Models of Human Behavior

S R

S O R

Organism (Individual) acts as an intervening variable

Why individual responses might vary?

•Perceptions

•Attributions

•Attitudes

•Personality

•Experience

The Process of Perceiving

Picking up of StimuliStimulus SelectivityPersonal Selectivity

Interpreting Stimuli

Perceptual Biases

•Schema•Selective Perception Perceptual Blindness•Stereotyping/Halo Effect•Primacy vs. Recency Effect•Negativity Effect•Contrast Effect•Nonverbal Cues•Attributional biases

Three Components of Attitudes

Cognitions (thoughts)

Affect (feelings)

Behavior (intention to act)

Personality

Big Five Personality Factors

•Agreeableness•Conscientiousness•Extraversion•Neuroticism•Openness

Other individual personality traits

General Comments on Human Behavior

1. Human behavior is a complex process.2. We tend to be overly optimistic about the

rationality of people.3. Some individual differences are changeable but

others are not.4. The expectations of others (particularly those in

power) strongly influence individual behavior.5. We generally have a difficult time understanding

the behavior of others.6. We are constantly sending messages to others.

1. Some people just aren’t motivated.

2. Motivation is something you do TO others.

3. A happy worker is a productive worker.

Misconceptions about Motivation

Content Theories

Process Theories

Types of Motivation Theories

- Help us understand what motivation IS (unsatisfied needs)- Need = an internal state of deficiency- Needs Tension Behavior

to reduce the tensionby satisfying the need(Homeostasis)

- At certain times some needs will be more important than others.

Content Theories of Motivation

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Security

Physiological

Need Prepotency

Need Progression

Premises:

5 level hierarchy

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

AggressionProjectionRationalizationEscapeExit

Defense Mechanisms

Theory X Assumptions 1. The average person dislikes work and will

avoid it if at all possible. 2. Most people must be coerced to put forth

more than a minimum level of effort on behalf of the organization.

3. The average person prefers to be directed,avoids responsibility, and prefers security above all else.

McGregor’s Theory X Theory Y

1. … work is as natural as play or rest. 2. People will exercise self control and self-

direction toward objectives to which they are committed.

3. People, under the proper conditions, willaccept and even seek responsibility.

4. The capacity for creativity and ingenuityis widely, not narrowly, distributed.

5. The intellectual potential of people is onlypartially being utilized in today’s workplace.

Theory Y Assumptions

Immature Characteristics Mature Characteristics

Passivity ActivityDependence IndependenceFew Ways of Behaving Diverse BehaviorsShallow Interests Deep InterestsShort-Term Perspective Long-Term PerspectiveSubordinate Position Superordinate PositionLack of Self-Awareness Self-Awareness &

Self-Control

Argyris’ Immaturity Maturity Theory

Growth

Relatedness

Existence

Premises:

A 3 level hierarchy

Need Progression

Need Regression

Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

Low Pay High pay

Herzberg’s 2 Factor Theory

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

- Hygiene +Hygiene - Motivators + Motivators

Traditional View

Causes of Employee Satisfaction

Hygiene Factors Motivator Factors

Pay AchievementWorking Conditions RecognitionSecurity Work ItselfFringe Benefits ResponsibilityCompany Policies Growth PotentialInterpersonal RelationsSupervision

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

Need for Affiliation: Interpersonal Relationships Opportunities to Communicate

Need for Power: Control over Others Attention Recognition

Need for Achievement: Individual Responsibility“Challenging” GoalsImmediate Feedback

McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory

Maslow’s McGregor’s Argyris’ Alderfer’s Herzberg’s McClelland’s Hierarchy TheoryX/Y Theory ERG Two Factor Acquired Needs

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Security

Physiological

Y

X

Mature

Immature

Motivators

Hygiene

Achievement

Power

Affiliation

Growth

Relational

Existence

A Comparison of Content Theories

Process Theories of Motivation

Expectancy Theory

Equity Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Valence: the perceived value of a

particular outcome to an individual.

Instrumentality: the perceived probability that performance will lead to outcomes

Expectancy: the perceived probability that effort will lead to task performance

Expectancy Theory

Perceptions Reality

Effort Perf. Rewards Effort Perf. Rewards

E I V

Expectancy Theory: continued

1. Perceptions of outcomes received

2. Perceptions of inputs required

3. Perceptions of the outcomes and inputs of a “Referent” other

Equity Theory Perceptions

OI OO

II IO

= OI OO

II IO

<

OI OO

II IO

>

Equity Inequity

Motivation: Motivation: maintain reduce inequity:currentsituation 1. Change inputs

2. Change outcomes3. Alter perceptions of self4. Alter perceptions of other5. Change referent other6. Leave the situation

Equity Inequity

Law of Effect: Behavior that tends to lead to rewards tends to be repeated, while behavior that tends to lead to no reward or to punishment tends to be avoided.

Reinforcement Theory

Positive Reinforcement

Negative Reinforcement

Extinction

Punishment

Types of Reinforcers

Basis

Frequency

Ratio

Interval

Variable Fixed

Schedules of Reinforcement

Individual Factors Environmental Factors

Needs Tension Effort

Alternative Outcomescourses of associated action with actions1 12 2etc. etc

Select analternative

Effort

Ability Actual ActualPerformance Rewards

Equity Perceptions

Satisfaction

RolePerceptions

An Integrated Model of Motivation

Motivation Implications

If you want a motivated workforce, what are yourOptions?

-Selection-Create an environment that allows employees to satisfy their needs-Change perceptions-Goal setting-Use the reward system