MODERN BOTANY

Dr. NAVEEN MALAVIYA Co-ordinator, Department of Integrative Biology,

Head, Department of Botany, Govt. P.G. College, Narsinghpur (M.P.)

SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHERS (INDIA) P.O. Box 91 Jodhpur (Raj.)

Published by Scientific Publishers (India) 5-A, New Pali Road, P.O.Box 91 JODHPUR -342 001 E-mail: info@scientificpub.com www.scientificpub.com

© Dr. Naveen Malaviya, 2008

ISBN: 978-81-7233-503-8 (PB) 978-81-7233-507-6 (HB)

Laser typeset: Rajesh Ojha Printed in India

Dedicated to my Teachers Professor G.P. AGARWAL

Professor S.K. HASIJA

FOREWORD

Advancement of learning and researches in Botany has been accountable for the vast expansion of this subject from traditional taxonomy to molecular studies. In the present era, all plant studies are made at the molecular level emphasizing on studies of enzymes involved in any particular activity. It has become possible to explore the details while using mutants as an experimental tool. Application of Biotechnology has yielded results, which are fruitful for plant health and productivity. Introduction of a foreign gene to produce a transgenic plant has now become routine in plants to help the mankind by improving productivity and disease resistance. Bioinformatics has also made molecular studies simpler and one can come out with an appropriate design in a very short time.

The present book Modern Botany by Dr. Naveen Malaviya is in accordance with the study of present time as it rests on plant physiology and biotechnology. The chapters included in this book are designed specifically to develop a clear understanding of intrinsic aspects in a subtle manner that shall be of immense help for the students both at undergraduate and post-graduate levels. There are a good number of books available in Botany but the present book is an example of comprehensive account of the subject and would certainly cater to the needs of our students.

The hard work by Dr. Malaviya in writing this book, I'm sure, will prove effective for students in understanding about the frontiers of research in Plant sciences. Besides, the text will also help the teachers and young researchers in several ways.

Dr. S.M. Paul Khurana

Vice Chancellor Rani Durgavati Vishwavidyalaya,

Jabalpur

PREFACE

While teaching in Post-Graduate classes, the author has felt that students feel difficult to understand and to collect literature in certain topics of plant physiology, and biotechnology. The aim to write this book is to collect the latest literature on such topics. The text attempts to focus on the latest knowledge and give a shape to all the chapters so that the fundamentals of the topic are also clear to the students. The latest information presented in the text is based on the original publication, scientific articles, encyclopedia, and monographs. In certain chapters, definitions and basic concepts are mentioned before going in to the detail. The different chapters included in the three sections of this book are selected as per prescribed syllabi from UGC. Since there are many excellent text books on plant physiology, hence the author has omitted some literature and figures/diagrams which are easily available to the students.

It was totally unjustified if a book on metabolism and developmental physiology does not include a topic on the mechanism to transport across the plasma membrane. So, the first chapter of this book is on Plasma membrane. It is written as a separate chapter. The Section I is on metabolism. In this section physiology of all the biochemical pathways is discussed. Emphasis is given to the enzymes involved in these pathways. The molecular aspect is also discussed wherever necessary. Section II covers developmental physiology. Studies on developmental physiology, is also advancing towards molecular level. So, in this section, there is a separate chapter on Signal Transduction. Beside this, the concept of biosignalling is discussed in each chapter. The Section III, includes some important topics like genetic transformation in plants, transgenic plants, and bioinformatics.

The author shall feel satisfied if the students not only gain knowledge from this book but their fundamental concepts on the topics included in this book are made clear.

I am very grateful to my teacher Dr. (Mrs.) Nomita Sen, a renounded plant physiologist, who encouraged me to write this book and has gone very Critically on each topics. She gave her valuable guidance how to give the final shape of each chapter. I also express my thanks to Dr. A.K. Dasgupta for going through this script and pointing out grammatical errors if any and

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giving a good shape to the script. Thanks also to Shri Shailendra Gupta (Shagun Computers, New Kanchanpur, Jabalpur), who took all pains to type the script and draw the diagram.

I have tried to simplify the text as much as possible, but still I am of the opinion that, when this book will go in hands of learned Professors of this subject they may make some suggestions. I shall be grateful for any suggestions and comments on this book.

Narsinghpur 10th July 2007 Naveen Malaviya

CONTENTS

1 Plasma membrane 1-16 Structure, Membrane Model, Movement across cell membrane. Translocators,

Pumps, Ion Channels, Aquaporins.

SECTION I : BIOCHEMISTRY AND METABOLISM

2 Metabolism and Bioenergetics 19-32

Metabolism, The Energy state of cell, Laws of Thermodynamics, Free Energy, Components of Electron Transport System, Electron Transport Chain, Phosphorylation.

3 Cell Biochemistry 33-53

Covalent, Non-covalent bonds, Hydrogen bonds, Polar and non-polar molecules, Acid Base and Buffers. Biochemistry of Carbohydrate: Monosaccharides, Diasaccharides, Polysaccharides, Starch, Cellulose, Pectin. Biochemistry of Amino acid. Biochemistry of Proteins: Protein Structure. Biochemistry of Lipids: Fats, Steroids, Phospholipids. Biochemistry of Nucleic acid, Nitrogenous Base, Nucleoside and Nucleotide. Biosynthesis of purine and pyrimidine.

4 Enzyme 54-60

Nomenclature and Classification, Mechanism of Enzymatic reaction, Michaelis Menton equation, enzyme activity energy concept, general properties.

5 Photosynthesis 61-99

Historical background, Hill reaction, Red drop and Emerson effect, Photobiology, Photochemistry, Energy transfer, Light Harvesting, Photosynthetic unit and Reaction center. Thylakoid and location of pigments. Photosystem, Physiology of PS II, Role of cytochrome b6 f, Physiology of PS I, The electron transport system, photophosphorylation, Physiology of Photophosphorylation, ATP synthase. C3 plants: Calvin cycle, Enzymes of RPP, stoichiometry and energetics, regulation of calvin cycle, Sucrose synthesis, Starch synthesis. C4 plants: C4 pathway, enzymes of C4 pathway, anatomical features of C4 plants, C4 plants environmental regulation. CAM plants: metabolic pathway. Enzymes of CAM.

6 Respiration 100-113

Glycolysis, Formation of Acetyl CoA, Krebs cycle, Mitochondrial electron transport, Pentose phosphate pathway.

x Modern Botany

7 Photorespiration 114-120

Mechanism, Enzymatic activities in Peroxisomes, Fate of glycolyate pathway, Factors affecting photorespiration.

8 Nitrogen and Sulphur Assimilation 121-131

The nitrogen cycle, Biological nitrogen fixation, assimilation of nitrate. Sulphur cycle, Sulphate assimilation.

9 Nucleic Acid the Molecular Approach 132-147

Structure of DNA, Z-DNA, Replication of DNA, DNA polymerase. The Mechanism, RNA structure and types, Genetic Code.

10 Amino Acid Metabolism 148-155

Synthesis and catabolism of amino acids.

11 Protein Synthesis 156-171

Some concepts and definitions, Transcription in prokaryotes, Transcription in eukaryotes, RNA processing, Translation, Post transitional modification of proteins.

12 Fat Metabolism 172-188

Biosynthesis of saturated fatty acid, the carbon source for fatty acid synthesis, formation of Malonyl-CoA:Acetyl-CoA carboxylase, homomeric and heteromeric forms of ACCase, biosynthesis cycle, the prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathways. The ER membrane is the site of fatty acid elongation and desaturation, the first double bond in a newly formed fatty acid. Biosynthesis of triacylglycerols,lipid catabolism β-oxidation.

SECTION II : DEVELOPMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY

13 Signal Transduction 191-200

Some basic concepts: the second messenger, signal transduction pathway, Mechanism of Signal Transduction: G-protein, Calcium-Calmodulin mediated Signal Transduction. Cyclic Nucleotides.

14 Plant Growth Regulators and Elicitors 201-214

Indole-3-Acetic acid, Gibberllins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid, Ethylene, Brassinosteroids, Jasmonic acid, Polyamines, Salycylic acid, Phytohormones and Signal Transduction Chains, Application of Phytohormones in Agriculture.

15 Photomorphogenesis 215-225

Phytochrome, Crytochrome, The Chimeric Photoreceptores, Mechanism of Photoreceptor action. The Signal Transduction Chain, Seed Germination, Seedling and Vegetative Growth, Effect of light on pigment.

Contents xi

16 Physiology of Flowering 226-232

Photoperiodism, Role of Phytochrome, Florigen, The Genetic Aspect, The Constans and The Phloem Mobile Signal.

SECTION III : BIOTECHNOLOGY

17 Transformation and Transposons 235-246

Transformation using Plasmid of Agrobacterium: Molecular Biology of the Crown Gall, Ti-Plasmid-derived Vector system. Markers, The Gene transfer. Transposable elements, Transposition, Transpson Families, Transposon Tagging.

18 Transgenic Plants 247-254

Pest resistant and Herbicide Tolerant Plants, Microbial Pathogen resistant plants.

19 Tissue Culture 255-260

Historical background, Some basic terms and definitions. The different culture systems. The basic technique, Application of tissue culture.

20 Bioinformatics 261-276

Genomics, Proteomics, Genetic and Physical Mapping of Genes, Molecular markers, Artificial Chromosome, Database, Sequence alignment, algorithms. Application of bioinformatics, Bioinformatics in India.

Glossary 277

References 289

Index 293

SECTION - I :

BIOCHEMISTRY AND METABOLISM