Misconceptions About Caves and Karst: Common Problems...

Misconceptions About Caves and Karst:Common Problems and Educational Solutions

Ernst H. KastningDepartment of Geology, Box 6939

Radford UniversityRadford, Virginia 24142

[email protected]

Karen M. KastningNew River Community College

PO Box 1127Dublin, Virginia 24084

andVirginia Department of Environmental Quality

3019 Peters Creek RoadRoanoke, Virginia 24019

[email protected]

Abstract

Processes that have formed caves and karst and continue to operate inkarst terranes are complex and not easily visualized by the public at large.This has resulted in several common and pervasive misconceptions aboutthe intrinsic nature of karst. Unfortunately these misconceptions are all toooften embraced by influential individuals, in both the public and privatesectors, who have the authority and mandate to address and alleviateenvironmental and engineering problems occurring in karst terranes. Anessential step in effective environmental management of karst regions isthrough education, whereby misconceptions are debunked and replacedwith sound, clearly presented explanations of karst processes that addressthe origin of karstic landforms and networks of groundwater flow and thatilluminate the interaction between natural processes and human activity.Eliminating misconceptions and teaching well established, modern con-cepts in a clear and concise manner could considerably reduce environ-mental problems in this fragile landscape.

Some common misconceptions about karst are: (1) Bedrock is solid,without voids; (2) Water enters sinkholes because they are there, rather thanwater creates sinkholes; (3) Pollutants put into the ground in karst remainwhere they are placed; (4) Water from karst springs is pure; (5) All sinkholesform catastrophically; (6) Karst is always well expressed on the surface; (7)Caves form by erosion; (8) Caves are as old as the rocks they are in; (9)Groundwater flow in karst is simple and direct; and (10) A lack of knowncaves suggests little or no development of karst. Each of these flawed viewscan be easily rectified through timely education.

Introduction

Karst terranes are inherently very sensitiveto environmental stresses and far surpass manyother landscapes and geologic settings in thisregard. Environmental problems in regions ofkarst are increasing in both aerial extent andintensity, especially in localities where land useis rapidly changing as relatively undisturbedland is undergoing economic development.

This is particularly evident in areas experienc-ing urbanization, an inevitable result of popu-lation growth and concomitant increases inresidential, commercial, industrial, and agri-cultural activity. Progressive degradation ofnatural environments proceeds as increasingnumbers of buildings, parking lots, and otherstructures are built and as various transporta-tion and utility corridors are extended. Theimpact of this activity on karst is often severe

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(Kastning, 1989, 1995, 1996). Environmentalproblems in karst typically include (1) instabil-ity and collapse of the ground surface, (2)erosion or sedimentation of sinkholes, (3)flooding of sinkholes, (4) contamination ofgroundwater, and (5) destruction or alterationof spelean environments. Because human ac-tivity in karst terranes may easily impact thesubsurface in various ways, caves are particu-larly at risk. Problems include disruption ofecosystems or damage to the contents of caves,such as aesthetic deposits of minerals or ar-chaeological and historic materials. The readermay readily find information on environmentalimpacts on caves and karst in various sources(Aley, 1972; Aley and others, 1972; Dougherty,1983; Kastning and Kastning 1991, 1993; Le-Grand, 1973; Slifer and Erchul, 1989; White,1988; Zokaites, 1997).

Examples of environmental problems inkarst are well documented in the literature,including proceedings volumes of the 13 pre-ceding National Cave Management Symposiaand proceedings of numerous geotechnicalconferences on this subject (Kastning, 1994).As a means of alleviating environmental stressin karst lands, a trend in recent years is toproduce informative booklets, brochures,maps, and posters on karst for distribution toschools, libraries, museums, and similar insti-tutions (Hubbard, 1989; Kastning andKastning, 1990, 1992, 1995; Zokaites, 1997).These are also being provided to landownersand governmental officials in communities un-derlain by soluble rock.

There is a pervasive lack of understandingamong people living in karst regions about theintrinsic nature of this type of terrane and thecharacteristic processes that have formed it andcontinue to operate. Unfortunately, this unfa-miliarity also extends to many individuals whohave the authority and mandate to address andalleviate environmental and engineering prob-lems that arise from changes in land use. Evenmore disconcerting than this large informationgap is the prevalence of wrong informationabout caves and karst that is assumed by thepublic or is promulgated through spoken orwritten contact or through lay and media pub-lications (newspapers, magazines, brochures,advertisements, and the like).

A Working Definition of Karst

Although the term “karst” is being used moreand more by the press and is appearing inpublications and documents from time to time,the meaning of the term is not always an easyone to convey to a lay person. The definition is

somewhat convoluted and, when stated, usu-ally needs to be embellished with examples.Specific wordings defining karst have beenpublished in various speleological and geologi-cal lexicons (see listing of karst glossaries inKastning, 1994). The glossary of karst terminol-ogy compiled by Monroe (1970) is recom-mended for those who desire a fairly completeguide to the many karst terms used by special-ists.

An essential first step in effective manage-ment of karst terrane is to define karst. In verysimple terms, the following working, one-sen-tence definition has been found to suffice:Karst is a landscape that is principally formedby the dissolving of bedrock. For clarity, it isuseful to add that karst is characterized bysinkholes, caves, dry valleys (little or no surfi-cial drainage), sinking streams, springs andseeps, solution valleys, and various forms thatare sculpted on the bedrock surface (collec-t ively known as karren). Hydrologically,groundwater in karst terranes flows efficientlythrough openings in the bedrock that havebeen enlarged by the dissolution process. Sur-face water is rapidly conveyed underground atzones of recharge (typically where water enterssinkholes, soil, and vertical fractures in thebedrock) and then passes through a networkof conduits (fractures, partings between bedsof rock, and caves). The water eventuallyemerges at the surface in zones of discharge(springs, seeps, and wells). Karst forms in rocksthat are soluble to various degrees when incontact with slightly acidic natural water. Com-monly, the rocks that are most easily dissolved,and hence become karsted, are carbonateunits, such as limestone and dolostone (sedi-mentary) and marble (metamorphic), and sul-fate units such as gypsum (sedimentary).Nearly all rocks may be dissolved to some de-gree. Only minor solutional features developin materials with very low solubility in water,such as granite, gneiss, and other silicate mate-rials. In most cases, these features are insignifi-cant in terms of hydrologic and environmentalimpact. Most significant areas of karst in theUnited States are found within outcrops oflimestone, dolostone, marble, and gypsum.

The study of karst is a relatively new sciencethat draws largely on the principles of geologyand physical geography. A thorough profes-sional understanding of the processes that oc-cur both at the surface and in the undergroundand an appreciation for the total hydrologicsystem necessitates a familiarity with scientifickarst studies. The level and scope of modernkarst studies are demonstrated by the recentproliferation of textbooks on the subject (see

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100 1999 National Cave and Karst Management Symposium

listing in Kastning, 1994). Recent texts on karstand caves include those of Ford and Williams(1989), White (1988), and Klimchouk and oth-ers (2000). Additionally, the number of scien-tific journal articles and graduate theses onkarst is expanding at a phenomenal rate.

Misconceptions About Karst

There are many common misconceptionsregarding caves and karst. Over the years wehave addressed several that have been particu-larly troublesome in the regions and local com-munit ies where we have worked onenvironmental problems. Moreover, miscon-ceptions are innocently conveyed to visitors ontours at some show caves, although this prob-lem is lessening as owners and managers ofthese attractions are themselves becomingmore aware of the processes of karst and spe-leogenesis. We have previously addressed fourof the most common misconceptions(Kastning and Kastning, 1994, 1997). In thispaper we revisit these and include six others.The misconceptions discussed here are amongthe most prevalent and many of these are po-tentially troublesome in cave and karst man-agement.

Misconception No. 1: Bedrock is solid,without voids. Rocks are viewed as strong,unyielding, and relatively inert materials thatprovide a stable foundation at the surface of theearth. This may be true of crystalline materialssuch as igneous and metamorphic rocks andhard, dense, insoluble sedimentary rocks.However, soluble rocks (such as limestone,dolostone, marble, and gypsum) may easilyhave been hollowed through dissolution byacidic groundwater. Pore spaces and fractures(representing primary and secondary porosity,respectively) may be enlarged in this way, re-sulting in conduits that become intercon-nected into extensive, well-integrated flownetworks (Figure 1). Cavities excavated in thismanner may vary greatly in size and extent,with some attaining large dimensions. Dissolu-tionally enlarged openings, in turn, may causestructural instability of the bedrock and pro-vide avenues for rapid circulation of groundwa-ter. The presence of karst features on thesurface is nearly always indicative of subsur-ficial openings and integrated groundwaterflow paths.

Misconception No. 2: Water enters sink-holes because they are there, rather thanwater creates sinkholes. Most people recog-nize that water enters sinkholes. After all, if asinkhole is a closed depression on the surface,it will collect water from precipitation and run-

off. This water has nowhere to go except intothe ground. Sinkholes are all too often viewedas pre-existing funnels that happen to channeland concentrate water that impinges on them.However, the relationship between surficialwaters and sinkholes is generally the converse(Kastning, 1999): sinkholes form and enlargeat places where surficial water can easily en-ter the ground, such as along enlarged frac-tures in soluble bedrock. Infiltrating water has

Figure 1. Cave passage in Mystery Cave,Mystery Cave State Park, Fillmore County,

Minnesota. This passage has developedalong one of many parallel joints. Note the

prevalence of pore spaces and bedding-planepartings on the walls of this passage. The

pores represent much of the porosity presentat the time of deposition of the sediments

(primary porosity). The joints weretectonically produced at a much later date

and are part of the secondary porosityavailable to groundwater flow. Even later,groundwater flowing through both types of

openings (primary and secondary) havedissolved the bedrock on the walls of the

joints, enlarging the width of the joint andthereby allowing for more space for

groundwater flow (tertiary porosity).

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formed the sinkholes, rather than pre-existingsinkholes merely providing convenient sites forrecharge (Figure 2). Of course, once estab-lished, sinkholes may then concentrate waterflow and continue to enlarge.

Misconception No. 3: Pollutants put intothe ground in karst remain where they areplaced. When compared with most other typesof rock (sandstone, shale, and crystalline rocks,such as granite, gneiss, and the like), carbonaterocks and gypsum are highly porous and per-meable. Karsted rocks will not naturally filtercontaminants to any appreciable extent.Moreover, contaminants are easily and veryrapidly transmitted to points of discharge, prin-

cipally springs and wells. The residence time ofchemical ingredients in karstic groundwater isrelatively short in comparison to that in otherrock terranes. Water issuing from the subsur-face through springs and wells may easily becontaminated by toxic substances that are in-troduced in recharge zones. Waste placed insinkhole dumps or “solid” landfill wastes willleach from these deposits and migrate with thegroundwater (Figure 3). One of the most effec-tive attention getters when explaining this phe-nomenon and its consequences to the publicis to comment on how leachate from dead farmanimals placed in sinkholes may appear in tapwater in nearby homes. In karst, what goes intothe ground may soon come out of the groundwith little chemical change.

Figure 2. Sinkhole and vertical-shaftentrance to Purgatory Pit, Rutland County,

Vermont. This entrance consists of a series ofoffset shafts in marble that have formed

along joint planes. The sinkhole-shaftcomplex formed in response to recharge

entering fractures that extend downwardfrom the surface. Even though many

sinkholes presently receive surficial waterfrom precipitation, most were created aswater slowly percolated downward along

enlarging openings.

Figure 3. Household trash dumped into asinkhole in gypsite terrane, near Carlsbad,Eddy County, New Mexico. This sinkhole

formed just three days before thisphotograph was taken. In that short time,

an individual found this sinkhole anddisposed of trash. Chemical contaminants in

trash are quickly transmitted intounderlying aquifers and to local water

supplies such as springs and wells.

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Misconception No. 4: Water from karstsprings is pure. There is a general belief thatwater issuing from natural springs has beennaturally purified and is thereby healthy todrink and use (Figure 4). This is exemplified bythe popularity of bottled spring water. Thereare hundreds of brands of bottled spring waterbeing sold in the United States today. Addition-ally, many people, including those living inkarst areas, routinely obtain “potable” waterfrom springs, assuming that water emanatingfrom the ground must be clean. The fallacy thatspring waters are inherently pure is obviousfrom the explanation in Misconception 3above. Groundwater in karst moves rapidlyfrom points of recharge to points of discharge,with relatively little chemical change.

Misconception No. 5: All sinkholes formcatastrophically. Most people living on welldeveloped karst may be able to recognize asinkhole and be able to describe a sinkholebased on its geometric form and know thatwater enters the ground through sinkholes.However, most consider sinkholes to haveformed through sudden collapse of the groundinto pre-existing voids (caves) in the subsur-face. In fact, one of the chief concerns of land-owners who have sinkholes on their property(especially where they are close to buildings)is that the land may collapse catastrophically,perhaps taking a building with it. Careful inven-tory and analysis of sinkholes in a particulararea, however, would most likely show thatrelatively few have formed by outright collapse.Instead, most sinkholes form gradually, keep-

ing pace with dissolutional removal of bed-rock in the subsurface. This type of sinkhole,commonly referred to as a solution-subsidencesinkhole, is characterized by a bowl shape withgentle slopes (Figure 5). Conversely, solution-collapse sinkholes, formed by catastrophic fail-ure of the bedrock in will typically have steep(often vertical) walls with exposed bedrock.

Misconception No. 6: Karst is always wellexpressed on the surface. All too often landis considered to be non-karsted even though itis underlain by soluble rock. Typically the basisfor this conclusion is that there are no obviouskarst features on the surface, especially well-de-fined sinkholes. In the course of our personalgeotechnical investigations, the authors haveseen several cases where large sections of landhave been designated as non-karstic simplybecause surficial depressions appear to be ab-sent (Kastning, 1995, 1996). Yet, we found thatsome depressions may exist that are very subtleand have little topographic relief. They wouldcertainly not show up on topographic mapsthat have a 20-foot or greater contour interval(Hubbard, 1991). For example, a thicker than

Figure 4. Entrance to Donaldsons Cave,Spring Mill State Park, Lawrence County,Indiana. This a moderately large karst

spring. Many springs in karst are used aswater supplies. Despite public opinion that

spring water is inherently pure, waterissuing from karst springs has moved

quickly through the aquifer, with little or nochemical change or filtration.

Figure 5. Typical sinkhole on the PennyroyalPlain, east of Mammoth Cave NationalPark, Barren County, Kentucky. Most

sinkholes form as bowl-shaped depressionswith gently sloping sides and little exposed

bedrock. Termed “solution subsidencesinkholes,” these form gradually as

dissolution slowly modifies the uppersurface of the bedrock above fractures

through which dissolved material is carriedinto the subsurface. These sinkholes are

unlikely to result in sudden collapse. Mostobserved sudden collapses result as soilparticles are slowly plucked and moved

downward by percolating groundwater (aprocess termed piping or suffosion) followedby catastrophic collapse of the thinning roof

of the developing cavity.

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typical soil layer (such as in valleys at the baseof steep mountains) might “hide” or mute kar-stic features. Moreover, some of these landsexhibit other, less obvious karst features, suchas dry valleys (Figure 6) and springs or seeps.In some cases, there may be little or no surfi-cial expression of karst even though well estab-lished, karsted, groundwater-flow networksmay exist in the subsurface.

Misconception No. 7: Caves form by ero-sion. Nearly every caver or karst scientist whohas visited a number of show caves has heardan explanation of how that particular cave hadbeen “carved” by a swiftly running under-ground stream. Everyone is familiar with theerosive power of surficial streams, so it seemsnatural to extend this process to the subsur-face. Besides, it gives the impression of theawesome power of nature. Yet, careful meas-urement of flow in cave conduits throughtimed dye-tracing studies, along with analysisof dissolution scallops in the bedrock walls andfloors of caves (Figure 7), shows that watertraveling through even the largest conduits isgenerally too slow for significant erosional re-moval or rock. Most caves form through disso-lution of the bedrock by slowly circulatinggroundwater.

Misconception No. 8: Caves are as old asthe rocks they are in. Again, this is a commonmistake that one hears time and again on toursin show caves. It is an easy mistake to make,after all the bedrock is usually very old, oftenin the range of hundreds of millions of years.It is awe-inspiring to think that the cave you arevisiting is that old. However, caves are rela-

tively young landforms, formed in rock that istypically ancient. The age of most caves inkarst regions is not older than one or twomillion years (Figure 8). This has been deter-mined through use of radioisotopes and paleo-magnetism in cave sediments and throughcorrelation of caves with the known surficial

erosional history of the region.Misconception No. 9: Groundwater flow

in karst is simple and direct. It is a simple

Figure 6. Dry streambed, Schoharie County,New York. Karst is not always well expressed

on the surface. One clue that a terrane iskarstic is that surficial stream channels

have little or no flow. Small stream channelsin karst are often dry except immediately

following significant precipitation.

Figure 7. The Sump in McFails Cave,Schoharie County, New York. Scallops visible

above the water level indicate the slowvelocity of flow present under phreatic

conditions when the passage was enlargingby dissolution of the bedrock. Scalloping is

not a product of erosional excavation.

Figure 8. Bedding-plane anastomoses inWyandotte Cave, Crawford County, Indiana.

These small openings are typicallycharacteristic of early stages of excavationof cave passages within favorable beds ofsoluble rock. Clearly, even these immature

openings are considerably younger than thesedimentary rocks that surround them.

Certainly mature caves are even younger,typically having formed during the last

million or so years.

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matter to note where water may enter theground in karst regions, namely through sink-holes or where streams disappear into swalletholes or cave entrances. Similarly, it is easy toidentify discharge points such as springs orseeps. It follows then that, in many cases, ob-servers would assume that water would likelytake a relatively direct route from the observedpoints of recharge to points of discharge. Thisroute is often conceived as the shortest routebetween two points. Whereas the inferredroute may be the correct one, it is inadvisableto make that conclusion in karst. There aremany documented cases, based on well de-signed dye-tracing studies, where water takes adevious path and emerges at a distant point andnot at the nearest spring (Figure 9). Paths ofgroundwater flow in karst also may convergeor diverge in the subsurface, resulting in feweror more possible routes. Additionally, conduitflow systems are flashy in character and re-spond in unpredictable ways to storm eventsor other rapid changes in surface-water condi-tions. For example, overflow pathways tosprings may be used only during flood events.Therefore, networks of groundwater flow inkarst are usually complex, and flow paths and

discharge points may be difficult to predict.Misconception No. 10: A lack of known

caves suggests little or no development ofkarst. Not all areas of karst have known caves.The absence of known caves is often used as a

reason to classify a terrane as non-karstic, espe-cially if the surface is also devoid of obviouskarstic landforms (see Misconception No. 6,above). However, there are many examples ofkarst terranes where recharge zones and dis-charge zones are easily identified and mapped(Figure 10). Timed dye-tracing studies mayshow that groundwater travels at velocitiescommensurate with conduit flow, proving thatthese particular terranes are karstic in the sub-surface, even though few or no enterable cavesare known. There are many documented situ-ations where caves were eventually found interranes thought to have a low potential for thediscovery of caves. Furthermore, conduits do

Figure 9. Big Spring, Ozark National ScenicRiver, Carter County, Missouri. This spring is

the largest in the United States in terms ofdischarge. Tracer dyes injected at many

recharge points, up to tens of miles distant,have been detected at this spring, indicating

an extensive and complex contributinggroundwater drainage basin. Flowpaths ofgroundwater in karst may be indirect andcomplex. Dye tracing is the only reliable

way of determining such flowpaths.

Figure 10. Seepage from bedding-planepartings along a wall of an abandonedquarry, Radford, Virginia. Groundwater

flow is highlighted in this example byfreezing of discharging water in winter.Many karst areas have significant flow

along partings and fractures, yet enterablecaves may not present or yet discovered.

Nonetheless, groundwater discharge may beconsiderable along numerous small

conduits. The absence of known caves doesnot in itself indicate the absence of karst.

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not need to be large enough for human explo-ration in order for well-integrated flow systemsto exist. Groundwater in karst may easily flowin openings too small to be termed “caves,” yetthis flow may be hydrogeologically signifi-cant.

Conclusions

Through no fault of their own, many peopleliving in karst regions (and many who makecrucial environmental and management deci-sions related to those areas) are misinformedabout the geomorphic and hydrogeologicprocesses that operate in karst and form caves.Misconceptions about caves and karst, includ-ing the ten enumerated above, are relativelyeasy to debunk and clarify through education.The speleological community has an obligationto do what it can to protect cave and karstresources. It has the data and knowledge thatis required to manage karstlands properly.Educational outreach to the population at largeand to those whose mandate it is to properlymanage and protect the environment goes along way toward encouraging responsible be-havior and decision making. Explanationsshould be clear and concise, keeping in mindthat members of the lay public may be learningabout karst for the first time. Graphical aids,such as maps, drawings, and photographs, goa long way in making the points necessary.Progress is being made in this regard andshould continue.

References Cited

Aley, T.J., 1972, “Groundwater Contaminationfrom Sinkhole Dumps.” Caves and Karst, v14, pp 17-23.

Aley, T.J.; Williams, J.H.; and Massello, J.W.,1972, “Groundwater Contamination andSinkhole Collapse Induced by Leaky Im-poundments in Soluble Rock Terrain.” Mis-souri Geological Survey and WaterResources, Engineering Geology Series No.5, 32 pp.

Dougherty, P.H. (editor), 1983, Environ-mental Karst (papers from karst symposiumat the Association of American Geographersmeeting, Louisville, Kentucky, April 1980).GeoSpeleo Publications, Cincinnati, Ohio,167 p.

Ford, D.C. and Williams, P., 1989, Karst Geo-morphology and Hydrology. Unwin Hyman,Winchester, Massachusetts, 320 pp.

Hubbard, D.A., Jr., 1989, Sinkholes. Virginia Di-vision of Mineral Resources brochure, 2 pp.

Hubbard, D.A., Jr., 1991, “Regional Karst Stud-ies: Who Needs Them?” in Kastning, E.H. andKastning, K.M. (editors), 1991, AppalachianKarst Symposium: Proceedings of the Appa-lachian Karst Symposium, Radford, Vir-ginia, March 23-26, 1991: NationalSpeleological Society, Huntsville, Alabama,pp135-138.

Kastning, E.H., 1989, “Environmental Sensitiv-ity of Karst in the New River Drainage Basin,”in Kardos, A.R. (editor), Proceedings, EighthNew River Symposium, Radford, Virginia,April 21-23, 1989: New River Gorge NationalRiver, Oak Hill, West Virginia, pp 103-112.

Kastning, E.H., 1994, Karst Geomorphologyand Hydrogeology: A Bibliography of Prin-cipal References (third edition, October1994): Limited private printing, 11 pp.

Kastning, E.H., 1995, “Selection of Corridorsfor Power Transmission Lines and HighwaysThrough Karst Terranes,” in Beck, B.F. (edi-tor), Karst Geohazards: Engineering andEnvironmental Problems in Karst Terrane:Proceedings of the Fifth MultidisciplinaryConference on Sinkholes and the Engineer-ing and Environmental Impacts of Karst,Gatlinburg, Tennessee 2-5 April 1995: A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, andBrookfield, Massachusetts, pp 195-198.

Kastning, E.H., 1996, “Consideration of Cavesand Karst in Selection of Corridors ForPower Transmission Lines and Highways,” inRea, G.T. (editor), Proceedings of the 1995National Cave Management Symposium,Spring Mill State Park, Mitchell, Indiana,October 25-28, 1995: Indiana Karst Conser-vancy, Inc., Indianapolis, pp 187-202.

Kastning, E.H., 1999, The Surface-SubsurfaceInterface and the Influence of GeologicStructure in Karst," in Palmer, A.N.; Palmer,M.V.; and Sasowsky, I.D. (editors), KarstModeling: Proceedings of the SymposiumHeld February 24 Through 27, 1999, Char-lottesville, Virginia: Karst Waters InstituteSpecial Publication 5, pp 43-47.

Kastning, E.H. and Kastning, K.M., 1991, “En-vironmental Education Regarding KarstProcesses in the Appalachian Region,” inKastning, E.H. and Kastning, K.M. (editors),1991, Appalachian Karst Symposium: Pro-

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ceedings of the Appalachian Karst Sympo-sium, Radford, Virginia, March 23-26, 1991:National Speleological Society, Huntsville,Alabama, pp 123-134.

Kastning, E.H,. and Kastning, K.M., 1993,“Sinkhole Management,” in Jordan, J.R. andObele, R.K. (editors), Proceedings of the1989 National Cave Management Sympo-sium, New Braunfels, Texas, U.S.A. TexasCave Management Association, New Braun-fels, Texas, pp 54-68.

Kastning, E.H. and Kastning, K.M., 1994,“Karstlands: Helping the public understandthe system” (abstract). NSS Bulletin: Journalof Caves and Karst Studies (National Spe-leological Society), v 56, no. 2, p114.

Kastning, E.H. and Kastning, K.M., 1997, “Buff-er Zones in Karst Terranes,” in Younos, T.,Burbey, T.J., Kastning, E.H., and Poff, J.A.(editors), Proceedings, Karst-Water Envi-ronment Symposium, October 30-31, 1997,Hotel Roanoke and Conference Center,Roanoke, Virginia. Virginia Water ResourcesResearch Center, Virginia Polytechnic Insti-tute and State University, Blacksburg, Vir-ginia, pp 80-87.

Kastning, K.M. and Kastning, E.H., 1990, InKarstlands . . . What Goes Down Must ComeUp!. Virginia Cave Board, Department ofConservation and Recreation, poster, 22 by28 inches.

Kastning, K.M. and Kastning, E.H., 1992, Liv-ing with Sinkholes. Virginia Department ofConservation and Recreation, Division ofNatural Heritage, Virginia Cave Board:Richmond, brochure, 2 p. (First printing,1992, 5,000 copies; Second printing, 1994,10,000 copies).

Kastning, K.M. and Kastning, E.H., 1995, Cavesand Karst of Virginia and West Virginia.Map, three colors, 20 inches by 28 inches,scale 1:792,000 (included in guidebooks forthe 1995 National Speleological SocietyConvention and 1995 National Speleologi-cal Society Geology Fieldtrip).

Klimchouck, A.B.; Ford, D.C.; Palmer, A.N.; andDreybrodt, W. (editors), 2000, Speleogene-sis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers: NationalSpeleological Society, Huntsville, Alabama,496 pp.

LeGrand, H.E., 1973, “Hydrological and Eco-logical Problems of Karst Regions.” Science,v. 179, no. 4076 (March 2, 1973), pp 859-864.

Monroe, W.H., 1970, “A Glossary of Karst Ter-minology.” United States Geological SurveyWater-Supply Paper 1899-K, 26 p.

Slifer, D.W. and Erchul, R.A., 1989, “SinkholeDumps and the Risk to Ground Water inVirginia’s Karst Areas,” in Beck, B.F. (editor),Engineering and Environmental Impacts ofSinkholes and Karst: Proceedings of theThird Multidisciplinary Conference on Sink-holes and the Engineering and Environ-mental Impacts of Karst, St. PetersburgBeach, Florida, 2-4 October 1989. A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam and Boston, pp 207-212.

White, W.B., 1988, Geomorphology and Hy-drology of Karst Terrains. Oxford UniversityPress, New York, 464 p.

Zokaites, C.A. (editor), 1997, Living on Karst:A Reference Guide for Landowners in Lime-stone Regions. Cave Conservancy of the Vir-ginias, Richmond, 26 p.

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