence patterns. The basic sentence patterns used are: S-LV-C (subject-linking verb-complement) and S-TV-DO (subject-linking verb- object/direct object). In analyzing the elements of the clause structure, the relevance of considering the “central and peripheral elements” (Quirk et al., 1985) is necessary in identifying what to focus on. Adopting the idea of Quirk et al. as regards the clause structure, “the verb element (V) is the most important or the 'central' element” (p. 50).


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As regards the organizational moves, the unit of analysis was the paragraph in as much as the existence of moves (and sub-moves) can only be examined as they appear in a paragraph. As cited earlier, a move functions as a unit that provides the general aim of a text (Swales, 1990). A logical connection exists in each move. At least one proposition is found in each move. The moves were classified according to their function in each of the stages in the essay as suggested by Hyland (1990). Then the moves are further classified into two types: the obligatory and non-obligatory/optional. Using Kanoksilapatham (2005) definition of obligatory moves, moves are obligatory based on the cut-off frequency of 60 percent occurrence as a measure of move stability.

The frequency of occurrence of the linguistic features and organization moves were

tallied. Extracts were likewise presented to support the findings.


After careful analysis of the 51 essays, below are the results in terms of verbs and verb tenses employed: Most common verbs and verb tenses used There are three auxiliary verbs commonly used in the argumentative essays. Table 1 below reveals these findings.

Table 1 Common verbs used in the argumentative essays

Verb f % Rank is 322 27.42 1

are 176 14.99 2 have 87 7.41 3

Number of essays: 51 Number of word types: 1174 Number of words: 10,585 Note: The percentage is taken from the word type frequency (e.g. is = f [322]) in the wordlist of Antconc divided by the total number of word types (1174) multiplied by 100%.

In the Antconc word list, the word “is” ranked third as the commonly used word with “the” as the first and “to” as the second. Among the verbs, “is” ranked first as the most commonly used verb in the essays followed by the verb “are” although it ranked 11th in the Antconc list. The other words before “are” except “is” were non-verbs. The third verb that was used most in the essays was “have” although it ranked 27th in the Antconc word list. The top three most commonly used verbs in the argumentative essays were non-action verbs. This may suggest the need to train the writers to use more substantive verbs that could clarify their arguments. This finding could further be explained by using the study of Ringbom (1998) who found that the non-native speakers of English generally used high frequency words that are function words. In terms of verbs, the most common verbs they used were be, have, will, can and do which were generally used as auxiliaries. As stated in the study, the top five verbs used by the non-native speakers of English were not the common verbs of the Americans and British learners. For Ringbom, the use of the non-native English speakers of the high-frequency verbs could be attributed to their limited vocabulary in English. Ringbom also considers the overuse of the high-frequency verbs as a manifestation of L1 transfer although the verbs were not used


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ungrammatically. As regards the present study, the Filipino learners who are non-native speakers of English used the non-substantive verbs more often as possibly a manifestation of their L1 and for some, as a manifestation of lack of vocabulary. These inferences need further investigation.

From the top three most commonly used verbs is, are and have, the present tense can be inferred as the commonly used tense in the argumentative essays. The use of the present tense of the verb suggests the writers’ intention to show the factuality of their argument. In the absence of proof or evidence which may be explained from the lack of readings of the writers to present evidence on their claims, the use of present tense may have been the writers’ alternative to highlight the facts in their arguments. This, however, needs further investigation. Some examples of sentences where the verbs is, are and have were used are given in Extract 1. Extract 1 Examples of unedited sentences using the verb is:

The samples in Extract 1 show a common structure in the essays which is the subject, linking verb and compliment (S-LV-C) pattern. The verb is is generally followed by an adjective or a noun. The verb is is translated “ay” in Filipino which is a common verb among the Filipinos. However, the Filipino word “ay” is not always used as a verb because it can also function as a compliment marker as shown in the study of Mojica (2002) and possibly a conjunction such as in the case of the utterance, “Ay naku” [Oh gosh] … (Bautista, 2004, p.227). The verb “ay” such as in the statement, “Ang EJK ay masama” (EJK is bad) may be used but it must be noted that the given statement does not follow the natural order of utterance in Filipino and even in Ilocano, the lingua franca in the northern part of the Philippines. The Filipino word “ay” (Filipino-English Dictionary, 2019) is translated as the “be” verb in English which could be is, are, was and were. Furthermore, “ay” (Tagalog-English Dictionary, n.d.) is also given more meanings. The dictionary explains that “ay” is often translated as is, are or am such as in the statements: Ako ay babae.( I am a woman); Ikaw ay lalaki. (You are a man); Sila ay nars. They are nurses). However, it also says that for everyday usage, most Filipinos use the inverted structure. Thus, the “ay” is removed such as in the following: Babae ako. (I am a woman); Lalaki ka. (You are a man); Nars sila. (They are nurses). These second set of structures in Filipino are by the way considered the natural order (tuwirang ayos). Aside from the discussions given, the dictionary further includes the meaning of “ay” as an interjection when someone expresses a strong emotion and says “Ay!”. From the foregoing, possible implication of transliteration needs further investigation.

It is also worthy to mention that most of the students chose to follow some structures

or sentences and parts of the sentences that were given in the prompt. This could partly explain the common use of the S-LV-C pattern.

1. This battlecry against criminality EJK is a bad means to put back social order. 2. In the bible, it says there that killing is a big sin in front of God. 3 The drug war is a cornerstone of Duterte’s domestic policy. 4. Before they kill, [they should] make sure that the person is a drug lord or [a] criminal. 5. EJK is a good [means] to stop or decrease crime to put back social order in the country. 6. As a student, this battlecry against criminality is a good means to put back social order. 7. As a student, for me, EJK is a good means to put back social order.


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Extract 2 Examples of unedited sentences using the verb are:

The samples in Extract 2 contain varied structures following the verb are. The first

three sentences used the S-LV-C pattern. Sentences 4, 5, 6 and 7 used compound verbs in which are functions as a helping verb. It is also observed that not all the sentences in Extract 2 where the verb are is found are simple. Regardless of the third, fourth and fifth sentences, sentences 1, 2 and 6 are complex.

Extract 3 Examples of unedited sentences using the verb have:

The samples in Extract 3 all follow the subject-transitive verb-object (S-TV-O) pattern or clause structure. This shows that the writers have ample knowledge on the use of structures that enabled them to produce their compositions. The samples in Extract 3 all follow the subject-transitive verb-object (S-TV-O) pattern or clause structure. This shows that the writers have ample knowledge on the use of structures that enabled them to produce their compositions. Whether or not the student writers were aware of the acceptable and meaningful structures they produced, one thing is evident: that the structures facilitated the writing of the argumentative essays. Thus, the need to teach structures such as the ones mentioned above is relevant in teaching writing especially among ESL learners. The finding of Abdulaziz (2017) as regards the frequent use of the verb “have” suggests a need to explore on possible comparisons of Filipino and Pakistani writing.

1. …therefore if you kill a person then you are a sinner… 2. …people attempt to use drugs because they are afraid to die early. 3. We are all a (sic) victims of hypocrite people. 4. In our generation today, many people in our country are addicted to drugs. 5. And many of the people/Filipinos are addicted to illegal drugs either as drug pushers or drug

users. 6. EJK is a violation of human rights because some innocent people are affected from this case

of war on drugs. 7. … teenagers and [children] are being rape.

1. We all know that drugs have a bad impact in (sic) our health. 2. Drug users or pushers have a chance to change their life. 3. Even though you have a high position … 4. because we have a (sic) laws that are intended to focus on … 5. All human [beings] have a right or chance to change, … 6. … the people who [are] killed by the other people have a right to speak or to fight … 7. … we all have [a] chance to change our life…


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Rhetorical moves in the argumentative essays An analysis of the rhetorical moves is another essential feature of argumentative essays. Table 3 summarizes the parts and the rhetorical moves that were reflected in the essays. Although all the essays manifested the use of the most important part of the argumentative essay which is the argument containing the obligatory moves claim and support, the other parts of the argumentative essay were absent in almost all the essays. The absence of the two parts, thesis and conclusion, make the argumentative essays lacking or incomplete.

Some significant findings on the rhetorical moves in the essays grouped according to the essay parts are found in Table 3 below. Table 3 Rhetorical moves in the argumentative essays Phases/Parts f Rhetorical moves

f %

Phase 1. Thesis 10

1. Gambit 2. Information 3. Proposition 4. Evaluation 5. Marker

1 8 1 0 0

10.00 80.00 10.00 0.00 0.00

Phase 2. Argument 103 1. Marker 2. Restatement 3. Claim 4. Support

0 1 51 51

0.00 0.97 49.51 49.51

Phase 3. Conclusion 2 1. Marker 2. Consolidation 3. Affirmation 4. Close

2 0 0 0

100 0 0 0

N= 51 essays Note: The percentage is the result of the frequency of occurrence per classification of the rhetorical moves divided by the total number of occurrences per phase/part.

Table 3 shows that in phase one, gambit and evaluation were rarely used. Though Hyland (1990) considers proposition obligatory, it was rarely used in the Filipino essays. The move with the most frequent occurrence is information even if it is optional. Evaluation and marker were not used. The result of this study is similar to that of Imtiaz and Mahmood (2014) on Pakistani writers. Imtiaz and Mahmood found that among the four moves, the most commonly used move was information which was used by all the Pakistani writers. Contrary to the results of this study, the study of Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin (2017) on Malaysian writers found that all the moves were used except marker. In phase 2, almost fifty percent of the written essays by the Filipinos exhibited the use of the obligatory moves which are argument and support. This means that some though not all of the Filipino writers know the most important moves in an argument essay. Compared with the Pakistani writers in the study of Imtiaz and Mahmood (2014), the Filipino writers seem less


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knowledgeable of the moves in the argument phase because the majority of the Pakistani writers used the argument move (96.9%) and the support move (93.9%). As with the Malaysian writers, the argument and the support moves were also used but not the marker and restatement moves (Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin, 2017). In phase 3, consolidation is obligatory (Hyland, 1990), but nobody used it in the essay. The optional marker was used by only two. Incidentally, only eighteen percent of the Pakistani writers were able to use consolidation (Imtiaz and Mahmood, 2014). Though a few Pakistani writers used consolidation, the study concluded the need to teach the move. Similarly, the move needs to be taught to the Filipinos who did not use it at all. In the case of the Malaysian writers, all the moves were used (Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin, 2017) though their terms for the moves were slightly modified such as “consolidating the argument, affirming the position and recommending an action” (p.45).

Table 4 presents the general picture of the students’ use of the rhetorical moves in percentage and according to the specific classification. Table 4 Percentage of occurrence of the parts and rhetorical moves used in the argumentative essays of Filipino ESL senior high school writers

Note: The percentage is the result of the frequency of occurrence per classification of of the rhetorical moves divided by the total number of occurrences of all moves.

The finding affirms that one of the difficulties ESL writers face in writing is the lack of

knowledge and understanding on how the text is organized (Hyland, 1990; Gustillo, 2016).

Main Parts of the Argumentative Essay

Percentage of Frequency of Occurrence in General (%)

Rhetorical Moves Percentage of Frequency of Occurrence in General (%)

Thesis

8.70 1. Gambit 2. Information 3. Proposition 4. Evaluation 5. Marker

0.87 6.96 0.87 0.00 0.00

Argument

89.56 1. Marker 2. Restatement 3. Claim 4. Support

0.00 0.87 44.35 44.35

Main Parts of the Argumentative Essay

Percentage of Frequency of Occurrence in General (%)

Rhetorical Moves Percentage of Frequency of Occurrence in General (%)

Conclusion

1.74

1. Marker 2. Consolidation 3. Affirmation 4. Close

1.74 0.00 0.00 0.00

Overall total (N= 115) 100%


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Though the main purpose of the argumentative essay, to present the argument regarding a given topic or issue, seems evident in the essays, the absence of the other parts of the essay made the writings appear wanting and hanging. The absence of the proposition in the thesis part and the consolidation in the conclusion part presents the need for reinforcement for the students to make their writing holistic, more vivid, and comprehensible. Compared with the writings of Malaysian learners (Kanestion, Singh and Shamsudin, 2017) and Pakistani learners (Imtiaz and Mahmood, 2014), the Filipino writings seem wanting.

The result suggests a number of pedagogical implications such as: 1.) the need to

reinforce the moves and steps in the thesis part; 2.) the need to find whether the students are familiar or not with the steps; and 3.) the need to clarify the reasons of the students for not using the other moves and steps in the thesis part.

Among the 51 essays, only one manifested the use of the proposition which is considered by Hyland (1990) as an obligatory move in the thesis part. However, using the framework of Kanoksilapatham (2005) on what is obligatory that requires at least 60% use, the single use of proposition disqualifies it to be obligatory among the Filipino ESL writers. Below is the sample extract from essay 24, showing the proposition move. Extract 4 Sample proposition in the argumentative essay with the proposition move: We can change our country by doing much better good (sic) and not killing people without giving him/her (sic) a chance to change and learn from [their] mistakes.

The statement in Extract 4 is considered a proposition since it furnishes the writer’s

intention in the essay. Found at the beginning of the sentence, the proposition directs the readers what to expect further in the essay. Another move in the thesis that may be used to begin the essay is the use of gambit. Below is an example: Extract 5 Example of a sentence using a gambit

Since the extract above presupposes that everybody knows extra judicial killings (EJK),

the statement intends to encourage everyone to be concerned and to motivate the reader to read further the essay. Although a gambit has the intention of encouraging the readers to pay full attention, it does not have the function of the proposition that guides the reader as to the flow of the essay. Thus, the thesis can have both a gambit and a proposition since each functions differently. Since the results show a lack of awareness of the student writers regarding the use of gambit and proposition in the thesis part of an argumentative essay, it is imperative that the role of the thesis and its moves be taught and highlighted so that essays produced by student writers in the SHS will be more logical and comprehensible to readers.

Another move in the thesis part of argumentative essay is the information which is

intended to present a background of the topic or issue being discussed in the essay. This move

I think this battlecry against criminality (EJK) is not hidden to our knowledge because this is the biggest issue that we are facing for (sic).


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seems more popular to the students since it was observed in eight essays. The function of the move seems more natural for the student writers who used it before the presentation of their argument. The evaluation move is another move found in the thesis part. It presents the positive reaction or comment of the writer to the given argument. Following the evaluation move is the marker move that signals the direction of the essay.

Below are sample extracts illustrating the information move. Extract 6 Examples of unedited extracts with the thesis part of the essays

Samples Extracts 6 President Duterte’s War on Drugs, Extra-Judicial Killings or Execution

also known as EJK is (sic) have a bad effects on (sic) our country.

11 Extra-Judicial Killing is killing a person by government authorities w/out (sic) judicial proceeding or legal process.

22 Nowadays, in our society many people are died because of illegal drugs some of them are user and pusher

The extracts illustrate the thesis part of the essays. All three show samples of the

information move. However, the last two moves, evaluation and marker, were not observed when they should be present to prepare the readers for the argument to be raised. The absence of use of the two moves could mean that the writers did not consider it necessary or it could also suggest that the writers are not familiar with it.

The following are samples of unedited extracts from the essays illustrating argument

that exhibit the use of the claim and support moves.

Extract 7 First example illustrating an argument that exhibits the use of the claim and support moves

The unedited extract immediately presents the writer’s argument. Following the claim

in the first sentence is the support marked by the word because. Extract 8 Second example illustrating an argument that exhibits the use of the claim and support moves

For me as a student, this battlecry against criminality is a good means to put back social order in the country. Because of EJK, the percentage of drug pusher and user is getting low and nearly extinct. This operation can make our country drug free.

EJK is a violation of human rights because the police can kill a people with or without evidence and without knowing if that person is really involve in that crime because if they see a person that looks suspicious they can kill him/her without hesitations and killing just to prevent addicts in not healthy to our society because according to bible killing is strictly prohibited and it is written in ten commandments even if EJK has a good purpose, this law still kill a innocent people and this law does not give them the right to depend themselves because this law do not process a procedure.


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The extract above is a short composition composed of 106 words. It starts directly with the writer’s claim on EJK, that it “is a violation of human rights”. After the clause on the claim follows the support, although the support is composed of run-on sentences, presenting a number of reasons to support the claim. Despite the brevity of the composition, the purpose to present an argument regarding EJK was made evident. However, the purpose could have been achieved better if the other two parts of the essay – the thesis and the conclusion - were present. The same extract is another example of a short text in which the only part present is the argument with one claim followed by a number of supports. Extract 9 Third example illustrating an argument that exhibits the use of the claim and support moves

Similar to extract 8, extract 9 is also a short composition of 111 words that directly starts with the argument consisting of a claim and a number of supports. No matter how short the composition is, it is able to present its intention and position on EJK.

The samples showing the second part of the argumentative essay present the claim and support, but none of the support seems “credible” because of lack of citation of sources. Citation is a key in supporting a claim. The ability to cite an evidence or a proof with a valid source strengthens the argument. The ability to cite sources, however, presupposes the ability to read and store in one’s memory what was read. In the absence of materials on hand, the opinions serve as support to the writers’ claims. Almost all the essays focused on the use of claim and support in the argument part except for the extract below which attempted to use the restatement move.

In Extract 10, the last paragraph starts with a restatement of the first sentence that shows the claim on EJK. The sentences mean the same thing, that is, EJK is not a “good program…” or “not a solution…”. The paragraph or even the last sentence, however, does not show the conclusion of the essay. The restatement reinforces the point of the writer. Extract 10 Sample extract with the restatement of the argument

Extra Judicial Killing is not a good program to put back social order in our country. Our government authorities are using it and taking advantage of it to kill some of the politician that is aspiring the same position like them. Many youth are being shot just because they are suspected using drugs. I disagree to EJK to be more implemented here in our country because innocent citizen (sic) are being traumatize (sic) of what is happening in our country EJK brings even more fear to people to go out from their houses, knowing that when they step-out of their door they are going to shot by authorities just because they are suspected use of drugs. EJK is not a solution to bring peace in our country. There are still many solutions out their (sic) to try. It is just like mathematics, trial and error, improving our country specially the peace and order is one of the best gift of every Filipino to our past and something that we are proud or in the future.

This battlecry against criminality (EJK) is a bad means to put back social order in the country because even if they are drug pushers or drug users it is wrong to kill people. If a drug is illegal, killing is illegal too. Killing is not the only solution in that issue there are many ways. Because of the Extra Judicial killings (EJK) there are many innocent people affected on that issue. Because of Extra-Judicial killings the President give a freedom to kill an individual that’s why that is wrong. There’s no people rights to kill anybody, because only Jesus Christ has a right to get the life he given to us.


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The unedited extract in Extract 11 shows an example of the marker, “in short” that signals the synthesis or the end of the composition. Through this marker, the reader is directly informed that the composition is to come to a close.

Extract 11 On the use of “in short”

Another example of a marker used towards the end is seen in this extract that was copied verbatim from the essay: “…EJK is the best way to decrease of (sic) drug-users and drug-addict (sic)…., so, EJK is the best to (sic) our country …” The extract uses the conjunction so, implying the end of the composition. So also signals a consequence of the previous statements. Despite the ungrammatical structures in the composition, the conjunction so provides continuity of thought as it clarifies the stand of the writer on the issue.

In general, the essays used the simple present tense of the verb be (is and are) and have. According to Quirk et al. (1985), the simple present tense in English is used to indicate habitual actions and events that are generally true. In academic writing, the present tense is used to indicate current knowledge such as in citations which are usually found in generalizations (Swales, 1990a cited in Hinkel, 2002). The use of the present tense in reported information suggests the closeness of the writer’s ideas and perspectives to the reported information (Swales & Feak, 1994). McCarthy and Carter (1994) found the same use of the present tense in citing sources that they consider relevant at the present context. From the foregoing, it could be inferred that the students considered their statements or claims true or factual or at least, they perceive EJK and the things they described as factual. In relation to the study of Kanestion, Singh, Shamsudin, Isam, Kaur and Singh (2016) on Malaysian writing that resulted in the most common use of the –s form of the verb or the present form, the result of the present study needs further investigation for possible comparisons.

As regards the parts and rhetorical moves of the argumentative essays of the Filipino ESL senior high school writers, all the essays manifested the argument part, but not the thesis and the conclusion parts. As Hyland (1990) states: ESL writers find difficulty in writing because of lack of understanding of the organizational structure of the genre they are writing (p.66). It could also indicate the student’s lack of knowledge of the genre of argumentative essay because as Hyland (2009) states: For one to participate in a communicative event, it is necessary for the participant to know the genre he/she is involved in (p. 67). He further cites Rothery (1986) and Martin et al. (1987) who showed in their study the positive impact of teaching the generic structure to children in the primary level especially the narrative text. Indeed, teaching the organizational structure of the argumentative essays to facilitate writing among L2 writers is recommended (Hyland, 2009; Gustilo, 2016).

Conclusion

The study affirms the great challenge posed to language writers especially to the English as a second language (ESL) writers. The results of the study further support the necessity of grammar and vocabulary in writing. Furthermore, the relevance of rhetorical moves in writing

…In this generation, many people use their power, richness, and many factors to win their side and poor people that have no capability to reach justice will lost. In short, Extra Judicial Killing can [be] control (sic) by money and power...


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is affirmed. The writer’s knowledge of discourse and genre can facilitate the organization of his/her essay. Students are knowledgeable of the need to establish the issue in an argumentative essay but they tend to have inadequate support to their claims. Citation or use of support is an essential part of an argument that Filipino ESL writers need to learn. The thesis and conclusion parts need to be taught as well since the sample essays did not manifest the use of these moves. Although the limited time could explain in part the absence of the conclusion part, the absence of the consolidation move which is obligatory implies the students’ need for further training in writing. The genre of argumentative essay is a common academic requirement; hence, it needs further reinforcement to students. Exposure to writing an argumentative essay as an academic discourse may enable the students to practice the rhetorical moves, steps and patterns that are obligatory in the genre. The present form of argumentative essay is obligatory to reinforce factual claims and evidence. On the lexical level, the Filipino senior high school ESL writers use similar verbs (is, are and have) which are commonly used for descriptions than for argumentation. Like the moves, it is imperative that lexical verbs be taught to the student-writers so that they are given alternatives to use and for them to assess when it is best to employ such language features.

This paper is limited in scope as it is a preliminary paper. Further studies need to consider more data especially in relation to the linguistic features. It is also recommended that more participants and inter-coders be involved to arrive at a more conclusive result. Other topics related to profile variables, and other topics related to writing an argumentative essay such as culture, voice and identity can enrich the present study. Comparisons of written outputs with other cultures could extend contributions to ESL and/or EFL writing in English. However, its strengths can be attributed to the benefits of corpus-based approaches to learning. Analyzing the students’ essays as a requirement in the academe across disciplines could provide appropriate scaffolding in guiding the Filipino ESL writers. Encoding the students’ outputs for analysis with their permission is rigorous and laborious, but the benefits of actual outputs produced in a setting that is closest to what is de facto are very rewarding.

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About the Authors

Marites B. Querol is a faculty of Saint Mary’s University, Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines, a graduate of Bachelor of Secondary Education, major in English and Religious Formation and Master of Arts in Teaching English in the same institution. She also finished her degree of Master of Arts in Language Education at the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City. At present, she is on dissertation writing for her doctoral degree in English Language Studies at the University of Santo Tomas. (email: [email protected]) Marilu Rañosa Madrunio is an applied linguist and is a Professor of English and Applied Linguistics at the Faculty of Arts and Letters of the University of Santo Tomas where she currently serves as the Dean. She pioneered forensic linguistics research in the Philippines. In July 2019, she was elected to the Executive Committee of the International Association of Forensic Linguists (IAFL EC) for a term of four years. Her research interests are in the areas of Sociolinguistics, Asian Englishes/Philippine English, Forensic Linguistics/Language and Law and Second Language Writing. (email: [email protected])

Acknowledgments The researchers wish to express their deepest gratitude to the administration, faculty and students of Cagayan Valley Computer and Information Technology College (CVCITC) for their profound generosity, for accommodating and allowing the researchers to conduct their study. Gratitude is likewise extended to the research assistants.

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