Modern Europe II

Unit 4 – European Politics and Economy, 1871-1914

Advance of Democracy Characteristics of 1871-1914 Europe

Expansive material and industrial growth Domestic stability International peace New wave of imperialism Expansion of global economy

Period after 1871 was marked by stability Period of constitutional and representative

governments Extension of voting rights to working class Extension of self-government (democracy) Growth of the welfare state to counteract growth of

socialism

Third French Republic France had troubles establishing a democratic republic

The Second Empire fell after its surrender to Prussia in January 1871

New government was to be established with universal male suffrage

Conservative provisional government moved to Versailles Elections of 1871

Monarchists won the majority in the National Assembly Divided mainly between two groups: Legitimists and

Orléanists Legitimists wanted Bourbon dynasty (Charles X) reinstated Orléanists wanted the Orléans dynasty (Louis-Philippe) Only 150 republicans were elected as many French

distrusted them as too radical

Makeup of the 1871 National Assembly

Third French Republic Parisian working class refused to accept the

new government Were the ones who sacrificed the most during the

war and the subsequent siege of Paris Paris refused to surrender to the Germans

Paris Commune (March 18 – May 28, 1871) Paris proclaimed itself to be the true government

of France Set up a government called the Paris Commune Pitted the nation against the radical city of Paris Policies were similar to the Jacobins Very anti-bourgeoisie and upper class Contained some socialists but mainly republicans

Paris Commune Barricade (March 18, 1871)

Third French Republic Government sends troops to Paris in March 1871

Barricades and street fighting Troops were able to take the city in May In total, over 25,000 died, most of them executed Over 30,000 were arrested and 7,500 deported to

New Caledonia What form should the new government take?

Monarchists had the majority but could not agree Legitimists and Orléanists ended up cancelling each

other out Third Republic continued to exist Worked different constitutional plans

Third French Republic French Constitutional Laws of 1875

Formally established a republic headed by a president

Senate elected by an indirect system Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male

suffrage Included a Council of Ministers headed by a Premier Passed by one vote

Over the next few years the political roles would become more defined President essentially became a ceremonial figure True power rested in the hands of the Premier

Third French Republic Stable government?

Became difficult to form majority in the parliament due to dozens of political parties

Control formed through alliances or blocs Neither President nor Premier could dissolve the

Chamber to hold new elections Kept the government stable for the rest of 19th

century Troubles of the Third Republic

Many were fearful of the concept of a republic Rise in anti-Semitism Numerous political scandals in the 1880s and 1890s

Édouard Drumont (1844-1917)

Rise of Anti-Semitism French Anti-Semitism

Rose out of the defeat in 1870 Right-wing movement that was nationalist, anti-

liberal, and antiparliamentary Nationalism was no longer associated with the left

and was now linked to xenophobia Édouard Drumont (1844–1917)

Successful anti-Semitic journalist Attributed all of France’s problems to a Jewish

conspiracy Merged three strands of anti-Semitism

Christian – “Jews as Christ killers” Economic – Rothschild as representative of all Jews Racial thinking - Jews as an inferior race

Rise of Anti-Semitism Drumont helped to spread an ideology of hatred

Claimed that Jews in the army subverted national purpose

Mass culture corrupted French culture “Greedy Jewish socialists and trade unionists”

preyed on the peasants and small shopkeepers La France Juive (Jewish France, 1886)

Called for the exclusion of Jews from French society Sold 100,000 copies in the first two months

La Libre Parole (Free Speech) Very popular newspaper Founded through his Anti-Semitic League

Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935)

Dreyfus Affair Alfred Dreyfus (1859-1935)

Jewish captain in the French army Officers accused him of selling secrets to the

Germans Was convicted in November 1894 Sentenced to life imprisonment in the Devil’s Island

penal colony in French Guiana The Affair

In 1896, evidence was found that identified another officer as the true spy

Documents used against Dreyfus were found to be forgeries

However, Dreyfus was not exonerated

Dreyfus Affair Émile Zola (1840–1902) backed Dreyfus

Wrote an open letter in 1898 accusing the government of being anti-Semitic and unjust

Described the lack of evidence in the letter Was published on the front page of L'Aurore Zola was found guilty of libel and was forced to leave

France Dreyfus eventually pardoned by the president in

1899 Cleared of all guilt in 1906 by the supreme court Reinstated into the army

Republican reaction against the church Saw both the church and army as hostile to the state Passed laws (1901-1905) separating church and state

Dreyfus’ hut on Guiana

Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths of the Third French Republic

Garnered the loyalty of most of the French population

Showed that democratic republicanism can work Most classes lived in economic comfort

Weaknesses Still lagged behind in industry compared to Britain

and Germany Excessive fragmentation of political parties More than 50 ministries from 1871-1914 Working class was still unhappy Continued rise of socialism

Victoria (1837-

1901)

British Constitutional Monarchy Characteristics of Britain under Victoria (1837-

1901) Era of expanding industry and material progress Numerous literary accomplishments Political stability Two major political parties: Liberals and

Conservatives Victoria in seclusion

In 1861, Prince Consort Albert died of typhoid fever Victoria went into a period of seclusion This seclusion helped to bolster the republican

movement inside of England

British Constitutional Monarchy Parties alternated control during this period

Conservatives had the support of the landed aristocracy

Liberals had the support of industrial and commercial interests

Both sought the support of the working class Increasing suffrage

Second Reform Bill (1867) extended suffrage to 1/3 male population

In 1884, another law extended it to ¾ of the male population

Universal male suffrage and limited women’s suffrage were enacted in 1918

William E. Gladstone Prime Minister of

Britain (1868-1885)

British Constitutional Monarchy William E. Gladstone (1809-1898)

Liberal Prime Minister four times during the Victorian Era

Gladstone’s First ministry (1868-1874) Cardwell Reforms (1869) terminated the sale and

purchase of army commissions Forster's Education Act (1870) set framework for

public schools for children 5-12 University Test Act (1871) abolished religious tests

for Cambridge and Oxford Ballot Act (1872) introduced the use of secret ballot Formally legalized labor unions

British Constitutional Monarchy Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1888)

Conservative who held position of Prime Minister twice

Second Disraeli Ministry (1874-1880) Supported laissez-faire policies Public Health Act (1875) regulated public sanitation

to stop the spread of diseases such as cholera and typhus

Regulated workplace safety in the mines Allowed for peaceful picketing

Gladstone’s Second Ministry (1880-1885) Granted a form of workman’s compensation Included calls for shorter work days

Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister (1874-1880)

British Politics after 1900 Independent Labour Party (1901)

Labor emerged as a third political party Called for more protective measures for the working

class Changes to the Liberal Party

Changed from laissez-faire policies to more government regulation

Focused more on social legislation to help the working poor

Liberal welfare reforms (1906-1914) Done during the ministry of Herbert Asquith (1906-

1916) Illustrated the shift to more progressive liberalism

British Politics after 1900 Reforms included:

New forms of insurance (e.g., unemployment, sickness, accident)

Minimum wage laws Removing restrictions on strikes and picketing

People’s Budget of 1909 Pushed through by Chancellor of the Exchequer

Lloyd George Designed to help pay new social reforms Called for progressive income and inheritance taxes Aimed primarily at the landed aristocracy Met tough resistance in both houses

British Politics after 1900 Parliament Act of 1911

Removed the right of the House of Lords to veto any economic matters

Put in a two-year delaying veto for other legislation Liberals also worked on getting salaries for

House of Commons Hoped it would get working class to run for seats

However, Liberals were showing signs of collapse Wages were starting to fall after 1900 Major coal and railway strikes occurred in 1911-1912

Labour Party continued to grow in popularity

Liverpool Transit Strike (1911)

Irish Question Act of Union (1800)

Ireland had been incorporated into the United Kingdom

Part had to do with the Irish Rebellion of 1798 Other part was due to French sympathies generated

during the French Revolution Irish had numerous grievances

Tenant farmers had no recourse against their landlords

Were subjugated to the Church of Ireland (Anglican) while most of the population was Catholic

Gladstone attempted to address these issues Church of Ireland was no longer the official state

church after the Irish Church Disestablishment Act 1869

Irish Question Home Rule Bills

First initiated by Gladstone in 1886 but it did not pass the Commons

Started a split amongst the Liberals Were attempted again in 1893 and 1914 Passed in 1914 but suspended due to World War I

Ulstermen Irish Protestants who strongly opposed the Home Rule

Bill Were afraid of being outnumbered by the Catholics Gained the support of the Conservatives Began arming themselves to fight if the bill passed Signed Ulster Covenant in 1912 to support armed

opposition

Signing the Ulster Covenant (September 28, 1912)

German Empire (1871-1890) After 1871, Bismarck worked not with the

Conservatives but with the National Liberals Conservatives were still against the concept of a

united Germany Liberals were more eager to help centralize the state

Setting up the new administration Sought to create the centralizing institutions of a

modern state Created a bicameral parliament Bundesrat – Upper house with appointed delegates Reichstag - Lower house elected through universal

male suffrage Executive power rested solely with Wilhelm who was

both king and kaiser (emperor)

German Empire (1871-1890) Three problems facing Bismarck:

Divide between Catholics and Protestants Growing Social Democratic party Divisive economic interests of agriculture and

industry Addressing the Catholic Church

Bismarck wanted to subordinate the Church to the state

First Vatican Council reaffirmed papal infallibility in 1870 which would cause issues for Catholics in Germany

Catholics created a strong Center party that upheld church pronouncements

German Empire (1871-1890) Kulturkampf (cultural struggle)

Bismarck unleashed an anti-Catholic campaign Appealed to sectarian tensions over public education

and civil marriages Popular with Liberals who were strongly anticlerical Passed laws that imprisoned priests for political

sermons Banned Jesuits from Prussia

The campaign backfired Catholic Center party won seats in the Reichstag in

1874 Bismarck negotiated an alliance with the Catholic

Center

German Empire (1871-1890) Economic downturn of the late 1870s forced

Bismarck to create a new coalition Combined agricultural and industrial interests as

well as socially conservative Catholics Passed protectionist legislation that upset laissez-

faire supporters and the working class Social Democrats became the new enemies

German Social Democratic party (SPD) was formed in 1875

Blend of Marxian socialists and moderate reformers Attempted assassinations

In 1878, there were two failed assassination attempts against Wilhelm

German Empire (1871-1890) Anti-SPD legislation

Bismarck associated socialism with the anarchy Passed numerous antisocialist laws between 1878

and 1880 Expelled socialists from major cities The party still managed to win elections even

though it was technically illegal Bismarck did pass some social welfare

Workers guaranteed sickness and accident insurance

Rigorous factory inspection Limited working hours for women and children Old-age pensions Still failed to win over the working class

Wilhelm II (1888-

1918)

Wilhelm II (1888-1918) By 1890, support for the SPD continued to grow

Votes for SPD quadrupled between 1881 and 1890 William II (1888–1918)

Wanted Germany to go on a “new course” in 1890 He wanted to rule Germany, not Bismarck Called for the resignation of Bismarck Suspended antisocialist legislation and legalized the

SPD SPD continued to gain in popularity

Received 1/3 total votes in election of 1912 Received 110 members into the Reichstag However, they were still excluded from the highest

government positions

Political cartoon depicting Wilhelm I “dropping the pilot” (Bismarck)

Russia: Road to Revolution Russia was plagued with problems after 1871

The autocratic political system was unable to handle the conflict and pressures from modern society

Threatened by Western industrialization and political doctrines

Russia responded with some reform but repression as well

Russian industrialization (1880s–1890s) State-directed industrial development Serfs emancipated in 1861 No independent middle class capable of raising capital Rapid industrialization heightened social tensions Workers left their villages temporarily to work in

factories, and then returned for planting and harvest

Russia: Road to Revolution The legal system had not been modernized

No recognition of trade unions or employers’ associations

Still distinguished between nobles and peasants rather than modern society

Contained outdated banking and finance laws Alexander III (1881–1894)

Steered the country toward the right Believed Russia had nothing in common with the

west Focused on repression, especially of liberal ideas Curtailed power of the zemstvos Increased authority of the secret police

Russia: Road to Revolution Nicholas II (1894–1917)

Continued these “counter-reforms” Advocated Russification over non-Russian subjects Targeted the Jews with pogroms and open anti-Semitism

Rise of the Populists Believed that Russia should modernize on its own terms,

not those of the West Wanted egalitarianism based on the village commune

(mir) Formed secret bands with the hope of overthrowing the

tsar through anarchy and insurrection Read Marx’s Das Capital and emphasized peasant

socialism Played a role in the creation of the Social Revolutionary

Party in 1901

Russia: Road to Revolution Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP)

Main form of Russian Marxism Grew in response to growing Populism Concentrated on urban workers rather than peasantry Believed that Russian autocracy would give way to

capitalism Capitalism would eventually give way to a classless

society Blended radicalism with a scientific approach to

history In 1903, the Social Democratic party split

Occurred at the Second Congress which met in London Was over the major points of the Party’s program

Russia: Road to Revolution Bolsheviks (“majority”)

Called for a central party organization of active revolutionaries

Rapid industrialization meant they did not have to follow Marx

Could “skip a stage” straight into revolution Eventually would become the foundation of the

Communist Party Mensheviks (“minority”)

Believed in a “gradualist” approach of slow changes Reluctant to depart from Marxist orthodoxy Able to regain control of the Social Democratic Party

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924)

Older brother was executed for his involvement in the assassination of Alexander II

Was under suspicion for a plot against Alexander III in 1896

In exile in Siberia from 1897-1900 Remained in political exile from 1900 to 1917 in

western Europe Becomes the leader of the Bolsheviks Believed in the need for a coordinated socialist

movement What Is to Be Done? (1902)

Denounced gradualists and called for revolution Wanted to form a smaller organization of vanguards to

lead the working class

First Russian Revolution (1905) Took most of the revolutionaries by surprise Number of factors led to it

The defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

Rapid industrialization had transformed Russia unevenly Economic downturn of the 1900s lead to high

unemployment Low grain prices eventually led to peasant uprisings All combined with student radicalism to turn it all into a

politically based movement Russian government was not able to handle the

problems Radical workers organized strikes and demonstrations Trust in the tsar declined dramatically

First Russian Revolution (1905) “Bloody Sunday” (January 22, 1905)

Group of 200,000 workers demonstrated at the Winter Palace

Guard troops killed 130 and wounded several hundred Led to mass strikes throughout the country

Stores and factories were shut down The autocracy had lost control

Nicholas II issued October Manifesto (October 14, 1905) Guaranteed individual liberties Established the Duma as the legislative body based on

moderate suffrage Effectively ended the strikes and protests Designed to set up a constitutional monarchy

Demonstration of October 17 - Ilya Repin

Russia After 1905 Revolution Not everyone was happy with the October

Manifesto Radicals wanted greater changes included universal

male suffrage Nicholas failed to see that fundamental change

was needed Wanted to hold on to autocratic power Revoked most of the promises made in October Deprived the Duma of its principal powers

Pyotr Stolypin (1862–1911) Was the Prime Minister under Nicholas II Wanted to repress revolutionary movement in Russia At the same time wanted to bring in agrarian

reforms

Russia After 1905 Revolution Stolypin Reforms (1906–1911)

Included the sale of five million acres of royal land to peasants

Granted peasants permission to withdraw from the mir to form independent farms

Canceled peasant property debts Legalized trade unions Established sickness and accident insurance

Problems for Russia Liberals and radicals wanted more changes Nicholas II refused to budge Russian agriculture suspended between emerging

capitalism and the peasant commune

Close-up of a Bessemer Converter

Second Industrial Revolution Second Industrial Revolution

Usually dated from 1870-1914 Focused mainly on four industries: steel, electric,

chemical, and petroleum Steel

Between the 1850s and 1870s, the cost of producing steel decreased

Iron was too soft and wore down too quickly for use as railroad tracks so there was a need to develop a tougher metal

Three main role players in development of steel: Bessemer, the Sieman brothers, and Pierre Martin

Second Industrial Revolution By the late 1890s, there were a variety of cheaper

ways to make steel Led to the rapid expansion of the steel industry Britain embraced the use of steel for its ships Steel industry was dominated by Germany and the U.S.

Electricity Alessandro Volta invented the chemical battery in 1800 Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction

which led to the first electromagnetic generator in 1866

By the 1880s, alternators and transformers produce high-voltage alternating current

Edison invented the incandescent-filament lamp in 1879

Second Industrial Revolution Chemicals

Efficient production of alkali and sulfuric acid Transformed manufacture of paper, soaps, textiles, and

fertilizer British led the way in soaps and cleaners and in mass

marketing German production focused on industrial uses (e.g.,

synthetic dyes and refining petroleum) Petroleum

Development of liquid-fuel internal combustion engine Mainly pushed by the rise of the automotive and aviation

industries By 1914, most navies had converted from coal to oil Discovery of oil fields in Russia, Borneo, Persia, and Texas

Second Industrial Revolution Other technological developments included:

First of the great tunnels: Mount Cenis (1873) and the Simplon (1906) in the Alps

Large canals: Suez (1869), Kiel (1895), and Panama (1914)

Telephone (1875) Transatlantic wireless communications (1902)

Started in Britain and Belgium Spread to the rest of Europe and the United States

Major European manufacturers were Britain, Germany, and France Accounted for 7/10’s manufacturing in 1914 Produced 4/5 of Europe’s steel, coal, and machinery

Paris Bon Marché Department Store

Effects of Technology on Industry New technology brought changes in scope

and scale to industry Part of the race toward a bigger, faster, cheaper,

and more efficient world Rise of heavy industry and mass marketing Creation of national mass cultures

Followed the news and how Europe spread its influence throughout the world

Feats of engineering mastery including canals, railroads, and dams

Generated enormous income for builders, investors, and entrepreneurs

Effects of Technology on Industry Impact of these changes on Europe

Population grew constantly, especially in central and eastern Europe

Food shortages declined due to improvements in crop yields and shipping

Improvements in medicine and hygiene led to the decline of many diseases including cholera and typhus

Led to longer life spans and reduced infant mortality rates

Creation of consumption culture Consumption as a center of economic activity and theory Appearance of the department store Development of modern advertising Introduction of credit payments to help the working class

Advertisement for Motocycles Comiot (1899)

Rise of the Corporation Prior to this period, most businesses were financed

either by individual investors or joint-stock operations

This began to change in the late 19th century Due to economic growth and demands of mass

consumption Needed to mobilize funds to help grow large-scale

enterprises Rise of the modern corporation

Limited-liability laws gave protection to stockholders Would only lose their share value in the event of

bankruptcy Middle classes now considered corporate investment

promising

Rise of the Corporation Larger corporations became necessary for

survival Focused mainly on the desire for increased profits Shifted control from the family to distant bankers

and financiers Demand for technical expertise which led to the

rise of technical degrees Creation of the white collar class: middle-level

salaried managers, neither owners nor laborers Consolidation of smaller businesses would protect

industries from cyclical fluctuations and unbridled competition

Rise of the Corporation Vertical integration

Industries controlled every step of production From acquisition of raw materials to distribution of

finished goods Horizontal integration

Organized into cartels Companies in the same industry would band

together Fixing prices and controlling competition Coal, oil, and steel were particularly well-adapted

Dominant trend was increased cooperation between government and industry Appearance of businessmen and financiers as

officers of state

Carville Power Station Newcastle upon Tyne (c. 1904)

International Economics Rapid industrialization led to stronger

competition amongst nations Search for markets, goods, and influence fueled

imperial expansion Creation of an interlocking, worldwide system of

manufacturing, trade, and finance Trade barriers arose to protect home markets

All nations except Britain raised tariffs Needs of nation-states trumped laissez-faire

economics Near-universal adoption of the gold standard

Allowed for the exchange of currency Also allowed the use of a third country to mediate

trade imbalances

European “Balance of Payments” Development of free trade

Initiated by Britain after the repeal of Corn Laws in 1846 France adopted free trade in 1860 By 1914, most European countries adopted free trade

Most European countries imported more goods than they exported Britain and other industrial countries (Europe’s “inner

zone”) imported mainly raw materials for its manufacturing and food

This led to an unfavorable balance of trade Big question: how to pay for all the goods imported?

How to develop a favorable “balance of payments”?

European “Balance of Payments” Invisible Exports

Included shipping and insurance and interested on money lent

Example: British ship owners would be paid to bring goods to across the Atlantic

Development of insurance: Lloyds of London Helped bridge the gap in trade

Export of European capital European financiers would invest in foreign

companies Included areas such as U.S., South America, and Asia

Europe also exported people to colonies Mainly poorer classes would be used to help jump-

start economies in the colonies

The Gold Standard International economy was dependent on an

international money system Development of the gold standard

First adopted by England in 1821 £1 Sterling = 113g of fine gold Value of most European currencies remained

stable through 1914 Problems

Gold production lagged behind expanding industries

Led to a fall of prices between 1870-1900 Farming class was hit hardest as they were

constantly borrowing money

The Gold Standard Some did benefit from falling prices

Included wage earners and wealthy Financiers did well as the money they received in

payments was worth more than the original loan London was center of global economy

Benefitted from large indemnities post-Napoleon Banks gave out loans for countries fighting in wars Because they began the gold standard, many

people outside of Britain kept their funds in British sterling

Also became the main center for currency exchange Center of world’s shipping and international

corporations

Labor Politics Changes in the European working class

Workers resented corporate power Labor unions had been frowned upon by

European leaders In the 18th century, extensive legislation was

passed making them illegal Even revolutionaries were against them

Changed with the rise of “bourgeois” liberalism Unions started to become accepted and formally

legalized in the second half of the 19th century Bolstered by the prosperity of the 1850s

Labor Politics “New Model” Unionism

Began in the 1850s in Britain Restricted to a particular trade (e.g., coal miners)

instead of all workers Focused on the advancement of that specific trade

Took the unions out of politics Gave labor power to negotiate wages and conditions

of work Leaders started working with employers to avoid

strikes Provided the framework for the socialist mass party

Industrial unionism Brought unskilled workers into the ranks

Labor Politics Britain led the pack in unions

Partially due to its advanced industrialism Made it less socialist than its continental

counterparts Taff-Vale Decision (1901)

Court decision that stated a union was responsible for business losses during a strike

Opposition to this decision helped to bolster the Labour Party

Changes in national political structure Opened the political process to new participants New constituencies of working-class men Labor’s struggle with capital cast on a national scale Socialist organizations turned to reform

Membership form for the International Working Men’s Association

Socialism After 1850 The Marxist appeal

Provided a crucial foundation for building a democratic mass politics

Made powerful claims for gender equality The promise of a better future

First International (1864) First meeting of the International Working Men’s

Association Marx was eventually given leadership of the

organization Used it as means to publicize his ideas Kicked out those whose ideas conflicted with his own Believed workers should not negotiate with the state

but take it over

Socialism After 1850 Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876)

Disagreed with Marx Believed the state was the cause of worker’s

problems It should be attacked and abolished Marx kicked him out of the First International in 1872

Karl Marx’s Das Kapital (1867) Expanded upon the principles set forth in Communist

Manifesto Attacked capitalism in terms of political economy A systematic analysis of production Complete edition was not fully published until after

Marx’s death

Socialism After 1850 Reaction to the Paris Commune (1851)

Was looked upon with hope by the First International

Marx saw it as a precursor to the “dictatorship of the proletariat”

Ended up having a negative backlash against it instead

People associated Marx’s ideas with violence and radicalism Turned many people off Britain would have nothing to do with Marxist

supporters Led to the end of the First International in 1876

Socialism After 1850 Ferdinand Lassalle (1825-1864)

German socialist who conflicted with Marxist ideas Was willing to work with Bismarck to put through

reforms Founded the General German Workers' Association

(ADAV) in 1863 Gotha Conference (1875)

Marxist socialists and Lassallean socialists put aside their differences

Merged the ADAV and the Social Democratic Workers' Party (founded 1869) into the SPD

Effective in helping spread socialism throughout Germany

Socialism After 1850 After 1880, socialist parties rose up

throughout Europe French Socialist parties:

French Worker’s Party (1880) led by Jules Guesde called for strict Marxism

Federation of Socialist Workers of France (1882) led by Paul Brousse who wanted change through legislation

French Socialist Party (1902) led by Jean Jaurès who wanted to keep ties to the old revolutionary ideals

All were merged into the French Section of the Workers' International in 1905

Socialism After 1850 Other socialist parties:

Belgian Socialist Party (1879) Social Democratic Federation (1881) in England Russian Social Democratic Party (1883) in Russia

which would become the basis of communism Second International (1889-1916)

Became the main organization of all the European socialist parties

Continued on the work of the First International At its first meeting (July 14, 1889), 20 countries

participated Met every three years until 1916

Jean Jaurès (1859-1914)

Evolution of Socialism Socialism post-1880 was inspired by Marx

“Scientific socialism” Strongest in Germany and France Unsuccessful in Italy, Spain, and England

Taming of socialism Socialism became less revolutionary Emerged as “parliamentary socialism” focused on

reform Wanted changes such as social insurance, minimum

wages, maximum hours, and factory regulations No “workers impoverishment” as Marx had

predicted Due to real wages dramatically increasing 50%

between 1870-1900

Evolution of Socialism Revisionists

Believed that class conflict may not be inevitable Capitalism may transform to benefit the working class As long as workers had the vote, they did not need

revolution Supported in France by Jaurès In Germany, Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) published

Evolutionary Socialism Orthodox Marxism

First International argued that parliaments could be used as a forum but members were not allowed to run for office

One of the main reasons behind the split in Russian Marxism in 1903

Evolution of Socialism Syndicalism

Demanded that workers share ownership and control of the means of production

The capitalist state must be replaced by workers’ syndicates or trade associations

Called for mass forms of direct action, including general strike and industrial sabotage

Popular among agricultural laborers in France, Italy, and Spain

Even after 1900 when wages stagnated, socialism remained moderate Capitalists had created safer and better working

environments Higher standard of living Were politically enfranchised

Women's Social and Political Union poster (1909)

Feminism (1880-1914) By 1884, Germany, France, and Britain had

enfranchised most men Women relegated to status as second-class

citizens Received less pay then men Had restrictions on owning private property, voting, and

attending universities Women pressed their interests through

independent organizations and forms of direct action On the continent, efforts were on legal and social

reform In Britain, it was on the right to vote In 1888, American and European feminists established

the International Council of Women

Feminism (1880-1914) Feminism in Britain

Main organization was the Women’s Social and Political Union (founded in 1903)

Wanted equal voting rights in both local and national elections

All their measures were turned down by Parliament Emmeline Pankhurst (1858–1928)

Founder of the WSPU Adopted tactics of militancy and civil disobedience Women chained themselves to the visitor’s gallery in

the House of Commons Slashed paintings in museums Disrupted political meetings Burned the homes of politicians

Feminism (1880-1914) In 1910, large protest was organized against

Parliament Led by Emmeline Pankhurst Largest suffragette protest held in Britain up to this

date Turned into a six hour riot

Emily Wilding Davison (1872-1913) Joined WSPU in 1906 Turned to the more militant aspect of the movement When she was arrested, she went on hunger strike and

had to be force fed Bombed Lloyd George's house in Surrey in 1913 Died in 1913 after being run over by a horse at the

Epsom Derby as part of a possible protest She was seen as a martyr to the cause

Feminism (1880-1914) Suffragettes did not receive any accolades

Were ridiculed by the media and Parliament British government countered this violence with

repression Women did not get the right to vote in Britain

until 1918 Only women over the age of 30 could vote

German Feminism General German Women’s Association was founded in

1875 Pressed for educational and legal reforms Wanted women to be educated so they could find

gainful means of employment

Cartoon regarding the British women’s suffrage movement (c. 1913)

Changing Roles of Women Campaign for women’s suffrage helped redefine

Victorian gender roles Increase of middle-class women in the

workplace Worked as social workers and clerks, nurses and

teachers More jobs led to changes in clothing

Expansion of educational opportunities British women established their own colleges at

Oxford and Cambridge in the 1870s and 1880s Impact on politics and reform

Women worked towards a variety of movements Included poor relief, prison reform, temperance

movements, abolition of slavery, education

Changing Roles of Women The “new woman”

Demanded education and a job Claimed the right to be physically and

intellectually active Opposition

Never exclusively male opposition Mrs. Humphrey Ward believed women in politics

would sap the strength of the empire Christian commentators criticized suffragists Others argued that feminism would dissolve the

family

Charles Darwin (1809-1881)

Birth of Evolution Organic evolution by natural selection

transformed the conception of nature itself An unsettling new picture of human biology,

behavior, and society Jean Lamarck (1744–1829)

Behavioral changes could alter physical characteristics within a single generation

New traits could be passed on to offspring Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

The Origin of Species (1859) Five years aboard H. M. S. Beagle Observed manifold variations of animal life

Birth of Evolution Darwin theorized that variations within a

population made certain individuals better adapted for survival Drew on the population theories of Thomas Malthus

(1766–1834) Malthusian competition led to adaptation and

ultimately survival Used natural selection to explain the origin of

new species Applied to plant and animal species as well as to man The Descent of Man (1871) The human race had evolved from an apelike ancestor

Birth of Evolution Darwinian theory and religion

Challenged deeply held religious beliefs Sparked a debate on the existence of God For Darwin, the world was not governed by order,

harmony, and divine will but by random chance and struggle

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) Biologist who championed Darwin’s theory Argued against Christians appalled by the

implications of Darwinism Called himself an agnostic Opposed to all dogma Follow reason as far as it can take you

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895)

Impact of Darwinism Darwinism had a large influence on many of

the social sciences Included sociology, psychology, anthropology, and

economics New ways of quantifying and interpreting human

experience Social Darwinism

Applied the ideas of evolution to human society Once again, it was a struggle for existence with

the only the fit surviving Very popular in both Europe and America

Impact of Darwinism Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)

Applied individual competition to classes, races, and nations

Coined the expression “survival of the fittest” Condemned all forms of collectivism Believed the individual who “fit” was all-important

Popularized notions of social Darwinism were easy to comprehend Integrated into popular vocabulary Justified the natural order of rich and poor Nationalists used social Darwinism to rationalize

imperialism and warfare Also used to justify racial hierarchy and white

superiority

Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

Genetics, Anthropology, and Psychology Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

Austrian monk Experimented with cross-pollination of garden peas Explained how heredity works and how hybridization

takes place Became the foundation of genetics

Rise of Anthropology Applied the theory of natural selection to evolution Physical anthropologists worked on an analysis of

“superior” races (e.g., those that survived evolution best)

Cultural anthropologists focused on a possibly superior culture

Discovered there was not one but everything was a matter of opinion

Genetics, Anthropology, and Psychology Sir James Frazer (1854-1941)

Published The Golden bough Examined how many practices of Christianity were

not unique Could be found in many pre-modern societies Worked to undermine traditional religious beliefs

Psychology Science of human behavior Emerged in the 1870s Analyzed the irrational and animalistic side of

human nature Would lead to upsetting implications about freedom

and rationality

Genetics, Anthropology, and Psychology Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

“Classical conditioning” A random stimulus can produce a physical reflex

reaction Development of behaviorism: focused on physiological

responses to the environment Sigmund Freud (1856–1936)

Viennese physician Believed behavior largely motivated by unconscious

and irrational forces Unconscious drives and desires conflict with the

rational and moral conscience Believed the psyche drove all: id, ego, and superego

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

The New Physics A revolution also took place in physics in the

1890s Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908)

French scientist who discovered radioactivity in 1896 Occurred while he was investigating

phosphorescence in uranium salts Won the Nobel Prize in 1903

Marie Curie (1867-1934) Gave the first theory of radioactivity: that radiation

emits from atoms themselves, not from any sort of reaction

Discovered two new elements: polonium and radium Also won the Nobel Prize in 1903

The New Physics Max Planck

German physicist Founder of quantum theory (1900) Units of energy are emitted or absorbed in certain units

or bundles (quantum) Niels Bohr

Danish physicist Developed the structure of the atom: of a nucleus of

protons with electrons revolving around the nucleus (1913)

Was awarded the Noble Prize in 1922 for his atomic work

Eventually will work on the Manhattan Project for the U.S.

The New Physics Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Earlier work was based on thermodynamics Realized that matter could be turned into energy

(e=mc2) in 1905 Theory of special relativity (1905) states that rest

and motion are relative (not absolute) to the observer Theory of general relativity (1915) unified Newton's

law of universal gravitation and his own special relativity

Stated that gravity is a geometric property of space and time

Impact Development of new science of nuclear physics

Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Modern Religion Religion was displaced after 1870

Main cause was the growth of science Also was attacked by Darwinists and anthropologists

Catholic church remained resistant to change Went on the defensive

Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) Syllabus of Errors (1864) denounced materialism,

free thought, liberalism, science, and religious relativism

Reaffirmed the church’s belief in the supernatural and miracles

Convoked a church council (first one since Council of Trent in 1563)

Modern Religion First Vatican Council (1869-1870)

Put forth the doctrine of papal infallibility Denounced by the governments of several Catholic

countries Capture of Rome (1870)

Rome was captured by Italian nationalists during the Council

Popes refused to recognize the loss of Rome until 1929 Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903)

Brought a more accommodating climate to the church Declared socialism to be a Christian idea in principle Acknowledged that there is good and evil in modern

civilization Added a scientific staff to the Vatican and opened

archives

Modern Religion Protestants

Little in the way of doctrine to help them defend their faith

Took on a very pragmatic attitude Truth was whatever produced useful, practical results If belief in God provided mental peace, then that belief

was true Division between modernists and fundamentalists

Modernists were able to embrace the ideas of science with the Bible being more allegorical

Fundamentalists believed in the literal word of the Bible and tended to deny science (found more in U.S. than in Europe)