Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks State of ......Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data...

Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks

State of EnvironmentReporting

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication DataMain entry under title:Environmental trends in British Columbia. – 1998 –

Bienniel.ISSN 1481-7284 = Environmental trends in British Columbia

1. Environmental indicators – British Columbia –Periodicals. 2. Environmental policy – British Columbia – Periodicals.I. British Columbia. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.

GE190.C3E58 333.7'09711'05 C99-960015-X

Copyright © 2000, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.

Copies of this report may be:

picked up fromCorporate Policy BranchMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks2975 Jutland Road, Victoria, B.C.

ordered fromMinistry of Environment, Lands and ParksCorporate Policy BranchPO Box 9335, Stn Prov GovtVictoria, B.C. V8T 5J9

or downloaded fromhttp://www.env.gov.bc.ca/sppl/soerpt

A technical compendium documenting methodologies and presenting the data behindeach indicator is available on the Internet or in hardcopy on request.

Comments may be emailed to: [email protected]

Cover illustration by Loucas RaptisDesign by Alaris Design and production by TM Communications Inc.

O N T H E C O V E R

The Vancouver Island Marmot, Marmota vancouverensis, is a highly social animal that lives only in the highmountains of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. It is shown on the cover holding common paintbrush, Castillejamaniata, a dietary favorite during summer months, and standing in a subalpine field of assorted grasses, which are alsomajor food items. The Vancouver Island Marmot is the world’s rarest marmot with 50 animals left in the wild. Forestry inthe mountains has concentrated this small population, making it susceptible to natural conditions such as bad weather,disease and predation. A recovery project is in place to restore the population to between 400 and 600 marmotsdistributed in three separate mountain areas on Vancouver Island. The Vancouver Island Marmot is listed as endangeredin British Columbia and is reported on as part of the Species at Risk Indicator (page 36).

Title: Environmental Trends in British Columbia 2000

Ted AntifeauMatt AustinFrances Backhouse10

Mike BadryVeronica BarleeDavid BarryLori Barjaktarovic5

James BaxterJulia Beatty SpenceGarry BellDr. Richard BennettDr. Anthony Berger7

Doug BiffardKul BindraPeter Blancher5

Dan BoltonDave BondMike BradfordDr. Melinda Brugman5

Dr. Jim BryanDon CaddenRandy CairnsValerie CameronSyd CanningsCatherine CarrTrudy ChatwinGreg CheesmanMyke ChutterShelley Chvala14

Mauro ColigadoJohn Cooper10

Ray Copes4

Ron CreberRick CrozierRob DalarympleTom Dann5

Dr. Mike Demuth15

Marta DonovanDave DouglasGeorge DouglasTed Down12

Connie Downes5

Elain Duwars16

Lloyd EricksonAnne Eriksson10

Robin Fairservice

1) Land Use Coordination Office 2) Ministry of Forests 3) Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations 4) Ministry of Health5) Environment Canada 6) Department of Fisheries and Oceans 7) University of Victoria 8) University of British Columbia9) Simon Fraser University 10) Contractor 11) Co-op Student 12) BC Fisheries 13) Royal British Columbia Museum14) Certified Organic Associations of BC 15) Geological Survey of Canada 16) Statistics Canada 17) Greater Vancouver RegionalDistrict 18) Centre for Climate Change 19) Canadian Organic Growers Society 20) BC STATS

Mike FengerAnn Ferdinands1

Shelley ForresterDr. Glyn FoxDave FraserLaura FriisCarol Frketich3

Dennis FudgeNorman Fyfe16

Greg GeorgeJim GillilandMike GowBob GraceBrian GrantDon Grant2

Dr. Malcolm GrayGordon Haas12

Tony HamiltonJay HammondAlton HarestadSig HatlevikIan HatterDoug HeardAnn HetheringtonBill HodgeBill HollingsheadRichard Holt17

Blair HoltbyBob HootonDr. Kim Hyatt6

Bill IrwinArt Jacques5

Brian JantzVic JensenDoug JohnsonPierre JohnstoneDoug JuryKristin KarrKaren Kirby20

Wayne KnappAl KohutNobert KondlaMike LambertOtto Langer6

Carl LeeDr. Rick Lee18

Andy MacKinnon2

Ann Macey19

Dr. Don McAllisterWarren McCormickBruce McGonigalJim McGregorAsoka Mendis10

Pam MeneguzziTracy MichalskiLynne Milnes10

Martin Monkman20

Brent MooreMaureen MooreChris MorganDoug MorrisonKen MorrisonCarol Murray10

David Nagorsen13

Frank Neitzert5

Chuck NewcombeRemi OdenseCarol Ogborne1

Ken Olsen5

Kathy PaigeMike PanianEric Parkinson12

Robert PaulAlex PedenNeil PetersDr. Richar PickardEarle PlainJim Pojar2

Larry PommenDoug PopeEd PorterHeidi Post11

Ron PtolemyJuanita Ptolemy12

Leah RamsaySuzanne RautioGeorge ReidKen Reid17

Roger ReidPeter ReidDr. John RichardsonTerry Roberts

Gary RobinsonBeth RogersMarvin RosenauStephen SamisDonna SanfordIan SharpeDale Sebastian12

Valerie Sexton5

Catherine SheldrakeTim Slaney10

Bob SmithDr. Dan Smith7

Al SoobotinBrian Springinotic1

Victoria Stevens10

John SurgenorDave SutherlandNatalie SuzukiLes SwainVic SwiatkiewiczArt Tautz12

Lana Taves11

Bill Taylor5

Eric Taylor5

Lee ThiessenErnie TradewellTaina Tuominen5

John TurnerGraham VealeHarry VogtTony WakelinBruce Ward12

Dr. John WardBryan WebsterEgon WegerMike WeiAngela West11

Susan Westmacott1

Elizabeth WilliamsLaurie Wilson5

John YoudsMark ZachariasAl ZackodnikPamela ZevitNorm ZirnheltDave Zirul

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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

CoordinatorDr. Risa Smith

Assistant CoordinatorAngeline Tillmanns11

ContributorsContributors are staff of Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks unless otherwise indicated.

iii

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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii

Purpose of Environmental Indicators ..................................................................................................... 1A commitment to accountability ............................................................................................................... 1Summary of the indicators ......................................................................................................................... 2

Highlights ........................................................................................................................................................ 3Comparisons ............................................................................................................................................... 4

Indicators at a Glance ................................................................................................................................. 5Green Economy .......................................................................................................................................... 5Protected Areas ........................................................................................................................................... 5Domestic Waste ........................................................................................................................................... 6Air Quality Impacts from Fine Particulates ............................................................................................... 6Greenhouse Gases ....................................................................................................................................... 7Effects of Global Change ............................................................................................................................ 7Surface Water Quality ................................................................................................................................. 8Groundwater ............................................................................................................................................... 8Water Use .................................................................................................................................................... 9Species at Risk ............................................................................................................................................. 9Forest Species .............................................................................................................................................. 10Wildlife ........................................................................................................................................................ 10Fish .............................................................................................................................................................. 11Riparian Ecosystems on Forest Land.......................................................................................................... 11Toxic Contaminants .................................................................................................................................... 12

Developing the Indicators .......................................................................................................................... 13Development of environmental indicators ................................................................................................ 13Establishing goals ........................................................................................................................................ 13Setting targets .............................................................................................................................................. 14

International Obligations ........................................................................................................................... 15

Next Steps ..................................................................................................................................................... 16

iv

The Indicators ................................................................................................................................................ 17Categorizing the indicators ......................................................................................................................... 17Future indicator development .................................................................................................................... 17

Green Economy ................................................................................................................................ 18Protected Areas .................................................................................................................................. 20Domestic Waste ................................................................................................................................. 22Air Quality Impacts from Fine Particulates ..................................................................................... 24Greenhouse Gases ............................................................................................................................. 26Effects of Global Climate Change .................................................................................................... 28Surface Water Quality ....................................................................................................................... 30Groundwater ..................................................................................................................................... 32Water Use .......................................................................................................................................... 34Species at Risk ................................................................................................................................... 36Forest Species .................................................................................................................................... 38Wildlife .............................................................................................................................................. 42Fish .................................................................................................................................................... 44Riparian Ecosystems on Forest Land ............................................................................................... 46Toxic Contaminants .......................................................................................................................... 48

Index ................................................................................................................................................. 50

Mail-in Evaluation ......................................................................................................................... 55

v

S tatistical measures of human well-being,presented in the form of economic andsocial trends, have long been used as

powerful tools for gauging the status ofeconomic and social systems. Indicators suchas gross domestic product, unemploymentrates and the consumer price index areroutinely used by decision-makers ingovernment, industry, small business andcommunities to shape policies and redirectresources. Less pervasive, but equallyimportant, are indicators of ecosystem orenvironmental well-being.

Environmental Trends in British Columbia,2000 is the second environmental indicatorsreport released by the British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks.This report presents fifteen key indicators(page 2) on the state of British Columbia’senvironment. There are four new indicators:Green Economy; Water Use; Forest RiparianEcosystems; and Global Climate Change. Theother eleven provide updates of informationpresented in Environmental Trends inBritish Columbia, 1998. Each indicatorprovides a picture of the status or trends forone issue. When viewed together, these fifteenindicators provide: an overview of thecondition of British Columbia’s environment;important links between seemingly disparateissues; and a picture of the way in which BritishColumbians are collectively responding toenvironmental challenges.

The development of environmentalindicators is rapidly emerging as an importanttool to encourage the incorporation ofenvironmental information into all decision-making. They are being used by internationalorganizations, such as the Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development;by national organizations, such asEnvironment Canada, Statistics Canada andthe US Environmental Protection Agency; andby many provincial organizations, such as the

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Purpose of Environmental Indicators

indicators developed to measure progresson the Provincial Health Goals forBritish Columbia (1997).

With the publication of this secondreport in the Environmental Trends series,British Columbia is establishing itself as aleader in the development and presentation ofenvironmental indicators.

A commitment to accountability

In 1995, the Auditor-General ofBritish Columbia recommended enhancing theaccountability of government through thedevelopment of performance measures. Onerecommendation was that performancemeasures focus on the ultimate outcomesof government efforts, in addition to theintensity of the efforts themselves. This means,for example, that it is as important to report onthe concentration of atmospheric pollutants as itis to report on the number of permits issued.Environmental Trends is, in part, the Ministryof Environment, Lands and Parks’ response tothe Auditor-General’s challenge.

The Ministry’s Business Plan 1999–2001incorporates Environmental Trends indicatorsas measures of progress toward the Ministry’sgoals. However, it is not possible for any oneorganization to be solely accountable for thecondition of the natural environment.Managing the environment is a collectiveactivity in which all British Columbians areengaged. Improving the quality of the naturalenvironment will require a change in attitudeand actions from all elements of society. Thepublication of this second report signals acommitment on the part of the Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks to be a leadingpartner in monitoring the state of theenvironment, protecting the condition of theenvironment and improving the quality of theenvironment.

EN V I RO N M E N TA L TR E N D S I N BR I T I S H CO LU M B I A, 20002

Green Economymeasured as the total and alternative energy consumption (in petajoules)

Protected Areasmeasured as the percentage of the land base having protected area status

Domestic Wastemeasured as the kg/person/year solid waste generated — proportion disposed of orrecycled provided

Air Quality Impacts from Fine Particulatesmeasured as the percentage of communities exposed to health risks from fine particulates(PM

10 > 25µg/m3) for more than 5% of the time each year

Greenhouse Gasesmeasured as megatonnes of greenhouse gas emissions in carbon dioxide equivalents

Effects of Global Climate Changemeasured as the temperature change (°C) over the past century

Surface Water Qualitymeasured as ten-year trends of sixty-three water quality monitoring stations

Groundwatermeasured as the percentage of groundwater observation wells with declining water levels

Water Usemeasured as the cumulative number of stream restrictions by decade

Species at Riskmeasured as the percentage of known species threatened or endangered or candidates forthese designations (for amphibians, mammals, birds, reptiles, vascular plants andfreshwater fish)

Forest Speciesmeasured as the percentage of known forest-dependent species threatened or endangeredor candidates for these designations (for amphibians, mammals, birds, reptiles, vascularplants and freshwater fish)

Wildlifemeasured as the percentage of historical range that is either no longer occupied or hasdeclining populations for five key species (Caribou, Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse,Grizzly Bear, Mule/Black-tailed Deer and Moose)

Fishmeasured as the percentage of salmon stocks extinct, at high to moderate risk of extinctionor of special concern

Riparian Ecosystems on Forest Landmeasured as the percentage of riparian area on forest land logged, by watershed grouping

Toxic Contaminantsmeasured as the concentration of organochlorines (DDE and PCBs) inGreat Blue Heron eggs

S U M M A R Y O F T H E I N D I C AT O R S

3

British Columbia is making measurableprogress towards achieving both broadgoals and specific targets in several areas.

Improvements in air and water quality insome communities, aquifer replenishment,and reductions in the concentration of toxiccontaminants in “top of the food chain”predators have all been observed.

Improvements have also been made insome of the pressures that British Columbiansplace on the environment. Reductions inindustrial discharges of toxic compounds andper capita domestic waste generation havebeen achieved. Domestic and industrialstewardship programs have resulted in thediversion of hazardous waste from landfillsand incinerators, and many contaminatedsites have been remediated.

There are some encouraging signals thatenvironmental markets and activities arebecoming increasingly important to theBritish Columbia economy. Increases havebeen observed in employment inenvironmental industries, the number offarms using environmentally friendlytechnology such as organic agriculture andintegrated pest management, and the numberof British Columbians choosing recreationalactivities centred around nature appreciation.

In some cases British Columbians arehaving a greater impact than ever on naturalsystems. Greenhouse gas emissions haveincreased steadily since 1990, per capitadomestic water use has remained among thehighest in the country, the number of streamsbelieved to be over-allocated or allocated tocapacity has more than doubled since 1970,road density on over one-third of the forestland is high enough to have a negative impacton the populations of many large mammals,and not only is energy consumption growing,

but the proportion of energy generated fromalternative sources is declining.

The poorest performance has been in theprotection of natural diversity. A significantpercentage of plant and animal species has beenidentified as threatened or endangered orcandidates for these designations, and the rangeof several wildlife species has decreased.

Those species depending on freshwaterhabitats are particularly at risk. Populations ofsome freshwater fish, such as White Sturgeon inthe Nechako, Columbia and Kootenay rivers areconsidered imperilled; many salmon stocks areat high to moderate risk of extinction; 15% ofthe streams in the Lower Fraser Valley have beenlost and an additional 71% are threatened byindustrial and residential development notsensitive to environmental values.

The impacts of global climate change onBritish Columbia are also significant.Temperatures in the interior and the north ofthe province have increased by two to threetimes the global average over the past century.The dramatic retreat of glaciers in the provinceillustrates the significant challenges that globalclimate change will have for all aspects ofenvironmental protection.

Progress towards achieving legislative, policyand program targets designed to have a long-term impact on the environment has resulted insome positive outcomes. Through the ProtectedAreas Strategy the government has not onlysignificantly increased the protected areas in theprovince, but has also ensured that theprovince’s rich ecosystem diversity is betterrepresented in the protected areas network.

Key components of some legislation,designed to protect natural diversity, have notyet been fully implemented. These include partsof the Forest Practices Code Act, such as

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Highlights


Landscape Unit Planning, Winter UngulateRanges and Identified Wildlife ManagementStrategy and parts of the Fish Protection Act,such as Streamside Directives and thedesignation of Water Management Areas.

Comparisons

Of particular interest are the comparisonswith other jurisdictions. In most areas,British Columbia fares well compared to otherplaces. The percentage of the land base inprotected areas is greater than other Canadianjurisdictions and most American and Europeanjurisdictions; toxic releases into theenvironment are lower than other industrializedprovinces in Canada; and the number of extinctor extirpated species compares well with otherwestern North American jurisdictions and issignificantly better than jurisdictions in easternNorth America.

Although in some cases British Columbiansplace more pressure on the environment thanother jurisdictions (e.g., per capita water use),in other areas British Columbians tread morelightly than others. Per capita carbon dioxideemissions are lower than the Canadian,American and Australian averages and onlyslightly greater than some Europeanjursidictions such as Germany.

Finally, employment in environmentalindustries is growing across Canada, andBritish Columbia is keeping up with this tide.

Environmental Trends in British Columbiaprovides the opportunity to highlightareas where further work is needed and toencourage not only governments but allBritish Columbians to mobilize resourcesto improve the conditon of the naturalenvironment.

5

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Green Economy (page 18)

Total energy consumption inBritish Columbia increased by one-thirdbetween 1981 and 1998. This increasewas due to a combination of populationand economic growth. The decline inenergy consumption between 1996 and1998 is attributed to a decline in fossilfuel production.

Sixteen percent of the energyconsumed in 1998 was generated fromalternative sources (i.e., sources that donot deplete natural resources, endangerthe environment or compromise theability of future generations to use thesame sources).

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Protected Areas (page 20)

The percentage of the provincededicated to protected areas increasedfrom 6.1% in 1991 to 11.4% at the end of1999. Ecosystem representation has alsobeen improving. More than 30% of the100 terrestrial ecosections in the provincenow have greater than 12% of their areain protected areas status.

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Indicators at a Glance

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

TargetPercentage of province protected

19001890 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

SOURCE: British Columbia Land Use Coordination Office, 1999 and BC Parks, 1995.

SOURCE: Energy Statistics Handbook and CANISM (The Canadian Socio-economicInformation Database produced by Statistics Canada), 1999.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998

Total and alternative energy consumption (in petajoules)

Total energy consumptionAlternative energy consumption


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Domestic Waste (page 22)

Between 1990 and 1998British Columbians achieved a 36%reduction in the per capita amount ofmunicipal solid waste going to landfillsor incincerators. This was largelyachieved by an increase in the amount ofsolid waste being diverted throughrecycling programs. Waste recycled hasincreased from 19% of per capita wastegenerated in 1990 to 42% of per capitawaste generated in 1998.

Air Quality Impacts from

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Fine Particulates (page 24)

In 1998, 24 out of 33 communitesmonitored for fine particulates (PM

10)

exceeded the levels at which healtheffects are known to occur, more than5% of the time. Sixteen of thesecommunities exceeded this level morethan 10% of the time.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1990

Waste generated (kg/person)

1996 1997 1998 2000

DisposalTarget

Waste recycledWaste disposed (landfills & incineration)

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. BC MunicipalSolid Waste Tracking Report 1997/98, Pollution Prevention andRemediation Branch.

0

20

40

60

80

100

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Percentage of communities exposed to health risks from fine particulates (PM10 >25µg/m3) at least 5% of the time

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Air Resources Branch, 2000.

IN D I C ATO R S AT A GL A N C E 7

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Greenhouse Gases (page 26)

In 1997 total greenhouse gas emissionin British Columbia were 61.9megatonnes of carbon dioxideequivalent, an increase of 21% since1990. The overall increase since 1990 islargely attributed to increased emissionsfrom transportation.

Between 1996 and 1997 there was asmall decline in greenhouse gasemissions, attributable to decreasedemissions from fossil fuel production.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in British Columbia (megatonnes of CO2 equivalents)

20

30

40

50

60

70

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

SOURCE: Environment Canada, 1999.

+0.6

+1.1

+1.1

+1.1

+0.5

+1.7

+1.1

SOURCE: Canadian Institute for Climate Studies, 1999.

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Effects of Global Change (page 28)

British Columbia has experienced awarming trend similar to the rest of theworld. Climate change inBritish Columbia is expected to alterweather patterns with effects thatinclude: more extreme weather events;increased rainfall and decreased snowfallon the coast; altered stream flowsresulting in more frequent spring floods;declining fish stocks; and increasedfrequency of forest fires and pestinfestations.

Temperature change (°C) over the past centuryin British Columbia


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Surface Water Quality (page 30)

In the 10 years between 1985 and 1995,surface water quality in British Columbiaremained stable at 60%, improved at 29%and deteriorated at 11% of 63 samplingstations. For the seven stations withdeteriorating water quality, the source ofproblems includes mining discharges,negative impacts of hydro dams on fishand non-point source pollution.

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Groundwater (page 32)

The supply of groundwater in most ofBritish Columbia has been increasingover the past ten years, as shown by thedecrease in the number of observationwells with declining water levels. Thisimprovement is mainly a result of abovenormal precipitation.

However, groundwater supply is stillconsidered to be at risk in about 10% ofthe aquifers that are monitored. Theseare mainly located on the east coast ofVancouver Island, in the Lower Mainland,and in the Southern Interior. About one-third of the classified aquifers areconsidered vulnerable to contamination.

Improving

Deteriorating

No Change

Water quality

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, and Environment Canada, 2000:Water Quality Trends in Selected British Columbia Waterbodies.

1990–1995

1985–1990

1980–1985

1975–1980

1970–1975

1965–1970

10

20

30

40

50

60

1995– 1999

Percentage of observation wells with declining water levels

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.


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Water Use in British Columbia (page 34)

Stream restrictions are used as amanagement tool to ensure that surfacewater supply is maintained. The numberof streams with stream restrictionstotalled over 3500 by the end of 1990.Over the past two decades streamrestrictions have increased significantly,indicating an increase in the intensity ofwater use, pressures on water supply andincreased effort in water management.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000Cumulative stream restrictions by decade

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Conservation Data Centre.

Threatened or endangered species (as percentage of known species)

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

Fish Reptiles Amphibians Plants Mammals Birds

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Species at Risk (page 36)

Approximately 12% of vascular plantsand 15% of vertebrate animals are listedby the BC Conservation Data Centre asthreatened or endangered. Agriculture,urban development and logging pose thegreatest threats to species at risk.


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Forest Species (page 38)

Fifteen percent of forest-dwellingvertebrates and 6% of forest-dwellingvascular plants are listed by the BCConservation Data Centre as threatenedor endangered. Of particular concern areforest-dependent freshwater fish andamphibians.

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Conservation Data Centreand State of the Environment Reporting Program, 1999.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Grizzly Bear

Caribou Sharp-tailedGrouse

Mule/Black-tailed Deer

Moose

Percentage of historical range in which species are extirpated or declining

No longer occupied (extirpated)With declining populations

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, 1999.

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Wildlife (page 42)

The total area occupied by somewildlife species, including Caribou andColumbian Sharp-tailed Grouse has beensignificantly reduced since the 1950s.Other species, such as Mule/Black-tailedDeer, Moose and Grizzly Bear stilloccupy over 85% of the area theyoccupied in 1950.

0Fish Amphibians Mammals Plants Birds Reptiles

10

20

30

40

Threatened or endangered forest species (as percentage of known forest species)


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Fish (page 44)

An analysis of salmonid stocks,conducted in 1996, showed that thestatus of 43% of the 10,000 salmonidstocks investigated was unknown. Of the5,476 stocks which could be classified,3% were extinct, 13% were at moderateto high risk of extinction and 4% were ofspecial concern. Since this analysis wasconducted it is likely that more stockswould be considered at risk of extinction.

SOURCE: T.L. Slaney et.al.,1996. Status of Anadromous Salmon and Trout inBritish Columbia and Yukon, Fisheries, V. 21, No. 10, pp. 20–35.

Percentage of salmonid stocks extinct, at moderate to

high risk of extinction or of special concern

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Special concern

Moderate to high risk of extinction

Extinct

Cutthroat

Steelhead

CohoChinook

ChumSockeye

PinkTotals

SOURCE: Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Geographic Database BC(GDBC), 1999.

Riparian area logged (on forest land)

>30%

20–30%

10–20%

1–10%

<1%

Riparian Ecosystems on Forest Land

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(page 46)

Riparian ecosystems are thetransitional areas between aquaticecosystems and upland forest ecosystems.They contain important habitat used by88% of native vertebrates in the province.Forest riparian ecosystems also play animportant role in stabilizingstreambanks, regulating streamtemperature, filtering debris andpollutants, and as migration corridorsfor wildlife.

Prior to the implementation of theForest Practices Code (FPC) in 1995, itwas common practice to log streams tothe bank. Since 1995, logging beside largestreams has been significantly reduced.However, the removal of vegetationbeside small streams is still a problem.


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Toxic Contaminants (page 48)

The level of toxic contaminants foundin some wildlife species has been slowlydecreasing over the past 20 years. Forexample, since 1977, PCB levels in theGreat Blue Heron colony at University ofBritish Columbia have declined bybetween 40 and 89%. As well, since 1977the levels of DDE, a breakdown productof the now banned pesticide DDT havedeclined by between 40 and 88%.

High altitude areas of the province areparticularly vulnerable to contaminationby persistent organic pollutantstransported long distances by wind.

SOURCE: Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 1999.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8Contaminants in Great Blue Heron eggs (mg/kg)

01977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane)

13

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Developing the Indicators

M I N I S T R Y G O A L S

Natural Diversity

Protection, conservation andrestoration of a full range of

biological and physical diversitynative to British Columbia.

Healthy and Safe Land, Water and Air

Clean, healthy and safe land,water and air for all living things.

Sustainable Social, Economicand Recreational Benefits

Provision of social, economicand outdoor recreational

opportunities consistent withmaintaining a naturally diverse

and healthy environment.

Responsive and Adaptive Organization

Supporting innovative and responsiveministry programs and staff who seek the

best results and service for the public.

Development ofenvironmental indicators

The development of meaningfulenvironmental indicators is not an easy task. Itis as much an art as it is a science. A set ofindicators must be broad enough to representthe main dimensions of the environment, yetbe few enough to present an easilyunderstandable picture of environmentalquality.

The most effective environmentalindicators are:

� representative;� sensitive to environmental change;� relevant to public policy;� easily understood by a non-technical

audience.

Recognizing that the development ofenvironmental indicators is in its infancy, theMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks isputting forward this second set of fifteen keyenvironmental indicators for public discussion.

The government of Canada has made acommitment to develop measurements thatintegrate economic and environmental well-being. British Columbia will participate in thisexercise and include the results of federal workin future reports. More important, though, isthe need for continued public discussion andendorsement to encourage widespreadadoption of the best indicators andreplacement of the weaker indicators withmore powerful ones.

Establishing goals

Environmental Trends goes beyond a simplepresentation of scientific information toprovide a measurement of progress towardsattaining environmental goals.


The goals articulated for each environ-mental indicator were established by theMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks aspart of the business planning process, and areintended to provide direction for managing theenvironment. They were established with asensitivity to public opinion and are meant toreflect the direction needed to achieve a clean,healthy and naturally diverse environment forpresent and future generations. Although thesebroad goals have been set by government, theycannot be achieved without the fullparticipation of British Columbia’s citizens,communities and industries.

Setting targets

In many cases, specific and quantifiabletargets have been set to guide the provincetowards achievement of broad goals. In somecases, targets have been set by the provincialgovernment. These targets provide milestonesby which the province can gauge its progress inprotecting the environment. An example of atarget set in this way is the target for wastereduction: 50% reduction in the amount ofwaste going to landfills or incinerators by 2000.In other cases, British Columbia has adoptedtargets set by external processes, such asnational and international agreements. Anexample of a target set in this way is the targetfor protected areas: protect 12% of the landbase of the province by 2000. This target wassuggested by the World Commission onEnvironment and Development in their 1987report, Our Common Future.

15

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International Obligations

A s environmental problems becomemore global, and economies becomemore interconnected, the rules under

which the environment is managed areincreasingly being negotiated throughinternational agreements. By 1997, Canada hadsigned over 230 international environmentagreements, of which 50 are directly relevant toBritish Columbia. These include :

� Convention on Biological Diversity (1992);� Agenda 21 (1992);� International Panel on Forest

Recommendations (1998);� Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations

Framework Convention on Climate Change(1997);

� UNESCO World Heritage Convention(1979).

In addition, British Columbia has signeddozens of international intergovernmentalagreements on wildlife, environmentalcooperation and information exchange sincethe 1960s.

British Columbia is the most biologicallydiverse region in Canada. As such it plays a keyrole in the implemention of many of Canada’sinternational agreements, including thepreservation of areas of world importance.

Three of Canada’s 12 World Heritage Sitesare in British Columbia:

� SGaang Gwaii is fully withinBritish Columbia;

� Kluane/Wrangell-St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek straddles theBritish Columbia/Alaska/Yukon border;

� Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks is inBritish Columbia and Alberta.

As well, British Columbia has designatedtwo wetland sites, Alaksen and Creston Valley, tothe Ramsar Convention, an internationalconvention designed to protect wetlands ofinternational importance as waterfowl habitats.These two wetland sites represent about 6% ofthe total Ramsar land in Canada’s 36 sites.

In addition to the ongoing legacy ofinternationally designated lands,British Columbia’s programs and people arerecipients of international awards, including,in 1999, the Pacific Estuary ConservationProgram (PECP), which won the Ramsar awardfor its work to protect British Columbia’swetlands.

Some international environment agreementsinclude provisions relating to indigenous people.Through the British Columbia Treaty Settlementprocess, the provincial government and FirstNations people are developing ways ofincorporating traditional knowledge intoenvironmental decision-making.

16

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Next Steps

E nvironmental Trends inBritish Columbia, 2000 will stimulatediscussion and provide the impetus for

action on several fronts. As a first step, the bestenvironmental indicators will continue to beupdated regularly, so that they become afamiliar tool for incorporation into everydaydecision-making.

The legislative and policy framework is nowin place to address some of the environmentalproblems that have been identified by thesefifteen indicators. Systematic and vigilantenvironmental monitoring and auditing,coupled with compliance strategies, are nowrequired to ensure compliance with legislationand the achievement of desired environmentalresults.

The Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks is currently developing a compliancestrategy to improve on the delivery oflegislation, regulations and policy, and toensure that a full range of effective compliancetools are being used. The challenge will be toensure that adequate resources are directed to atimely and effective implementation of thecompliance strategy.

Monitoring, inventories and research are atthe very foundation of environmentalmanagement and any environmental indicatorsreport. The number of communities beingmonitored for air quality has improved slightlyover the past four years, whereas the number ofwater bodies monitored for water quality hasdeclined significantly.

In the past few years Forest Renewal BC hasprovided significant funds for inventories ofcommunity watersheds, forest-dwelling species,fish populations and critical habitats. As well,tools such as the Watershed Ranking Tool, havebeen developed to make better use of inventoryinformation in decision-making. Inventories of

wildlife species and habitat will need tocontinue to provide a credible informationbase for managing the environment.

Monitoring and inventories are essential butcostly. Through the process of publicdiscussion and stewardship initiatives, strategicpartnerships will need to be forged to ensurethat the costs of monitoring and inventories areshared and that the opportunities for bettermanagement through the use of monitoringand inventory information are not lost.

Through treaty negotiations First Nationsthroughout the province will become moreinvolved in the management of wildlife ontreaty lands. New challenges to theimplementation of a more integrated,ecosystem-based approach to wildlifemanagement will be posed, as theresponsibilities for wildlife are shared amongmore partners.

Public pressure, both in British Columbiaand outside, is changing the way BC companiesdo business. Once example is the demand forindependent, “environmentally friendly”certification of forest products. The Ministriesof Environment, Lands and Parks and Forestsare currently examining government policies toensure that barriers to independentcertification are removed.

Maintaining a healthy, diverse environmentwill require actions to be taken by allBritish Columbians. Governments can provideincentives for a stewardship ethic, but theycannot force the growing population to livemore sustainably—to drive their cars less; tobuy less toxic products; and to generateless garbage.

17

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The Indicators

T he fifteen key indicators are presentedon the following pages. Eachindicator is presented on two pages. The

first page contains a graph depicting theindicator, as well as information on status andtrends, importance and actions being taken.The second page discusses “secondarymeasures,” which provide a more detailed lookat the issue. Where feasible, secondarymeasures focus on three areas:

� a sub-regional picture of the issue, with theprovince divided into ecological units basedon Ecoregions of British Columbia or theWatershed Atlas of British Columbia;

� a summary of sources of problems orthreats;

� a comparison with other jurisdictions.

The choice of indicators involvedconsultation with groups of experts for eachissue. Many of the indicators reflect currentindicators being used regionally (i.e., PacificNorthwest), nationally or internationally. Otherindicators are of specific interest to BritishColumbia. Together, the fifteen indicatorsrepresent a balance between provincial,national and global issues.

Categorizing the indicators

Categorizing the indicators is challenging.The most effective indicators often defycategorization because they cross media orissue boundaries. For simplicity ofpresentation, the indicators have been groupedinto five categories: land, air, water, naturaldiversity and ecosystem health.

There are three land indicators — greeneconomy, protected areas and domestic waste;three air indicators — fine particulates,greenhouse gases and global climate change;three water indicators — surface water quality,

groundwater and water use; four naturaldiversity indicators — species at risk, forestspecies at risk, wildlife populations and fish;and two ecosystem health indicators —riparian ecosystems on forest land and toxiccontaminants in biota.

Future indicator development

This set of fifteen indicators reflects, to alarge extent, the availability of reliableenvironmental data sets. Since the publicationof Environmental Trends in British Columbia,1998, considerable improvements have beenmade in the accessibility and usability ofgeographic information systems (GIS).Riparian Ecosystems on Forest Land is anexample of an indicator that could not havebeen developed without this new technology.Future indicator development will keep stepwith the availability of new data sets in GISformat.

In addition, issue areas such as complianceand enforcement, will be added to futurereports.

18

Status and trends in energyconsumption� From 1981 to 1998 the total amount of

energy used in British Columbia increasedby one-third. The increase was due to acombination of population and economicgrowth.

� The decline in energy consumption from1996 to 1998 was the result of a decrease infossil fuel production.

� British Columbia’s economy has becomemore energy efficient over the past 17 years.That is, it took less energy to produce thesame dollar value of a good or service in1998 than it did in 1981.

� Alternative energy, or energy that does notdeplete natural resources, endanger theenvironment or compromise the ability offuture generations to use the same energysources, is a significant component of theenvironmental or green industry sector.

� In 1998, 16% of the energy consumed inBritish Columbia was derived fromalternative energy sources. These includebiomass (primarily wood waste and otherbiological matter), solar, wind, micro-hydro and fuel cells.

� Large hydroelectric projects are notincluded as an alternative energy sourcebecause the flooding of lands or watershedsrequired by large reservoirs can havenegative impacts on the environment.

SOURCE: Energy Statistics Handbook and CANISM (The Canadian Socio-economic Information Database produced by Statistics Canada) 1999.

Green Economy in British Columbia

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998

Total and alternative energy consumption (in petajoules)

Total energy consumption

Alternative energy consumption

Developingalternative energyis labour intensive.Studies show thata million dollarsinvested inalternative energywill produce inexcess of 50%more jobs than anequivalentinvestment inconventionalenergydevelopment.

Why is it important?� The production, transportation, transmission,

and use of conventional energy all haveimpacts on the environment, including theemission of greenhouse gases and atmosphericpollutants through the combustion of fossilfuels. These impacts can be reduced bydecreasing energy consumption, by usingenergy more efficiently and by developingalternative energy sources that are less stressfulon the environment.

� The most environmentally benign alternativeenergy technologies are solar, wind and micro-hydro (river, tidal, wave).

� Solar, wind, wave and tidal energy accountfor only 0.02% of electricity generationin Canada.

What is being done?� The government of British Columbia is

developing and implementing a GreenEconomy Initiative in partnership with otheragencies, focusing on renewable energy,environmental industry, ecotourism and taxshift reform.

� The first pilot tax-shift project is underway. Itencourages the closure of beehive burners andthe development of alternative uses for woodwaste, such as ethanol production.

� Since the 1980s utility corporations inBritish Columbia have mounted an intensivecampaign to encourage energy conservation.

Provision of social, economic and outdoor recreational opportunities consistent withmaintaining a naturally diverse and healthy environment.

BRITISH COLUMBIA’SGOAL:

Per capita energyconsumption hasnot changedsignificantly in thelast 20 years, butremains amongthe highest in theworld (along withthe rest ofCanada).

19

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Program,1985 and 1998.

SOURCE: Canadian Organic Growers Association, 1999.

The economicvalue of directwildlife activitieswas estimated atover $790 millionin 1996.

The GlobeFoundationidentified the toptwo forcesinfluencinggrowth inenvironmentalindustries asthe enforcementof currentenvironmentalstandards andthe developmentof newstandards.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1983 1996

Percentage of BC residents participating in direct wildlife activity

What are the employment trends for environmental industries?� From 1995 to 1997 (the only years for which

statistics are currently available) BC had a 24%increase in employment in the environmentindustry sector resulting in the creation of over5,700 jobs during this three-year period.

� The environment industry sector is one of thefastest growing sectors of the BC economy. In1997 it generated over $1.2 billion in revenuesand employed 23,500 people.

� BC’s environment industry is a diversified, hightechnology sector of the economy thatencompasses a broad range of market segmentsincluding: water and wastewater treatment, eco-efficiency, alternative energy and fuels, airemissions control, solid and hazardous wastemanagement, materials recovery, measurement,instrumentation and remediation.

Is agriculture becoming more environmentally friendly?� Organic agriculture is a low energy-input method

of farming that largely prohibits the use ofsynthetic fertilizers, pesticides, feed additives orgenetically modified organisms.

� The number of certified organic producers andprocessors in British Columbia more thandoubled between 1992 and 1998.

� The total area in organic production increasedfrom 10,600 acres in 1997 to 28,500 acres in 1999.This represents only one half of a percent of thetotal agricultural land area in British Columbia.

� Integrated Pest Management (IPM), also aimed atreducing synthetic pesticides, combines a varietyof chemical, biological, cultural and geneticmethods to control pests in an environmentallysound way.

� Recent changes to the BC Pesticide Control Actencourage pesticide users to adopt IPM practices.

How important is direct wildlife activity to British Columbians?� Direct wildlife activities are trips away from home

where the main purpose is to watch, photographor study wildlife.

� In 1996, almost 864,000 provincial residents, or29% of the adult population, participated in directwildlife activities. This represents an increase from23% since 1983.

� Participation in direct wildlife activities is higheroutside the Lower Mainland and Okanagan. Forexample, in the Northwest of the province, 34%of the population participated in directwildlife activities.

New Brunswick

Saskatchewan

Alberta

British Columbia

Nova Scotia

Newfoundland

Quebec

Canada

Manitoba

PEIOntario

40

30

20

10

0

-10

Percent employment change in the environment industry

SOURCE: Statistics Canada, 1998 and 1999.NOTES: The Environment Industry represents all companiesoperating in BC that are involved in whole or in part in theproduction of environmental goods, the provision of environmentalservices and the undertaking of environment-related constructionactivity. The total number of jobs in each province for 1997 was:New Brunswick 3,957; Saskatchewan 3,176; Alberta 22,499;British Columbia 23,524; Nova Scotia 3,989; Newfoundland 1,835;Quebec 32,748; Canada 159,932; Manitoba 4,924; Prince EdwardIsland 316; and Ontario 62,620.

0

100

200

300

400

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Number of certified organic producers and processors

Organicagriculture occurson 0.5% of theagriculturalland inBritish Columbia.

20

Protected Areas in British Columbia

British Columbiais Canada’s mostbiologicallydiverse province.

Status and trends of protected areas� In 1991, approximately 6.1% (5.74 million

hectares) of the land base ofBritish Columbia was dedicated toprotected areas; by the end of 1999,approximately 11.4% (10.77 millionhectares) was dedicated to protected areas.

� In British Columbia, protected areasinclude national parks, ecological reserves,class A and C parks, recreation areas andprotected areas that fall under theEnvironment and Land Use Act. They donot include wildlife reserves, migratorybird sanctuaries and regional parks.

� In the late 1930s and 1940s, parkexpansion was used to encourage tourism;in the 1950s and ’60s, the area withprotected areas status was reduced by1 million hectares; in the 1970s and ’80spark creation began to focus onprotection of unique naturalenvironments; in the 1990s representationof British Columbia’s biological andcultural diversity, recreational resourcesand habitat protection have becomeprimary objectives.

� In 1999, over 24 million visits were madeto provincial parks in British Columbia.This represents a small decrease since the1998 high of 26 million visits.

British Columbiais well on theway towardsachieving its goalof dedicating12% of its landbase to protectedarea statusin 2000.

SOURCE: BC Land Use Coordination Office, 1999, and BC Parks, 1995. NOTES: Data for this graph were compiled by decade until 1990, and do notreflect annual trends. Protected areas include those which have been designated and those announced but are not yet designated under thePark Act, Ecological Reserve Act or other protected areas legislation.

7% of protectedareas inBritish Columbiaare larger than10,000 hectares.These includerecently protectedareas such asPine LeMoray, Stein ValleyNlaka'pamux,Itcha Ilgachuz,Northern RockyMountain,Graham–Laurier,Liard RiverCorridor,and significantlyexpanded parkssuch asCarmanahWalbran,Kakwa andBrooks Peninsula.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

TargetPercentage of province protected

19001890 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Why is it important?� In British Columbia, protected areas are one

key element of a strategy to protect theprovince’s biological and cultural heritage.

� The protected areas network also providesoutdoor recreational opportunities.

� Protected areas have become an importantcomponent of land use planning, contributingto the maintenance of ecosystems, species andgenetic resources.

What is being done?� Since 1992, the Protected Areas Strategy has

ensured that strong regional and sectoral inputfrom land use planning processes is a criticalpart of identifying new areas to protect.

� The government is currently developingproposals to respond to BC’s Park Legacy Panel.The purpose of these is to strengthen ecologicalstewardship and increase community ties toprotected areas.

� The Marine Protected Areas Strategy, apartnership between the governments ofCanada and British Columbia, was initiated toestablish a system of marine and coastalprotected areas, through planning and publicconsultation, by the year 2010.

BRITISH COLUMBIA’SGOALS:

Protection, conservation and restoration of a full range of biological and physical diversitynative to British Columbia, and provision of social, economic and outdoor recreationalopportunities consistent with maintaining a naturally diverse and healthy environment. As partof the attainment of these goals, the province has set a target to protect 12% of the land base(11.35 million hectares) in the year 2000.

21

In 1994 Canadaand 167 othercountries signedthe Convention onBiologicalDiversity. Onecomponent of thisagreement is toestablish anetwork ofprotected areasto conservebiodiversity.

Eleven newlyprotected areasin theMuskwa-Kechikahave resultedin a significantincrease inprotected areasin northernBritish Columbia.

SOURCE: Canadian numbers: World Wildlife Fund, 1999. Endangered Spaces,Progress Report on Protecting Canada’s Wild Lands, accurate to the end ofMarch 1999. International numbers: World Conservation Union (IUCN), 1998,1997 United Nations List of Protected Areas, accurate to the end of 1996.NOTES: International analysis includes only IUCN categories I-III. Percentagesfor New Zealand, Sweden and the United States do not include protected areasunder 1,000 hectares in size. Percentages for Canadian jurisdictions include allprotected areas regardless of size.

SOURCE: BC Land Use Coordination Office, 1999. NOTES: The delineations represent ecosections, as described in Ecoregions of British Columbia,D. Demarchi, 1993, except for the 12 marine ecosections, which are found in The Marine Ecoregions of British Columbia, D.E. Howes, M. A. Zachariasand J.R. Harper, 1996.

0

5

10

15

20

New Brunswick

Quebec

Sweden

Saskatchewan

Canada

U.S.Manitoba

Ontario

Yukon

Alberta

B.C.

Percentage of land base protected

New Zealand

Ecosystemrepresentation inBritish Columbiahas beenimproving since1991. Over 50%of terrestrialecosections nowhave greaterthan 6% of theirarea dedicated toprotected areastatus.

Is British Columbia’s rich ecosystem diversity protected?

� An ecological classification system dividesBritish Columbia into 112 ecosections,representing different ecosystem types. Twelveof these are predominantly marine.

� One objective of the Protected Areas Strategy isto increase the protection of ecosystemdiversity. The amount protected will varywithin each ecosection.

� Since 1991, significant progress has been madein improving ecosystem representation in theprotected areas system (see table).

� Marine ecosystems are poorly represented.Only 1.2% of marine ecosections inBritish Columbia are in protected areas status.

How does British Columbia compare to other places?� British Columbia has the highest percentage of

land base protected in Canada.� For an area to be included in this analysis it

must be exempted from any type of resourceextraction or human manipulation that wouldcause long-term or large-scale impacts on itsnatural character. Exempted activities includelogging, mining, the development ofhydroelectric dams and oil or gas extraction.

� Protected areas must also be permanent to beincluded in this analysis. This usually meansthey are formally designated under legislationor under interim planning measures such ascompleted Land and Resource ManagementPlans.

� Significant increases in the extent of ecosystemrepresentation have occurred in the NorthernRockies (Muskwa-Kechika), Northwest(Tatshenshini-Alsek), Central Interior(Ts’yl

?-os), Southern Interior (Lac du Bois) and

on Vancouver Island (Carmanah Walbran).

Percentage of terrestrial ecosectionsin protected area status

1991 1999

less than 1% 53 16

1–6% 19 31

6–12% 12 21

greater than 12% 16 32

>12%6–12%1–6%< 1%

Percentage protected 1991 Percentage protected 1999

22

Status and trends of solid waste� It is estimated that British Columbians

generated 1,050 kg of solid waste perperson in 1998. Of this, 607 kg wasdisposed to landfills and incinerators. Thisrepresents a 36% reduction in wastedisposed per person, between 1990 and1998.

� In 1998, 443 kg of solid waste per personwas diverted from landfills andincinerators for recycling. Waste recycledhas increased from 19% of wastegenerated in 1990, to 42% in 1998.

� The total amount of waste disposed tolandfills and incinerators decreased from2.9 million tonnes in 1990 to 2.4 milliontonnes in 1998. This decrease in wastedisposed was achieved despite apopulation increase of 22% for the sametime period.

� Ninety-two percent of British Columbia’sdisposed waste is sent to landfills; theremaining 8% is incinerated.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. Pollution Prevention and Remediation Branch. BC Municipal Solid Waste TrackingReport 1997–98. NOTES: Estimates for recycled and disposed wastes were derived from municipal surveys conducted across British Columbia.Although participation in these surveys has increased in recent years, not all municipalities are represented. Survey methodology was improved in1996, increasing the reliability of the data. Estimates of recycled waste are likely underestimated as private recycling facilities and recyclablescollected by industry stewardship agencies are not included.

Domestic Waste in British Columbia

Between 1990and 1998,British Columbiansachieved a 36%reduction in theper capita amountof municipal solidwaste going tolandfills orincinerators.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1990

Waste generated (kg/person)

1996 1997 1998 2000

DisposalTarget

Waste recycled

Waste disposed (landfills & incineration)

Why is it important?� A large percentage of British Columbia’s waste

represents lost resources. In recognition of this,British Columbia is committed to reducing,reusing and recycling waste to save resources.

� Landfills consume valuable land, are asignificant source of greenhouse gases and cancontribute to groundwater contamination andair pollution. These factors make landfillsunappealing to most communities and the taskof finding new landfill sites very difficult.

� Although modern incinerators produce muchlower levels of pollutants than olderincinerators, they still emit acid gases, carbondioxide, toxic chemicals and fine particulates.

What is being done?� Domestic and industry stewardship programs,

coupled with government programs, areensuring that the most hazardous componentsof solid waste are disposed of safely. Theexisting programs (date initiated) include: lead-acid batteries and scrap tires (1991); usedlubricating oil (1992); paint residuals (1994);pharmaceuticals, solvents, flammables,pesticides and gasoline residuals (1997); andbeverage containers (1998).


Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things. As part of the attainment of thesegoals, the province has set a target to reduce the amount of solid waste disposed tolandfills or incinerators by 50% of the1990 per capita disposal rate by 2000 year-end.

23

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. State of theEnvironment Reporting Program, Corporate Policy Branch. NOTES: Thedelineations on the map show the 10 ecoprovinces, based on Ecoregions ofBritish Columbia, 1993.

Significantamounts ofreusable andrecyclablematerials arestill disposed ofin landfills andincinerators.

The high cost oftransportation,associated withthe long distanceto markets, hasmade it difficultfor northerncommunities toincorporaterecycling intowastemanagementprograms.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Pollution Prevention and Remediation Branch.NOTES: Waste oil was received at Mohawk’s North Vancouver Re-refinery. The BC Lead-Acid Battery CollectionProgram was implemented by the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks in June 1991.

SOURCE: Greater Vancouver Regional District, 1999. Solid Waste Operations.

Number of lead-acid battery units recycled (times 10,000)

0

20

40

60

80

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 19980

5

10

15

20

25

30Waste oil recycled (1,000,000 litres)

1995 1996 1997 1998

No data available

665

602

569

421

493819

1846

Waste disposed kg/person/year by ecoprovince

858

Organics 38%

Paper 32%

Plastics 13%

Household hygiene waste 4%

Other 5%

Glass 3%Metals 3%

Household hazardous waste 2%

Where is the most waste generated in British Columbia?� From 1990 to 1998, the annual per capita

disposal rates have decreased in the GeorgiaDepression and Southern Interior by 33%,Coast and Mountains by 39%, SouthernInterior Mountains by 19% and CentralInterior by 18%.

� The Capital (CRD) and the Greater Vancouver(GVRD) regional districts, together generate70% of the waste in the province as a result oftheir high populations. These regions are alsoleaders in diversion programs. Both districtshave extensive recycling programs, chargelandfill tipping fees and have prohibited severalmaterials, such as paper, from being disposedof in landfills.

What is the composition of waste going to landfills?� Although the exact composition of waste

differs from region to region, paper andorganics make up most of the waste disposedto landfills and incinerators throughout theprovince.

� Material banned from the GVRD landfills, suchas lead-acid batteries, tires, waste gypsum andwallboard, comprise 16% of recycled materials.

� In 1998, over 96,300 tonnes of organic matterwas diverted from landfills in the GVRD, as aresult of residential backyard composting andmunicipal collection of yard trimmings.

What are the results of consumer and industrial product stewardship programs?� Product stewardship initiatives involve

industry and consumers takingresponsibility for waste from the productsthey produce or use.

� In 1998, 56% of the estimated 50 millionlitres of lubricating oil available forrecovery from domestic and industrialusers was recycled.

� The polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)and heavy metals found in lubricating oilare toxic to plants and animals at lowconcentrations and can restrict plantphysiology at higher concentrations.

�In 1998, 780,000 lead-acid batteries wererecycled in British Columbia. Lead-acidbatteries disintegrate in landfills, releasinglead into the environment. Leadaccumulation in body tissue is toxic.

24

Status and trends in fine particulates� In 1998, 24 out of 33 communities

monitored exceeded the fine particulate(or PM

10 ) levels at which health effects are

known to occur, more than 5% of thetime. Sixteen of these communitiesexceeded this level more than 10% ofthe time.

� Particulate matter (PM) includes solid andliquid particles, such as dust, dirt, soot,smoke and liquid droplets, directly emittedinto the air by sources such as factories,power plants, cars, construction activity,fires and naturally windblown dust.

� Particulate matter can also be formed inthe air from the chemical transformationof directly emitted gases such as sulphurdioxide, nitrogen oxides and varioushydrocarbons and ammonia.

� PM is divided into classes depending onsize. In general, the smaller sized particlespose the greatest health risk. PM

10,

measured in this report, refers to particles10 micrometres or less (about one-eighththe width of a human hair).

� Recent scientific investigations have shownthat PM

2.5, particles 2.5 micrometres or

less, poses the greatest health risk. PM2.5

isa subset of PM

10. As data become available,

future indicators will report on PM2.5

.

Air Quality Impacts from Fine Particulates

Every year since1994 more thanhalf of the airqualitymonitoringstations havereported levelsof PM10 in therange whereeffects on healthhave beenreported.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000, Air Resources Branch. NOTES: This indicator depicts the percentage of sampling stations wherePM

10 is greater than 25 micrograms/m3, the concentration above which health risks begin to occur, for more than 5% of the time in each year. Data were taken

from two types of sampling stations — continuous and non-continous. Non-continuous samplers take samples once every six days. Only stations with data for75% of the hours in at least 11 months of the year were included. The total number of stations meeting these requirements were: 1994, 19; 1995, 23; 1996,27; 1997, 30; 1998, 33. Monitoring sites are often present in comminities where air quality is a concern, therefore the data do not necessarily reflect theaverage air quality in BC.

0

20

40

60

80

100

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Percentage of communities exposed to health risks from fine particulates (PM10 >25µg/m3 ) at least 5% of the time

Why is it important?� Fine particulates (both PM

10 and PM

2.5) can

pose a serious threat to public health. They canaffect breathing, aggravate existing respiratoryand cardiovascular disease, alter the body’sdefence systems and damage lung tissue,contributing to cancer and premature death.

� As a major component of “smog,” PM2.5

contributes to reduced visibility, which leads to

negative impacts on safety, aesthetics, businessand tourism.

What is being done?� British Columbia has initiated several programs

and activities to improve air quality. Theseinclude: the development of air qualitymanagement plans in Prince George, theBulkley Valley, Greater Vancouver RegionalDistrict, Quesnel/Williams Lake and FraserValley Regional Districts; AirCare, an ongoingactivity to reduce motor vehicle emissions inthe Lower Fraser Valley (LFV); a heavy vehicletesting program in the LFV; modernization ofair monitoring programs; continued phase-outof beehive burners; and Smoke ControlRegulations such as the regulation of large-scaleopen burning and higher standards forwood stoves.


Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things, and provision of social,economic and outdoor recreation opportunities consistent with maintaining a naturally diverseand healthy environment.

25

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000, Air ResourcesBranch. NOTES: The Lower Mainland is commonly referred to as the Lower FraserValley and includes the Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD). A completelisting of emissions data for the Lower Mainland can be found in “1998 EmissionInventory for the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed.” The sources represented here donot include road dust or natural sources such as wildfires and marine aerosols.The contribution of road dust to PM

10 is difficult to estimate accurately. However,

it is generally believed that in some locations, road dust can add significantquantities of PM

10 to the air.

Outside theLower Mainland,the contributionof prescribedburning to totalPM10 emissionshas been reducedfrom 21,600tonnes in 1990 to8,900 tonnesin 1998.

Communities inthe interior of theprovince areexposed to highconcentrations ofPM10 more oftenthan communitiesin the morepopulatedsouthern areas.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Air Data andMonitoring System Database. NOTES: The dark portion of the pie graphs shows thepercentage of time in 1998, at each sampling station, that PM

10 exceeded

25 micrograms/m3, i.e., levels above which health effects can occur. The greenpies represent data taken from continuous samplers and the grey pies representdata taken from non-continuous samplers, (i.e., one sample every six days). Thedelineations on the map show the 10 ecoprovinces of British Columbia, based onEcoregions of British Columbia, 1993.

Where are the risks to health from fine particulates?� Recent scientific evidence indicates that

negative health effects from PM10

can occurwhen outdoor concentrations rise above25 micrograms per cubic metre.

� Most at risk are individuals with chronicobstructive pulmonary or cardiovasculardisease, asthmatics, the elderly and children.

� Concentrations of air pollutants, such as fineparticulate matter, can vary greatly amongcommunities that are fairly close together.Topography, air circulation patterns, settlementpatterns and the location of industries all affectthe concentrations of fine particulate matter inlocal airsheds.

� Communities in the southwest of BC,including Vancouver Island, were exposed tohealth risks from fine particulates 2 to 12% ofthe time in 1998. Communities in the rest ofthe province were exposed to health risks fromfine particulates 6 to 61% of the time.

What are the sources of fine particulates?� In the Lower Mainland, point sources

(i.e., emissions for which permits have beenissued) account for 37% of PM

10 emissions —

14% originates from bulk shipping terminalsand 10% from the processing of forestproducts. Area sources (i.e., small business andresidential) account for 37% of PM

10 — 18%

originates from agriculture. Mobile sources,from cars and other modes of transportation,account for 26% of PM

10 emissions.

� Outside the Lower Mainland, point sourcesaccount for 54% of PM

10 emissions — 41%

originates from the processing of forestproducts, including beehive burners and pulpand paper processing. Area sources account for18% of the total — 11% from residential woodheating and 4% from agricultural winderosion. Mobile sources contribute 21% ofthe total.

� Secondary particulates, formed by chemicalreactions among pollutants in the atmosphere,are not captured by emission data, but do addsignificant quantities of PM

10 to the

atmosphere. Secondary particulates areconsidered a major air quality concern in theLower Mainland.

LowerMainland

OutsideLower

Mainland

Point 37%

Area 37%

Mobile 26%

Mobile 21%

Point 54%

Area 18%

Prescribed burning 7%

26

Status and trends ingreenhouse gas emissions� In 1997 total greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions were 61.9 megatonnes of carbondioxide equivalent, an increase of30 megatonnes or 94% since 1970. Since1990 there has been a 10.7 megatonne, or21%, increase.

� Per capita GHG emissions increased by0.1% between 1990 and 1997, indicatingthat population growth has had a majorimpact on total GHG emissions. Between1970 and 1997, the population inBritish Columbia increased by 90%, from2.1 million to 4 million. From 1990 to 1997population increased by 20%.

� If current trends continue, between 1990and 2010 British Columbia’s GHGemissions are expected to increase by 38%.This represents one of the largest expectedincreases in Canada, exceeded only byAlberta and Saskatchewan.

� GHG emissions are strongly influenced byenergy prices and economic activity. Thedecrease in GHG emissions in the early1980s can largely be attributed toincreasing energy costs and the economicrecession.

� Other factors, such as weather, can alsoinfluence GHG emissions.

In 1997British Columbiacontributed9.1% ofCanada’s totalgreenhouse gasemissions, upfrom 8.5% in1990.

Greenhouse Gases in British Columbia

SOURCES: Environment Canada, 1999.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in British Columbia (megatonnes of CO2 equivalents)

20

30

40

50

60

70

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

In December 1997,160 nationsnegotiated theKyoto Protocolunder whichindustrializedcountries willcollectively reducegreenhouse gasemissions by5.2%.

Why is it important?� Human activities, such as the burning of fossil

fuels, are adding significant quantities ofcarbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases tothe earth’s atmosphere. The scientificcommunity has concluded that elevated levelsof greenhouse gases are causing changes to theglobal climate.

� The impacts of climate change may be far-ranging and include rising temperatures,changing precipitation patterns, the disruptionof major weather and ocean systems and theloss of biodiversity due to the rate andmagnitude of environmental change surpassingthe natural ability of some species to adapt.

What is being done?� The Greenhouse Gas Forum has been established

to advise the government on ways to reducegreenhouse gas emissions.

� Specific actions include the development ofTransportation Demand Management Plans,and the promotion of cleaner technologiesthrough the Green Economy and Clean EnergyInitiatives. The Public Buildings Energy RetrofitProgram will provide a showcase for thepromotion of cleaner technologies.

� British Columbia is leading the GreenhouseGas Emission Reduction Trading Pilot (GERT),a program designed to test the effectiveness ofemission trading for greenhouse gases in theCanadian context.

CANADA’SGOAL:

In 1997 Canada participated in the development of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change, which, when ratified, will commit Canada to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to6% below1990 levels, by between 2008 and 2012.

27

SOURCES: G. Marland et al., 1999. Global, Regional, and National CO2Emissions. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, US Department of Energy,Oak Ridge, Tenn.

In order to reducetotal GHGemissions inBritish Columbia,significantreductions inemissions fromtransportationwill be required,includingreductions in thedistance travelledper vehicle, thenumber of vehiclestravelling andemissions pervehicle.

Per capita carbondioxide emissionsare significantlyhigher inNorth Americaand Australiathan inindustrializedcountries inEurope and Asia.

SOURCES: Greenhouse gas emission estimates are from: EnvironmentCanada, Pollution Data Branch, 1998; Statistics Canada, 1998; UNFCCC,1999; California Energy Commission, 1998; and Oregon Department ofEnergy, 1998. Population estimates are from: Statistics Canada, 1998;International Data Bank, 1996; and State Population Estimates, 1998.NOTES: These data are for 1996.

SOURCE: Environment Canada, 1999, Canada’s Greenhouse Gas Inventory.NOTES: Values for sources in kilotonnes are: carbon dioxide (CO2) 49,000;methane (CH4) 9,000; nitrous oxide (N2O) 3,200; and perflourocarbons(PFCs) 700. For sectors in kilotonnes: transportation 25,100; industry20,613; residential 4,790; commercial (includes institutional and other)3,560; agriculture 2,600; and others (includes waste emissions) 4,810.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Cumulative global CO2 emissions 1950–1995 (1015 metric tonnes)

Developed countriesDeveloping countries

Residential8%

Commercial6%

Agriculture4%

Others 8%

CO279%

CH415%

N2O5%

PFCs1%

By sector By source

Greenhouse gas emissions

Transportation41%

Industrial 34%

In 1998British Columbiansdrove an averageof 10,200kilometres percapita, up from7,000 kilometresper capita in1970.

01020304050607080

Alberta

United States

Australia

Canada

Oregon

Ontario

British Columbia

California

Germany

Quebec

Per capita carbon dioxide emissions (tonnes)

ChinaIndia

What are the sources of greenhouse gas emissions?� Transportation is the single largest source of

GHG emissions in the province.� GHG emissions from gasoline and diesel cars

and trucks increased by almost 20% from1990 to 1997.

� Eighty-eight percent of industrial emissionswere from the burning of fossil fuels. Theremaining 12% were due to industrial processes.

� Carbon dioxide is the most abundant GHG.Carbon dioxide accounted for 49.6 megatonnesor 79% of British Columbia’s GHG emissionsin 1997 and methane accounted for9.1 megatonnes or 15%.

Can Canadians have an impact on greenhouse gas emissions?� Developed countries have emitted

500 petatonnes or 63% of greenhouse gasesover the past 50 years.

� Developing countries have emitted 37% ofgreenhouse gases over the past 50 years.

� In 1995 six jurisdictions (United States,European Union, former USSR, Japan, Indiaand China) contributed 72% of the world’stotal GHG emissions. The other 139 countriesthat monitored GHG emissions eachcontributed less than 2% of the global total.

� In 1995 Canada contributed 1.9% of theworld’s GHG emissions.

� The cumulative effort of both the large andsmaller emitters will be required to decreaseoverall emissions.

How does British Columbia compare?� British Columbia’s per capita carbon dioxide

emissions are in the same range or lower thanother North American jurisdictions, but higherthan most European countries.

� Energy-intensive settlement and transportationpatterns, industrial activity and high levels ofconsumption all contribute toBritish Columbia’s relatively high per capitacarbon dioxide emissions.

� Currently, per capita greenhouse gas emissionsare greatest in industrialized countries.Although per capita emissions are increasing indeveloping countries, the gap between the totalcontribution of developed and developingcountries is still wide.

28

Status and trends in climate change� Observations from around the world show

a global warming trend of 0.3 to 0.6°C overthe past century.

� Globally, 1998 was the warmest year sincereliable record-keeping began in the late19th century. The second warmest year was1997, and seven of the 10 warmest yearsoccurred in the 1990s.

� Warming has not been globally uniform.Some areas, such as parts of thesoutheastern US and northern Europehave cooled.

� Coastal British Columbia has warmed atabout the same rate as the global average— about 0.6°C over the past century. Theinterior of British Columbia has warmed attwice the rate of the global average — over1°C over the past century.

� Climate change is a complicatedphenomenon, involving more thantemperature changes. For example,associated with temperature increases hasbeen an observed increase in sea levels, atan average rate of one to two mm per yearover the past 100 years.

SOURCE: Canadian Institute for Climate Studies, 1999. NOTES: All values are statistically significant at the 95% level. Data for the Boreal Plains and TaigaPlains in the northeast corner of British Columbia are insufficient to provide trend information. For values to be statistically significant, a clear trend mustemerge from the yearly variation that occurs over a century.

Over the pastcentury theinterior ofBritish Columbiahas warmed atabout twice therate of the globalaverage.

Globally, 1998was the warmestyear on record.

Effects of Global Climate Change in British ColumbiaTemperature change (°C) over the past century in British Columbia

Why is it important?� The impacts of climate change may be far

ranging and include rising temperatures andsea levels, changing precipitation patternsand the disruption of major weather andocean systems.

� The potential effects of climate change inBritish Columbia include: more extremeweather events; increased rainfall and reducedmountain snowfall on the coast; altered streamflows resulting in more frequent springflooding; declining fish stocks; and increasedfrequency of forest fires and pest infestations.

What is being done?� In response to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol,

Canadian ministers of energy and environmenthave established the National Climate ChangeProcess. This process, in which BC has beenfully engaged, is developing options on howCanada can meet its reduction targets. It hasinvolved over 450 experts from various sectorsacross Canada.

� Canada’s joint ministers of energy andenvironment are expected to reach decisionsin Fall 2000 on Canada’s NationalImplementation Strategy and on Canada’sposition at the next international negotiatingforum in November 2000.


Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. This will be achieved through a variety of approaches,including the Green Economy Initiative.

+0.6

+1.1

+1.1

+1.1

+0.5

+1.7

+1.1

29

-1400

-1200

-1000

-800

-600

-400

-200

0

200

400

1865 1885 1905 1925 1945 1965 1985

Change in the position of the glacier front relative to 1900 (in metres)

Helm (SW BC)Illecillewaet (Interior of BC)

270

290

310

330

350

370

200019501900185018001750

Global carbon dioxide concentrations (parts per million by volume)

1700

Cooling Effect

Relative importance of factors contributing to global climate change

Warming Effect

Greenhouse gases

Aerosols

Solar

SOURCE: A. Naftel at al., 1985, Nature 315:45–47; H. Friedli et al.,1986,Nature 324:237–238; C.D. Keeling, Scripps Institute of Oceanography,Mauna Loa, Hawaii; US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA), Climate Monitoring and Diagnosis Laboratory, Carbon Cycle –Greenhouse Gases.

SOURCE: Adapted from World Meteorological Organization and the UnitedNations Environment Program, 1995. NOTES: Greenhouse gases includecarbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and halocarbons. Aerosolsinclude dust particles and very small chemical droplets.

SOURCE: National Hydrological Research Institute, 1999.NOTES: Helm Glacier is in Garibaldi Provincial Park, southwestern BC, andIllecillewaet Glacier is the north-extending tongue of the Illecillewaet Icefieldin Glacier National Park, in the interior of British Columbia.

Glaciers andicefields areessential toBritish Columbiaas stores of freshwater, regulatorsof high-altitudeecosystems andplaces of specialbeauty.

The cooling effectof short-lived,locally distributedaerosols does notprovide a globaloffset for thewarming effect oflong-lived,globallydistributedgreenhousegases.

Is global atmospheric carbon dioxide increasing?� Since pre-industrial times the atmospheric

concentration of carbon dioxide has increasedby 30%, methane by 145% and nitrous oxideby 15%. Carbon dioxide is responsible forabout 65% of the human-induced greenhouseeffect.

� The balance of evidence suggests that theincrease in greenhouse gas concentrations isresponsible for global warming.

What factors contribute to global climate change?� Human activities over the last 150 years have

significantly altered the composition of theatmosphere and thus enhanced its ability toretain heat.

� Greenhouse gases act radiatively to warm theatmosphere. Their effect is long-lived.

� In opposition, the presence of aerosolscombined with the depletion of thestratospheric ozone layer, have a cooling effect.

� Most aerosols remain in the atmosphere for ashort time (days) and generally affect only localclimates.

� Greenhouse gases remain in the atmosphere formany years and are globally distributed.

Are British Columbia’s glacier’s melting?� Glaciers in tropical and temperate zones

worldwide have been retreating over the pastcentury. This is one of the clearest indicators ofclimate change.

� Since 1900 the Helm Glacier in southwesternBritish Columbia and the Illecillewaet Glacierin the interior of the province have bothretreated by over 1,100 metres. WedgemountGlacier, near Whistler, has retreated hundredsof metres in the past two decades alone.

� Changes in glacier run-off have profoundeffects on the volume and timing of waterdischarged into rivers, with importantconsequences for water supplies, hydro-electricity generation, maintaining river andriparian habitats, fish populations andrecreational use.

30

Improving

Deteriorating

No Change

Water quality

Surface Water Quality in British Columbia

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, and EnvironmentCanada, 2000. Water Quality Trends inSelected British Columbia Waterbodies.

Status and trends in water quality� Results of trend assessments at 63 water

quality sampling stations, a majority ofwhich have at least 10 years of data, areshown on the accompanying map.

� For each of the seven stations withdeteriorating water quality, characteristicsof concern and implications vary.

� Discharges from mining operations havethe potential to affect aquatic life in theQuinsam River at the mine and in the ElkRiver. Government and the companiesinvolved are developing plans to addressconcerns in these water bodies.

� Declining fisheries production in Kootenayand Arrow lakes is a result of upstreamdams and reservoirs. Efforts to mitigatethis problem, by fertilization, have beensuccessful in Kootenay Lake and havebegun in the Upper Arrow Lake.

� Non-point source pollution has impactedwater quality for recreation, drinkingwater, and aquatic life in the Salmon Riverat Salmon Arm and the South ThompsonRiver at Kamloops. A multi-facetedapproach, involving actions such aswatershed restoration and pollutionprevention, is being taken by industries,communities, and several levels ofgovernment to address these problems.

� In Quamichan Lake near Duncan,naturally high waterfowl populations makethe water unsuitable for swimming.

Water qualitymonitoringstations areestablished on apriority basis andare chosen wherehuman activitieshave a highpotential ofnegativelyimpacting waterquality.

Since 1985, waterquality inBritish Columbiahas remainedstable at 60%,improved at 29%and deterioratedat 11% of thesampling stations.

Why is it important?� Protecting drinking water quality and

maintaining the integrity of aquatic ecosystemsare important environmental issues forBritish Columbians.

� British Columbia has 25% of the flowing freshwater in Canada. Ongoing monitoring,protection and careful management of thesewater resources are of critical importance.

What is being done?� A Non-point Source (NPS) Pollution Action

Plan is addressing several problems in decliningwater quality.

� The impacts of industrial effluent andagricultural run-off will continue to be reducedthrough initiatives such as pollution preventionprojects and the agricultural code of practice.

� Upgrades to sewage treatment facilities and theimplementation of liquid waste managementplans continue to help reduce the impacts ofresidential sewage. Successful examples includeupgrades at the Annacis and Lulu Island plants,which discharge into the Lower Fraser River.Both plants have been upgraded from primary tosecondary treatment.

� Water quality for fish is being addressed throughthe Watershed Restoration Program, WatershedPlans, the Fish Protection Act and the ForestPractices Code.

� A new inventory program has been establishedto protect 64 priority community watershedsfrom the impacts of forestry.

Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things, and provision of social,economic and outdoor recreational opportunities consistent with maintaining a naturallydiverse and healthy environment.


A new FreshWater Strategyprovides acohesiveframework forthe protection ofBritish Columbia’swater.

31

% Excellent/ Good

% Fair

% Borderline/ Poor

Water Quality Index rating

NoData No

Data

InsufficientData

InsufficientData

InsufficientData

InsufficientData

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. WaterManagement Branch. NOTES: The ratings are derived from a Provincial WaterQuality Index (WQI), which measures the impact of pollutants on water quality.Since the WQI is based on sampling in areas where there are likely to bewater quality concerns, the results may indicate a poorer state than if arandom sampling of all water bodies in the province was considered.Individual indices are determined by the number of water quality objectivesnot met and the frequency and amount by which these objectives areexceeded. Data for the WQI were taken from 64 water bodies (including freshsurface streams, rivers and lakes, and marine areas) for which at least threeyears of data were collected between 1992 and 1997. Most of the thousandsof water bodies in the province are not monitored.

Twenty percent ofthe monitoredwater sources inthe Georgia Basinand 17% in theSouthern Interiorare rated as Pooror Borderline.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. Water ManagementBranch. NOTES: The number of water bodies in each ecoprovince is: GeorgiaDepression 24; Southern Interior 23; Central Interior 11; Southern InteriorMountains 1; Coast and Mountains 1; Sub-Boreal Interior 2; Boreal Plains 2;Northern Boreal Mountains 0; and Taiga Plains 0.

None of the 33monitored waterbodies used fordrinking water inBritish Columbiareceived Poor orBorderlinerankings.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Excellent Borderline Poor

Number of water bodies monitored

FairGood

Water Quality Index Definitions:Excellent: Conditions very close to natural or pristine. All uses are protectedand none are threatened or impaired.Good: Conditions rarely depart from natural or desirable levels. All uses areprotected, with only a minor degree of threat or impairment.Fair: Conditions sometimes depart from natural or desirable levels. Most usesare protected, but a few are threatened or impaired.Borderline: Conditions often depart from natural or desirable levels. Severaluses are threatened or impaired.Poor: Conditions usually depart from natural or desirable levels. Most uses arethreatened, impaired or even lost.

Status of water quality� Regular monitoring for the attainment of

water quality objectives is conducted on asmall percentage of water bodies where waterquality problems are most likely to occur.

� The number of water bodies monitoredfluctuates based on available resources. Thisnumber has decreased from 124 in 1995 to16 in 1997.

� Twelve of the 64 water bodies that have beenmonitored between 1993 and 1997 receivedBorderline or Poor ratings, due primarily topollution from non-point sources.

� Two-thirds of the monitored water bodieswere rated as Fair, indicating someimpairment of uses and the need for actionsto prevent further impairment.

� Of the six water bodies that received a lowerranking in 1997 than in 1995, four are in theSouthern Interior ecoprovince, and two are inthe Georgia Depression.

� Red Top Gulch Creek, in the SouthernInterior, has declined from Good to Fair overthe last five years, due to increases in sulphate,dissolved solids and nitrate from nearbymining activities.

� Burrard Inlet–False Creek, in the GeorgiaDepression has improved from Borderline toFair. The improvement can be attributed tothe remediation of contaminated sites andchanges to managing sewage discharge.

What is the water quality across the province?� Water quality is not being monitored in two of

the nine ecoprovinces and is minimallymonitored in four others.

� In the heavily populated Georgia Depressionand Southern Interior ecoprovinces, 47 waterbodies were monitored. Water quality isExcellent or Good in 19%; Fair in 62%; andPoor or Borderline in 19%.

� The high percentage of water bodies rated asFair indicates a need for vigilant monitoring aswell as actions to prevent further degradationand costly restoration.

� Water quality ratings are generally highest inthe less populated ecoprovinces, such as theCoast and Mountains, Southern InteriorMountains, and Sub-Boreal Interior.

In some waterbodies markedimprovementshave beenrecorded. Forexample,decreases inspring totalphosphorous inOsoyoos Lake hasshifted the rankof this lake fromfair in 1993 toexcellent in1997.

32

Status and trendsin groundwater supply� Long-term trends in groundwater levels are

monitored at 150 observation wellsthroughout British Columbia. Due tomissing data, only 139 wells were used forthe 1995–1999 trend analysis.

� The percentage of wells showing decliningwater levels increased from 26% in 1965 toa high of 56% in 1980. Since 1980, normalor above normal precipitation has resultedin the replenishment of water levels insome wells and a decrease in the percentageof wells showing declining water levels.This indicates that climatic factors are theprinciple agents affecting groundwaterlevels in the province.

� Wells still showing declining water levelsbetween 1985 and 1999 are located in areasof the province where groundwaterdemand is increasing during dry summerconditions. These areas are the east coast ofVancouver Island, Lower Mainland andSouthern Interior.

� Groundwater users do not need a waterlicence in British Columbia. As a result,there are no reporting requirements fordata on the actual volume of groundwaterbeing withdrawn.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Water Management Branch. NOTES: Number of sampled wells with suitable long-term trend data increased from 31 to 150 over the 30-year period. Due to missing data, loss of observers, etc., only 139 sites were suitablefor trends analysis for the period 1995–1999.

Of the133 wells thatwere monitoredbetween 1995and 1999,22 wells weredeclining, 45were increasingand 72 hadno change inwater levels.

Groundwatersources supplyapproximately25% of thetotal municipalwater demand inBritish Columbia,excludingGreater Victoriaand Vancouver.

1990–1995

1985–1990

1980–1985

1975–1980

1970–1975

1965–1970

10

20

30

40

50

60

1995– 1999

Percentage of observation wells with declining water levels

Groundwater in British Columbia

Why is it important?� Approximately 750,000 people in

British Columbia depend on groundwatersources.

� In some areas where available surface watersupplies are already fully allocated or are toocostly to develop, groundwater is the onlyviable and cost-effective source of water supply.

� Excluding Greater Victoria and Vancouver,groundwater sources supply approximately25% of the total municipal water demand inBritish Columbia. This is expected to increasein the near future, particularly in rural areas.

� Groundwater contributes to the year-roundbase flow for fish-bearing streams andwetlands.

� Groundwater is difficult to observe and there islimited understanding of its location, quantityand quality throughout British Columbia.

What is being done?� The government is currently examining non-

regulatory approaches to groundwaterprotection.

� The development of well and aquifer protectionplans at the community level are beingencouraged in co-operation with governmentagencies and water purveyors.

� Enhancements are being made to groundwaterinventory activities.


Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things. The province’s aim is to reducethe percentage of wells with declining water levels resulting from human activities.

33

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. WaterManagement Branch. NOTES: 1. Each circle represents one aquifer of concernwithin the given area unless otherwise indicated by numbers. 2. The BC WaterQuality Status Report, 1996, describes in more detail the state of water qualityin some aquifers. 3. Most information is collected in areas of highest populationdensity. Little is known about groundwater in British Columbia outside theseareas.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.Water Management Branch.

Groundwatersupply in 91%of the classifiedaquifers is notat risk. However,in 9% of theclassified aquifers,groundwatersupply may beat risk dueto heavy use.

1

3

1

1 63

22

1

Number of heavily used aquifers

6

Heavily used aquifers vulnerable to contamination

Aquifer with reported groundwater quality concerns

3 8

2

5 114

Where is groundwater demand highest in British Columbia?� A map-based system for classifying

groundwater reservoirs (aquifers) to assessrisks to their supply and quality has beendeveloped.

� Since 1996, 104 new aquifers have beenidentified and classified, raising the currentinventory to 296.

� The total number of heavily used aquifers isnow 26 (up from 17 in 1996). The majority ofthese aquifers are in the Fraser Valley, the eastcoast of Vancouver Island and the SouthernInterior.

� While supplies of groundwater are clearlyunder stress in these aquifers, heavy use canalso put the quality of water at risk. Forexample, excessive groundwater withdrawalsin coastal regions are causing salt-waterintrusion and groundwater quality degradationin some areas of the Gulf Islands and theSaanich Peninsula.

Is British Columbia’s groundwater contaminated?� Thirty-one percent of the classified aquifers in

British Columbia (down from 36% in 1996)are considered to be highly vulnerable tocontamination. Changes since 1996 are a resultof an increase in the number of aquifersidentified. Natural characteristics are used todetermine vulnerability.

� Thirteen aquifers (up from 11 in 1996) havebeen identified as having the greatest risk ofdeclining quality. Many of these providedrinking water to large communities; forexample, the Township of Langley and theCity of Abbotsford.

� Specific sites within 28 aquifers (up from 17 in1996) have been reported with health-relatedwater quality concerns (based on Guidelines forCanadian Drinking Water Quality). Eleven ofthese aquifers (up from 10 in 1996) are in theFraser Valley.

� Through notifications to owners, bulletins andworkshops, municipal, provincial and federalgovernments have worked together to informpeople in affected areas and to developcommunity-based solutions.

� Nitrate levels exceed guidelines in 16 of the28 aquifers, probably due to leaching fromagricultural fertilizer, manure application and/or septic fields.

� Some contaminants (e.g., nitrate) are primarilythe result of human activities and are ofgreatest concern in those aquifers consideredvulnerable to contamination. Others arenaturally occurring (e.g., fluoride, arsenic) andaffect water quality even in groundwatersources that are not at risk of contaminationfrom human activities.

A nutrientmanagementstrategy iscurrently beingprepared bythe jointEnvironment/AgricultureCommittee.

One in threeclassified aquifersin British Columbiais potentiallyvulnerable tocontamination.

34

Status and trends in water use� When the demand for water licences

exceeds the capacity of a water supply, theprovincial government places restrictionson the further use of that water body.

� The number of restrictions registeredagainst streams in British Columbia wasseven times higher in the 1990s thanthe 1960s.

� The dramatic increase in restrictions inrecent decades indicates the increase in thenumber of streams that are reachingcapacity for water use.

� Over half of the restrictions are in five ofthe 43 water districts in the province:Nelson, Kamloops, Victoria, Caribooand Vernon.

� Stream restrictions are used as amanagement tool to ensure that watersupply in the province is maintained.Restrictions may range from includingminimum fish flow clauses in a waterlicence, to suspending the issuance of anyfurther licences on a water body.

� The number of restrictions onBritish Columbia streams is indicative ofthe intensity of water use in the province,pressures on water supply and the intensityof water management that is required tomaintain that water supply.

Since 1970 thenumber ofrestrictionsregistered againststreams inBritish Columbiahas increasedmore than2˚ times.

Water Use in British Columbia

SOURCES: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, November 1999. NOTES: Bars represent cumulative totals by decade. The word “streams” in thiscontext covers all fresh water in British Columbia, including rivers and lakes. Restrictions apply to all water upstream of the restriction.

Status and trendsin streamrestrictions areindicative of theintensity of wateruse, pressures onwater supply andintensity of watermanagement.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Cumulative stream restrictions by decade

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Why is it important?� Water has numerous and often competing users.

These include: agriculture, recreation, industryprocesses and waste disposal; domestic uses,including drinking water; and habitat for aquaticorganisms. To ensure availability for all users,water is carefully managed.

� Demand for water influences stream flows andwater levels. Demand tends to be highest insummer, when water supplies are usually lowest.

� Water shortages affect not only everyone thatuses the water, but also the plant and animal lifethat depends on that water body for survival.

What is being done?� The BC Water Protection Act (1995) prohibits

large-scale diversions between watersheds andnew licences for the export of bulk water.

� The Fresh Water Strategy for BC (1999)consolidates provincial initiatives into onecohesive strategy. Initiatives include: designatingsensitive streams under the Fish Protection Act,which restricts the approval of new waterlicences; implementing a three-year DrinkingWater Strategy; and investigating economic andsocial approaches to promote waterconservation — for example, education andappropriate pricing.


Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things, and provision of social,economic and outdoor recreation opportunities consistent with maintaining a naturally diverseand healthy environment.

35

SOURCES: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.NOTES: Licences are for surface water only; the use of groundwater is notlicensed. “Surface water” includes springs that naturally reach the surface,even if only for part of the year.

0

100

200

300

400

500

Cumulative volume of water licensed for bottle sales (10,000 m3)

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

0

200

400

600

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980

Volume of surface water licensed (billion m3/year)

100

300

400

500Per capita water use (L/person/day)

1991 1994 19961983 19891986

200

0

In 1996,British Columbiansused 35% morewater per capitathan the averageCanadian, andover twice asmuch as theaverage Britishcitizen.

SOURCES: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.NOTES: Values for consumptive water use are (in billion m3 per year):drinking water 1.87; agriculture 1.34; and industry/commercial 2.8.

Industrial/commercial

47%Drinkingwater31%

Agriculture22%

Consumptive Water Use

Who are the users of British Columbia’s water?� The total amount of surface water licensed

in the province doubled between 1960(326 billion m3) and 1990 (646 billion m3).

� Power production, including storage for powerproduction, is the largest use of surfacefreshwater in the province. Just under632 billion m3 are now licensed for thesepurposes, or over 97% of the total volume ofwater licensed in British Columbia.

� The remaining 3% of water licensed is forconsumptive uses such as industrial/commercial, drinking water or agriculture.

� Water licences specify the maximum volumesthat may be used for a given purpose — theactual amount of water used may be less.

How much water do British Columbia residents use?� Per capita domestic water consumption in

British Columbia has not changed much sincethe early 1980s. In 1996 the averageBritish Columbian used 440 litres/day, anincrease of 16 litres from 1983 (424 litres/day).

� Approximately 65% of indoor home water useoccurs in the bathroom — only 10% is used inthe kitchen and for drinking. Toilets are thesingle greatest water use in the home.

� Demand for water nearly doubles in thesummer, primarily for watering lawns andgardens.

� Per capita domestic use is higher in theprovince’s smaller communities. In 1996 theaverage person in a small community(less than 50,000) used 531 litres/day. For thesame year an individual in a larger community(greater than 50,000) used 398 litres/day.

What is the trend in the volume of water licensed for bottled water use?� Bottling water for sale is a relatively new use

of licensed water in British Columbia. Thefirst licences for this use were issued in 1972(13,267 m3/yr).

� The volume of water licensed for bottled watersales has increased dramatically in the 1990s.As of November 1999, just over 5 million m3/yrwere licensed for this use. This is still a tinyfraction of the total volume currently licensedfor all uses.

� Water packaged in containers smaller than20 litres is not considered bulk water and islegally allowed to leave the province.

SOURCES: Environment Canada, Municipal Water Use Database (MUD),2000. NOTES: It is important to note that after being used, domestic water issubject to costly water treatment to make the receiving aquatic environmentlivable for aquatic organisms and safe for human consumption andrecreation.

36

Status and trends in species at risk� In British Columbia 75 species of vertebrate

animals and 241 vascular plant species arelisted as either threatened, endangered orcandidates for these designations.

� An additional 420 vertebrate animal andvascular plant species are classified asvulnerable. Vulnerable species are alsoconsidered at risk and include theWhite Glacier Lily, Painted Turtle andGrizzly Bear.

� Since 1996, six birds, including theMarbled Murrelet and Broadwing Hawk,one reptile (the Western Pond Turtle), oneamphibian (the Oregon Spotted Frog) andone mammal (the Badger) have been addedto the threatened or endangered species list.In that time one bird (Sprague’s Pipit) andtwo mammals (the Northern Long-earedMyotis and Dall’s Sheep) have beenremoved from the threatened orendangered species list.

� Most of the increases to species at risk listsare a reflection of better tracking.

� Species lists have been expanded to includeinvertebrate animals such as insects(120 listed as threatened, endangered orvulnerable), moss species (306) and plantassociations (241).

� Plant associations are unique ecosystemscategorized by their species composition.They are home to many of the speciesat risk.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Conservation Data Centre. NOTES: Plants are restricted to vascular plants. The totalthreatened or endangered species /native breeding species in each group is: freshwater fish 26/84; reptiles 4/14; amphibians 5/19; vascular plants241/2042; mammals 11/104; breeding birds 29/290. Species at risk are designated as: endangered when they are facing imminent extinction orextirpation; threatened when they are likely to become endangered if factors affecting their vulnerability are not reversed; or vulnerable when theyare of special concern because of characteristics that make them particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events.

Four species havebeen legallydesignated asendangered underthe Wildlife Act:Burrowing Owl,White Pelican,Sea Otter andVancouver IslandMarmot. Thisdesignationprohibits actionsresulting in thedeath of anendangeredspecies. TheWhite Pelican andthe Sea Otterhave shown signsof recovery inrecent years.

Approximately12% of vascularplants and 15%of vertebrateanimals arethreatened orendangered inBritish Columbia.

Threatened orendangeredspecies includethe Salish Sucker,Oregon SpottedFrog, GoldenPaintbrush,White-headedWoodpecker andSpotted Owl.

Species at Risk in British ColumbiaThreatened or endangered species (as percentage of known species)

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

35

Fish Reptiles Amphibians Plants Mammals Birds

Why is it important?� British Columbia is Canada’s most biologically

diverse province, and threatened or endangeredspecies are an ecologically important part ofthis biodiversity.

� Diverse and viable populations of wild plantsand animals are vital to long-term economicand social well-being.

What is being done?� British Columbia is committed to the National

Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk. Allprovinces have agreed to protect species andtheir habitats and develop recovery plans fornationally designated threatened or endangeredspecies. The National Accord emphasizespreventative measures, stewardship initiativesand the need for partnerships on both publicand private lands.

� British Columbia will respect prohibitions andimplement recovery plans as outlined in theproposed federal Species at Risk Act.

� The Protected Areas System is the cornerstoneof the province’s initiatives to protect species atrisk. It sets aside important habitats, withconservation and recreation as managementpriorities.


Protection, conservation and restoration of a full range of biological and physical diversitynative to British Columbia. Starting in the year 2000, British Columbia will approve five newrecovery plans for endangered species each year.

37

Where are the species at risk found?� The Southern Interior ecoprovince has the

largest number of species at risk (259), followedby the Southern Interior Mountains (204) andthe Georgia Depression (194).

� In these ecoprovinces, regions of highbiodiversity coincide with human expansionresulting in habitat loss.

� Species at risk in the Southern Interior includethe Burrowing Owl. The grassland habitat thisbird relies on is restricted to valley bottoms andis being replaced by agriculture and urbandevelopment.

� Species at risk in the Georgia Depression includethe Vancouver Island Marmot — endangereddue to habitat alteration, predation and disease.There are an estimated 50 marmots left in thewild. A captive breeding project has beeninitiated to prevent these animals frombecoming extinct.

What are the threats to species at risk?� Agricultural and urban development and the

conversion of old-growth forests to managedforest stands, alter natural habitat and pose asignificant threat to vertebrate animals inBritish Columbia.

� In the Southern Interior and GeorgiaDepression, urban and agricultural developmentpose the greatest threats to vertebrates. In theSouthern Interior Mountains, logging, followedby urban development, poses the greatest threat.

� Wetland species, such as the Oregon SpottedFrog, Western Pond Turtle and Sandhill Crane,are particularly threatened by development.

� Although alien species do not pose the mostsignificant overall threat, they pose a significantthreat to amphibians and plants.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. ConservationData Centre. NOTES: Circled numbers indicate the total number ofthreatened, endangered and vulnerable vertebrate animals and vascularplant species and sub-species. Since the release of Environmental Trendsin BC 1998, a significant improvement in regional tracking has resulted inlower numbers of total species at risk for most ecoprovinces.

The SouthOkanaganConservationStrategy is anew federal/provincialpartnership beingdevelopedspecifically toprotect species atrisk in theSouthern Interior.

Speciesextirpated fromBritish Columbiaare White-tailedJackrabbit,Sage Grouse,Yellow-billedCuckoo, Short-horned Lizard,Pink Sand-verbena andCommonDowningia.Species nowextinct arePassengerPigeon, DragonLake Whitefishand Hadley LakeLimnetic andBenthicSticklebacks.

SOURCES: Conservation Data Centres or Heritage Programs for eachjurisdiction, 1999. NOTES: Conservation Data Centres and Heritage Projectsin British Columbia and elsewhere use a system of ranking speciesdeveloped by The Nature Conservancy (US), which is internationallyrecognized and allows for comparisons between jurisdictions.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Wildlife Branch.NOTES: Does not include fish or marine mammals. Human disturbanceincludes both the deliberate and accidental disturbance of animals;environmental contamination includes any chemicals added to theenvironment that affect species at risk; and other includes alteration ofhabitat due to fire supression and/or the effects of development notconsidered to be urban or agricultural (e.g., campsites).

Number of extinct and extirpated terrestrialvertebrates and vascular plants

0

10

20

30

40

50

Ontario

Atlantic Canada

Montana

British Columbia

Manitoba

UtahSaskatchewan

Alberta

Alaska

133

168

96

194

259

48

204

28

41

Two out of thefour mostendangeredecosystems inCanada are inBritish Columbia:the Garry OakWoodlands of thesouth coast andthe AntelopeBrush Ecosystemof the SouthernInterior.

Alien Species

Livestock Grazing

Other

Environmental Contamination

Poaching and Accidental Mortality

Human Disturbance

Logging

Urban Development

Agriculture

Relative importance of threats to threatened andendangered (Red-listed) vertebrates

How does British Columbia compare to other places?� Extirpated species (i.e., those no longer in a

particular location but found elsewhere) andextinct species provide an indication of thedegree to which a jurisdiction’s biologicaldiversity has deteriorated.

� British Columbia has 10 extinct and extirpatedspecies, compared to 49 in Ontario, 33 inAtlantic Canada, 27 in Montana, five inSaskatchewan, four in Alberta and onein Alaska.

38

Forest Species in British Columbia

Key facets of theForest PracticesCode designed toprotectbiodiversity havenot yet been fullyimplemented.These includeLandscape UnitPlanning,Identified WildlifeManagementStrategy andWinter UngulateRanges.

Fifteen percent offorest-dwellingvertebrates and6% of forest-dwelling vascularplants arethreatened orendangered inBritish Columbia.

Status and trends in forest species� In British Columbia, 8% of 1,079 known

species of forest-dwelling vertebrateanimals and vascular plants are threatened,endangered or candidates for thesedesignations.

� The percentage of forest-dwellingvertebrates that are threatened orendangered increased by 2% between1997 and 1999.

� Threatened or endangered forest speciesinclude Nooksack Dace, Pacific GiantSalamander, Keen’s Long-eared Myotis,Silvery Lupine, Marbled Murrelet andSpotted Owl.

� Small organisms, such as non-vascularplants, invertebrates and fungi, comprisethe majority of forest-dwelling species andfill an important role in the ecology offorests. However, very little is known abouttheir status.

� Changes in the nature and extent of foresthabitat affect the diversity of forest-dwelling vertebrate species. Species thatrequire large ranges (e.g., Grizzly Bear,Wolverine) and those that are associatedwith older forests (e.g., Spotted Owl andKeen’s Myotis) are most affected.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. Conservation Data Centre and State of the Environment Reporting Program.NOTES: The total number of threatened or endangered forest-dwelling species/total number of forest-dwelling species in each group: freshwaterfish 24/69; amphibians 2/13; mammals 6/64; vascular plants 49/792; birds 9/137; reptiles 0/4. Except for fish, a forest species was defined asa species that requires forest habitat for at least one of its life requirements. A forest was defined as an area having at least 10% tree cover. Aforest-dependent fish was defined as a fish with high to medium dependence on forests.

0Fish Amphibians Mammals Plants Birds Reptiles

10

20

30

40

Threatened or endangered forest species (as percentage of known forest species)

Why is it important?� Forests cover nearly two-thirds of

British Columbia and provide a wide range ofhabitats for plants and animals.

� A significant portion of the species inBritish Columbia are forest-dependent. Theseinclude 82% of the the freshwater fish, 72% ofthe amphibians, 60% of the mammals, 50% ofthe breeding birds and 31% of the reptiles.

� Forest ecosystems and the species that live inthem are closely linked to many otherecosystems. For example, through the exchangeof species, gases, water and other material,aquatic ecosystems and forest ecoystems arehighly interdependent. Even seabirds can beinfluenced by the nature and extent of forestpractices in watersheds far from the ocean.

What is being done?� The province is moving towards an ecosystem-

based approach to managing biodiversity inforests, so that industrial forestry activities moreclosely resemble patterns of natural disturbance.

� The Forest Practices Code of British Columbia Actrequires the maintenance of riparian reserves onlarger streams, where fish are present, andrecommends watershed assessments wherelogging practices may negatively impact fish.

� The Identified Wildlife Management Strategyprovides guidelines to encourage habitatprotection for some forest-dependent species.


Protection, conservation and restoration of a full range of biological and physical diversity nativeto British Columbia, and provision of social, economic and outdoor recreational opportunitiesconsistent with maintaining a naturally diverse and healthy environment.

39

SOURCES: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,1997, withassistance from BC Ministry of Forests, Royal British Columbia Museum,Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans, University of Victoria andUniversity of Alberta. NOTE: The number of threatened or endangered/totalfish species is 8/51 for high forest dependency; 16/18 for mediumdependency; 3/14 for low forest dependency.

Approximatelyone in threespecies of forest-dependent nativefreshwater fish isthreatened orendangered inBritish Columbia.Many of thesethreatened orendangered fishare especiallyvulnerable todisturbancesbecause they arenaturally rare orhave restricteddistributions.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

High

Forest-dependent freshwater fish species (as percentage of known species)

MediumForest dependency

Low

Threatened or endangered

All other fish

0

5

10

15

20

25

UnknownSameExpandingContracting

Non-wildlife tree users

Wildlife tree users

Number of species

Range trends

SOURCES: Royal British Columbia Museum and BC Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, 1997. NOTES: A wildlife tree is defined as any standing deador live tree with special characteristics that provide valuable habitat for theconservation or enhancement of wildlife. Wildlife tree users are identified bythe Wildlife Tree Committee of British Columbia. A wildlife tree user requiresspecialized habitat created by dead or decaying trees. Trends wereevaluated using range expansions or contractions since 1900.

Four of the 16forest-dwellingmammals withshrinking rangesuse wildlife trees:Fisher, Caribou,Northern FlyingSquirrel andMarten.

Is the range of forest mammals shrinking?� Forty-four percent of the 36 forest-dwelling

mammals with known range trends havecontracting ranges. This trend may be an early-warning signal that species are moving towardsendangerment.

� The three species that have expanded theirranges are associated with early-seral forests(Moose and White-tailed Deer) and/or are welladapted to rural development (White-tailedDeer and Coyote).

� The range trends of 40% of forest-dwellingmammal species are unknown, including 16 of26 wildlife tree users.

� All of British Columbia’s 83 native freshwaterfish are considered dependent on forests tosome extent because forests are the dominantfactor determining water quality, quantity andtemperature, and sediment delivery in rivers,streams and lakes.

� Fish with a high forest dependency requirestream habitats to complete at least one stageof their life history. Streams are directlyinfluenced by riparian forests that provideshade, organic litter and nutrients, and largewoody debris for channel structure, stabilityand habitat diversity.

� Species with a medium forest dependency relyon lake habitats for one or more life stages.Lake habitats are assumed to be less influencedby adjacent forests than are streams. Lakes areindirectly influenced by forests through theireffect on incoming streams.

� Fish with a low forest dependency cancomplete all life stages in habitats that havenaturally low or unforested riparian areas(i.e., alpine), or in large rivers where riparianforests have minimal influence.

� Of the 51 fish species with a high forestdependency, eight are threatened orendangered (16%), including Broad Whitefish,Nooksack Dace and Umatilla Dace.

� Although some widely distributed forest-dependent salmonid species, such as Coho,Steelhead and Chinook, are not threatened orendangered across their entire range, specificgenetic stocks are considered to be at riskof extinction.

Are forest-dependent freshwater fish threatened?

40

Most forest-dwelling birdsincluded in theBreeding BirdSurvey show noincreasing ordeclining trendover the past30 years.

Forest Species in British Columbia/continued

Significantpopulationdeclines havebeen observed insome birds notincluded in theBreeding BirdSurvey. SpottedOwls and MarbledMurrelets, bothdependent oncoastal old-growth forestsfor nestinghabitat, havebeen decliningover the past nineand 18 yearsrespectively.

Are forest-dwelling birds declining in British Columbia?� Fifty percent (135) of the native breeding

birds in British Columbia live in forests,making their population trends importantearly-warning signals for the state ofbiodiversity in the province’s forests.

� The Breeding Bird Survey is one source ofreliable long-term information on trends inbird populations from 1967 to 1998. Itincludes 46% of the native breeding forestbirds in British Columbia. However, rare,nocturnal, silent and interior forest birdsare not included.

� Twenty-nine percent (18) of the forest birdspecies followed by the Breeding BirdSurvey are neotropical migrants — birdsthat breed in British Columbia but spendmost of their lives south of theUnited States. In British Columbia, mostneotropical migrant birds included in theBreeding Bird Survey — nine on the coastand 12 in the interior — show no cleartrends. Two species on the coast and threein the interior are declining; two species onthe coast and one in the interior areincreasing.

� Fifty-four forest-dwelling birds are knownas wildlife tree users because they requirethe specialized habitat created by dead ordecaying trees. Of the 13 species includedin the Breeding Bird Survey — eight on thecoast and 10 in the interior — show noclear increasing or declining trend. In theinterior one is declining, and on the coastone is increasing.

� It is important to note that significantpopulation declines have been observed insome birds not included in the BreedingBird Survey. At particular risk are birdsdependent on coastal old-growth forests fornesting habitat. For example, Spotted Owlpopulations have declined by one-third inthe past nine years. As well, MarbledMurrelets have been declining over the past18 years in Clayoquot and DesolationSounds and on the east coast ofVancouver Island.

SOURCE: Canadian Wildlife Service, Breeding Bird Survey, 1999.NOTE: 46% (62) of the native breeding forest birds in British Columbia are includedin the Breeding Bird Survey. Only forest birds showing clear trends (i.e., p<0.15)for the 30-year period between 1967 and 1998 are shown. n = neotropicalmigrant; w = wildlife tree user. The Coast includes the Coast and Mountains andGeorgia Depression ecoprovinces; the Interior includes the Sub-Boreal Interior,Central Interior, Southern Interior and Southern Interior Mountains ecoprovinces.No Breeding Bird Survey data were available for the Northern Boreal Mountains,Taiga Plains and Boreal Plains ecoprovinces in northern and northeasternBritish Columbia.

-10 -5 0 0 5 10 15

% increase

1967–1998

% decrease

-15

-10 -5 0 0 5 10 15

% increase

1967–1998

% decreaseInterior

Coast

-15 20

20

Olive-sided Flycatcher (n)

Pine Siskin

Band-tailed Pigeon (n)

Common Loon

Red-eyed Vireo (n, w)

Calliope Hummingbird (n)

Red-eyed Vireo (n, w)

Willow Flycatcher

Warbling Vireo (n)

Least Flycatcher (n)

Ruby-crowned Kinglet

Pine Siskin

Fox Sparrow

Black-headed Grosbeak (n)

Winter Wren

Spotted Towhee

Golden-crowned Kinglet

41

>2.0

1.5–2.0

1.0–1.5

0.5–1.0

0.1–0.5

<0.1

Road density (km/km2) on forest land

SOURCES: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Geographic Data BC, 1999.NOTES: Data are taken from 1981–1988 air photos (TRIM), the latest years for which road density data areavailable. Road densities are shown for each of the 246 watershed groupings in British Columbia. The kmof each type of road are as follows: Total roads – 387,021; primary and secondary roads – 21,924; othernon-forest roads – 59,858; forest service roads – 34,952; other forest roads 270,287.

Are roads intruding on forest habitat?� As of 1988, there were 387,000 km of roads in

British Columbia. Seventy-six percent of theseare used to access forests for timber andrecreation. The other 24% are comprised ofmain and secondary highways and other non-forest roads.

� Roads provide access to previously inaccessibleforest areas for resource development andrecreation. They can lead to increaseddevelopment, habitat fragmentation and loss,roadkill, stream sedimentation and increasedaccess by off-road motorized vehicles, such assnowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles.

� Road density on about 35% of the forest landin the province is greater than 0.5 km/km2. Atthis density many wildlife populations arecompromised.

� Avoidance of road networks has significantnegative impacts on the behaviour of bothvertebrate and invertebrate species. Othernegative repercussions include populationfragmentation, which in turn can diminish thegenetic health of a population.

� Examples of road densities above whichwildlife species are negatively impactedinclude: Grizzly Bear 0.4 km/km2; Black Bear1.25 km/km2; and Elk 0.62 km/km2.

� Bull Trout populations are extremely sensitiveto road building and are affected by densities of0.1 to 1.1 km/km2.

� Some of the negative impacts of roads can bemitigated by regular road maintenance andaccess management, including roaddeactivation. An example of road accessplanning is the pilot project currentlyunderway near Golden.

� Since 1988 (and not reflected in the roaddensity map), the Ministry of Forests has builtapproximately 800 km of new roads per year. Itis estimated that forest companies build threetimes this number per year in the forests ofBritish Columbia. In the past 12 years, thisamounts to over 38,000 kms of new roads onforest land.

� Since 1994, under the Watershed RestorationProgram, administered by Forest Renewal BC,over 19,600 km of logging roads have beenpermanently or semi-permanently deactivatedor repaired to help restore and protect waterquality for people, fish and fish habitat.

42

Status of wildlife populations� As a group, Caribou, Columbian Sharp-

tailed Grouse, Grizzly Bear, Mule/Black-tailed Deer and Moose represent species ofwildlife managed for conservation,recreation and sustenance uses. Together,they have historically ranged over most ofthe province and live in a variety of habitats.

� A number of managed wildlife species, suchas Caribou, Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouseand Grizzly Bear, no longer occupy signifi-cant portions of their historical ranges.

� Other species occupy most of theirhistorical ranges, although some haveexperienced population declines in largeparts of those ranges.

� Mountain Caribou, which are the southernpopulation of Caribou, are classified asthreatened in British Columbia. GrizzlyBear and Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouseare classified as vulnerable.

� Mule/Black-tailed deer are declining in 31%of their historical range. Most of the declineis on Vancouver Island and in the SouthernInterior. Cougar and wolf predation hasbeen implicated in these declines.

� Moose are stable in most (77%)of theirhistorical range. Declining populations arefound in the interior of the province.

Wildlife in British Columbia

Some wildlifespecies, such asMule/Black-tailedDeer and Moose,still occupy mostof their historicalrange, althoughpopulationdeclines in someareas are ofconcern.

Several wildlifespecies, includingCaribou andColumbian Sharp-tailed Grouse, nolonger occupysignificant portionsof their historicalrange since the1950s.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, 1999. NOTE: * For Grizzly Bear the graph represents the percentage ofhistorical range in which sub-populations are extirpated or threatened. Threatened sub-populations are those with poor to fair viability. Thecalculations for this graph were made from an assessment of historical (1950) and current habitat suitable for each species. The range of eachspecies was calculated by ecosection, except for Caribou and Grizzly Bear, which were calculated using the distribution of sub-populations.Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse is a subspecies of Sharp-tailed Grouse.

0

10

20

30

40

50

Grizzly Bear

Caribou Sharp-tailedGrouse

Mule/Black-tailedDeer

Moose

Percentage of historical range in which species are extirpated or declining

No longer occupied (extirpated)

With declining populations

*

Why is it important?� British Columbia’s managed wildlife provide

economic, social and natural diversity benefits.� Many of British Columbia’s managed wildlife

populations are of national and internationalsignificance.

� Maintaining all species across their ranges isfundamental to preserving biodiversity.

� First Nations have a right to harvest wildlife forsustenance and cultural uses.

What is being done?� The Protected Areas Strategy will help protect

and conserve some wildlife habitat. Thisincludes Columbian Sharp-tailed Grousegrassland habitat in the newly created ChurnCreek and Lac du Bois protected areas.

� Conservation strategies have been developedfor Grizzly Bear and Mountain Caribou and theSouthern Interior ecosystem (home to someColumbian Sharp-tailed Grouse populations).

� Forty species and ecosystems are presentlydesignated as Identifed Wildlife under theForest Practices Code. These will be subject tospecial management considerations.

� Harvest levels and area closures for wildlife areassessed annually to ensure conservationpriorities are met.



43

Grizzly Bears onceranged throughoutmuch ofNorth America,from Mexico tonorthern Canadaand Alaska. Today,their range is lessthan half thatarea.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, 2000.NOTES: The range for Caribou was calculated using the estimated historical andcurrent range. The delineations on the map are sub-populations. Because of theunique distribution pattern of this species, the ecoregional classification systemdoes not provide a good description of the range. In BC there are fourmetapopulations of Caribou: southern mountain/arboreal; southern mountainterrestrial; northern mountain/terrestrial; boreal. These metapopulations consist of13, 11, 17 and 1 sub-populations, respectively.

Stable

No historical presence

Extirpated

Decreasing

Extirpated

Fair

Good

Excellent

Poor

Population viability

Decreasing

Historicaldistribution

Stable

Unknown

British Columbia isthe largestremainingpopulation centreof ColumbianSharp-tailedGrouse.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, 2000.NOTES: The delineations on this map represent Grizzly Bear sub-populations. Sub-population estimates are expressed as a percentage of the capability of the habitatto support Grizzly Bears. For example, excellent population viability means that thehabitat is supporting more than 75% of the Grizzly Bears that it has the capability tosupport. The population viability for each category is: excellent >75%; good 50–75%;fair 25–50%; poor <25%.

Since the 1950schanging land usepractices,particularly in thesouth, have placedgrowing pressureon Caribou andtheir habitat.

Has the range of Grizzly Bear changed?� British Columbia is home to an estimated

10,000–13,000 grizzlies — half of Canada’s andone-quarter of North America’s current GrizzlyBear population.

� Historically, Grizzly Bears have ranged overmost of the province. Today, their populationis extirpated (locally extinct) in 11%,threatened (poor or fair) in 8%, and excellentor good in 81% of their historical range.

� Grizzly Bears are territorial and move overhundreds of kilometres. Their requirement forunfragmented habitat makes them particularlyvulnerable to human settlement and resourcedevelopment.

Has the range of Caribou changed?� British Columbia is home to an estimated

18,700 Caribou. The largest numbers are foundin the northern mountains.

� The 42 sub-populations of Caribou vary insize from the Spatsizi herd, with2,200 Caribou, to the George Mountain herd,with approximately 20 Caribou.

� Historically, Caribou were found fromNorthern BC to the Kootenays, in thesoutheast of the province.

� Today their populations are stable in 32%,declining in 11% and extirpated in as much as40% of their historical range.

� The main threats to Caribou inBritish Columbia are logging of their old-growth forest winter range, predation, naturalfires in the north and disturbance caused byhumans on motorized vehicles such assnowmobiles and all-terrain vehicles.

Has the range of Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse changed?� British Columbia has the largest remaining

distribution of Columbian Sharp-tailedGrouse of any state or province. Six statesaverage less than 10% of their originaldistribution and in a further three states theyare extirpated.

� Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse are stable in53%, declining in 25% and extirpated in 22%of their historical range in British Columbia.

� Loss of the entire breeding population in theKootenays is primarily due to forestencroachment on grasslands caused bysuccessful fire suppression. Overgrazing, loss ofriparian habitat, urban development andhunting also affect populations.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Wildlife Branch, 1997.NOTES: The delineations represent ecosections, as described in Ecoregions ofBritish Columbia, D. Demarchi, 1993.

44

Fish in British Columbia

SOURCE: T.L. Slaney et al.,1996. Status of Anadromous Salmon and Trout in British Columbia and Yukon, Fisheries, V. 21, No.10, pp 20–35. NOTES: The graphdisplays the proportion of those stocks for which there was sufficient data to determine status. Of the approximately 10,000 stocks assessed in this study, thestatus of 80% of Cutthroat Trout, 48% of Steelhead, 50% of Coho, 51% of Chinook, 29% of Chum, 40% of Sockeye, 31% of Pink and 43% of all salmonstocks was unknown. At moderate to high risk means that the stock experienced serious declines in the last decade so that less than 20% or 1,000 fish(whichever is smaller) of the long-term population remains. Special concern means that the stock was at risk due to minor disturbances; is unique andrequires special attention; may be at risk due to relese of non-native fish; or that the current decade mean has fallen by 80% from long-term means, but thecurrent decade mean is greater than 1,000. Yukon stocks and introduced stocks are not included in this graph.

Status and trends in salmonids� The status of 43% of the salmon stocks in

British Columbia is unknown. Of the5,476 stocks which could be classified, 3%(142 stocks) are extinct 13% are at moderateto high risk of extinction and 4% are ofspecial concern.

� An additional 22% of the unknown stocksmay be at high risk or extinct, but theexisting information is inconclusive.

� Cutthroat Trout has the greatest percentageof extinct stocks (13%), as well as the highestproportion (80%) of stocks whose status isunknown.

� Although Steelhead has the lowestproportion of stocks at moderate to highrisk, 32% are classified “of special concern”and the status of 48% is unknown.

� Eighteen percent of Coho and 13% ofChinook stocks are at moderate to high riskof extinction. Chinook stocks are most atrisk on Southwest Vancouver Island, whileCoho stocks are most at risk on theCentral Coast.

� Important factors contributing to extinctand declining salmon stocks are: loss ofspawning habitat due to logging; hydro-power and urban development; overfishing;pollution; changes in the marineenvironment; and climate change.

844 salmonstocks of theapproximately10,000investigated inBritish Columbiahave beenclassified asextinct or atmoderate to highrisk of extinction.

In recent yearsthe low numbersof adult salmonidsreturning tospawn has raisedalarm. Forexample, thepercentage ofsteelhead smoltsreturning tospawn in theKeogh River onVancouver Islandhas declined froman average of15% prior to1990 to less than4% since 1991.

Percentage of salmonid stocks extinct, at moderate to high risk of extinction or of special concern

10

20

30

40

50

60

0

Special concern

Moderate to high risk of extinction

Extinct

Cutthroat

Steelhead

CohoChinook

ChumSockeye

PinkTotals

Why is it important?� Salmon are an integral part of British Columbia’s

culture, heritage and economy. Salmon havesustained aboriginal peoples for centuries andhave supported commercial and recreationalfisheries since the 1830s.

� Salmon bring essential marine-derived nutrientsto British Columbia’s coastal forest ecosystems.

� Although the province-wide abundance of somesalmon species, such as Chum and Pink, is stableor increasing, declining stocks represent a loss ofthe genetic diversity that is essential to the long-term sustainability of salmon.

What is being done?� The Fish Protection Act includes measures to

protect and enhance fish habitat.� The Watershed Restoration Program restores fish

habitat in streams impacted by historical loggingpractices.

� The Urban Salmon Habitat Program providesfunds to protect and restore urban streams in theGeorgia Basin.

� Fisheries Renewal BC supports fish and fish habitatrestoration work throughout British Columbia.

� The Water Use Planning process provides amechanism to review BC Hydro’s water licencesand implement operational changes that willbenefit fish.


Protection, conservation, and restoration of a full range of biological and physical diversity nativeto British Columbia, and provision of social, economic and outdoor recreational opportunitiesconsistent with maintaining a naturally diverse and healthy environment.

45

Age distribution of White Sturgeon(percentage of population)

0

20

40

60

80

100

mid-Fraser Nechako

JuvenilesSub-adultsAdults

SOURCE: BC Fisheries, 1999. NOTES: Fraser data collected for areabetween French Bar Rapids and Hawkes Creek between 1997 and1998. Nechako data collected from Nechako River between 1995and 1998.

SOURCE: BC Fisheries and BC Ministry of Environment, Landsand Parks, 2000.

SOURCE: BC Fisheries and BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,1999. NOTES: Population status data are based on professional opinion, aslittle hard data were available. This map delineates 246 watershedgroupings, as described in the British Columbia Watershed Atlas. At least183 of these watershed groupings have historically contained Bull Trout.

White Sturgeonare the largestfreshwater fish inCanada. Theyspawn in onlythree riversystems in NorthAmerica – theSacramento,Columbia andFraser.

Kokanee stocks inthe Okanaganregion are highlysusceptible tohuman impacts.

Bull Trout hasbeen identified asa speciesrequiring specialmanagementpractices underthe BritishColumbia ForestPractices Code.

0

100

300

400

1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Number of Kokanee spawners in streams of Okanagan Lake (thousands)

200

Unknown

Stable

Declining

No historicalpresence

What is the status of White Sturgeon?� The proportion of juveniles to sub-adults and

adults is a good indicator of long-term viabilityfor White Sturgeon. A viable population, such asin the mid-Fraser, is dominated by youngSturgeon. The near absence of juvenile fishindicates repeated spawning failures haveoccurred. Such a population may be consideredcritically imperilled.

� All White Sturgeon populations in BC areconsidered to be threatened, and three popu-lations (Nechako, Kootenay, Columbia) arecritically imperilled.

� Major dams and diversions that change thenatural flow regime of spawning and rearinghabitat present the greatest threat to Sturgeon.

� Other threats include pollutants and impacts tohabitat through activities such as dredging andgravel mining.

What is the status of Kokanee?� The population of stream-spawning Kokanee in

Okanagan Lake has declined by 98% since 1971,and the lake has been closed to angling sinceMarch 1995.

� Kokanee provide an important sport fishery inBritish Columbia’s interior. They are the majorfood source for the region’s large-lake RainbowTrout populations, which are expected to declineif Kokanee continue their downward trend.

� Reasons for declining populations include loss ofstream habitat through urbanization anddevelopment, and competition for food withintroduced Oppossum Shrimp.

� Kokanee were successfully restored in KootenayLake through a fertilization program. It is unclearif nutrients are limiting Kokanee in OkanaganLake and all restoration options are beingconsidered.

What is the status of Bull Trout?� Bull Trout populations are declining in 41%,

stable in 43% and have unknown status in 16%of the 183 watershed groups that historicallycontained Bull Trout.

� In British Columbia, Bull Trout is classified asvulnerable, and stringent fishing regulations arein place. In the US, some Bull Trout populationsare listed as threatened under the EndangeredSpecies Act.

� The main threats to Bull Trout are habitat lossand alteration caused by logging, grazing,mining, road building and dam construction.

� By increasing access, road development can leadto over-fishing and poaching.

46

Status of riparian ecosystems onforest land� Forest riparian ecosystems are transitional

areas between aquatic and upland forestecosystems. At least 12% of the forest landarea in the province is riparian.

� In almost one-third of the watershedgroups, less than 1% of the forest riparianarea was logged between 1973 and 1993,prior to the Forest Practices Code. Smallstreams are not captured by this analysis.

� During that time, in about 7% of thewatershed groups, more than 20% of theforest riparian area was logged.

� Logging of riparian areas on forest land hasbeen most widespread in the southern halfof the province, including VancouverIsland, Queen Charlotte Islands, the southcoast, the interior and the southeast of theprovince.

� Most (87%) of the logging in riparian areashas been by clearcutting; 13% has been byselectively logging.

� Past practices of logging and road buildingwithout the retention of streamsidevegetation has highlighted the critical rolethat riparian habitat plays in maintainingaquatic ecosystem integrity.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Geographic Data BC (GDBC), 1999. NOTES: For this map, riparian areas encompass the land within30 metres of a stream, where a stream is greater than 200 m in length. Data have been extracted from the provincial database Watersheds BC. Data tocreate this map originate with the Baseline Thematic Mapping (BTM) Land Use/Ground Cover interpretation of satellite imagery, air photography, and1:20,000 Ministry of Forests forest cover inventory. The BTM land use is from satellite imagery taken from 1991–1997. The map delineates 246 watershedgroupings, as described in the British Columbia Watershed Atlas.

Riparianecosystems coveronly a smallportion of theforest land in awatershed, butbecause they areoften morediverse andproductive thanupland areas,they providecritical wildlifehabitat.

Riparian Ecosystems on Forest LandRiparian area logged

(on forest land)

>30%

20–30%

10–20%

1–10%

<1%

Why is it important?� Forest riparian ecosystems have an important

role in stabilizing streambanks, regulatingstream temperature and filtering out potentiallyharmful debris and pollutants.

� Forest riparian ecosystems produce a highdiversity of plant species, which provide manyopportunities to wildlife for nesting, feeding,hiding, roosting and use as migrationcorridors.

� Forest riparian ecosystems are a source of largewoody debris that falls into streams, providingstructural stability, complexity and nutrients toaquatic ecosystems.

What is being done?� The Forest Practices Code (FPC) requires

riparian reserve zones and management zonesaround larger streams containing fish.

� The Identified Wildlife Management Strategyenables habitat protection for species notadequately protected by general riparian andbiodiversity measures under the FPC.



Since theimplementationof the ForestPractices Code in1995, logging ofriparian areasbeside medium tolarge streams hasbeen significantlyreduced. However,widespreadretention ofstreamsidevegetation besidesmaller streams,less than 1.5 mwide, has notoccurred.

47

SOURCE: Fraser River Action Plan, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 1998.NOTES: *The identification of historic streams that have been lost contains anelement of uncertainty; therefore, the number of lost streams is consideredan approximation. A threatened stream meets one impact criterion, anendangered stream meets more than one impact criterion and a wild streamis not significantly impacted by any impact criteria. Impact criteria include:riparian removal along more than 50% of fish-frequented length of stream;channelization/dyking of over 50% of fish-frequented length of stream;effective impermeable area (EIA) covering 10% or greater of watershed;water diversion of greater than 50% of stream flow or significant manipulationof flow; significant water problems (temperature, pH, BOD, nutrients, notincluding impacts from logging); extensive logging in the watershed whereimpacts are obvious; urbanization; and other agricultural/urban impacts.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. State ofEnvironment Reporting Program. NOTES: The analysis includes threatened orendangered species or candidates for this designation (i.e., Red-listed bythe Conservation Data Centre (CDC). “Other” includes alteration of habitatsthat are not urban or agricultural such as hydro, ski resorts and fire control.It does not include freshwater fish.

Endangered48%

Threatened23%

Lost*15%

Wild14%

Since 1860, in theLower FraserValley, at least117 streamshave been lost —culverted, pavedover, drained orfilled in.

30

25

20

15

10

5

0 FishMammals

BirdsAmphibians

TotalReptiles

Percentage of riparian-dependent vertebrates that are threatened or endangered

Logging

Agriculture

Urban development

Other

Human disturbance

Poaching and accidental mortality

Alien species

Environmental contamination

Relative importance of threats to threatened or endangered riparian-user vertebrates

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2000. ConservationData Centre and State of Environment Reporting Program. NOTES: A riparian-dependent species is dependent on riparian habitat for at least one of its lifestages. These data include subspecies when only one subspecies of aspecies is dependent on riparian habitat.

On the east coastof VancouverIsland a lack offorest cover inthe riparian zoneis one of thefactors limitingfish populationsin about two-thirds of thesmall streams.

Seven ripariandependent specieshave beendesignated as“IdentifiedWildlife” underthe ForestPractices Code.

How are riparian-dwelling species faring?� Of the 287 forest-dwelling vertebrate species in

British Columbia, 88% use riparian habitat fortheir basic needs such as food, shelter andreproduction.

� 15% of the forest-dwelling vertebrates thatdepend on riparian habitat are listed asthreatened or endangered. These include theSalish Sucker, Pacific Giant Salamander andPacific Water Shrew.

� An additional 13% of riparian-dependentvertebrates are considered vulnerable andinclude Bull Trout, Canada Warbler and Fisher.

What are threats to riparian species?� Ninety percent of riparian vertebrate species at

risk are threatened by logging activities.Examples include Western Red Bat, Grizzly Bearand Spotted Owl.

� Habitat loss due to logging, agriculture andurban development is the greatest threat toriparian vertebrate species at risk.

� Logging and associated road development alsocause bank erosion, stream temperaturechanges, invertebrate (food for fish) communitychanges, nutrient input changes and increasedaccess (roads and culverts).

� The threat labelled “other” includes alteration ofhabitat due to fire suppression and/or the effectsof development not considered urban oragricultural (e.g., campsites).

What is the status of streams in the Lower Fraser Valley?� Fifteen percent of the streams in the Lower

Fraser Valley (LFV) have been lost and 71% arethreatened or endangered.

� Streams are classified as threatened orendangered in response to a number of impactson stream health, such as alterations towatersheds, streamside degradation, removal ofvegetation and pollution.

� Only 14% (106) of streams in the LFV remainin a wild state. Most of these wild streams arehigh-gradient mountain streams, which arelargely inaccessible to fish and relatively difficultto develop.

� The conversion of forests to agriculture,industry and housing in the LFV has causedsevere damage to the streamside and in-streamhabitat, including streams that once supportedviable populations of salmon and other fish.

� Two-thirds of the wild Coho and 90% of theenhanced Coho in the Fraser River systemspawn in the LFV.

48

Status and trends in contaminants� The level of contaminants found in some

wildlife species has been decreasing overthe past 20 years. Since 1977, PCB levelsdetected in Great Blue Heron eggs at theUniversity of British Columbia (UBC)colony have decreased by between 40and 89%.

� PCB manufacturing was banned in Canadain 1977, but PCBs are still present inelectrical equipment manufactured beforethat date. Current levels of PCBs may bedue to spills or leaks from old equipmentor long-range atmospheric transportationand deposition.

� Since 1977, levels of DDE, a breakdownproduct of the persistent pesticide DDT,decreased by between 40 and 88% in GreatBlue Heron eggs. Canada banned the use ofDDT in the 1970s, but it persists in theenvironment and is still legallymanufactured and used in some countries.

� Organochlorines, such as PCBs and DDE,are found in the eggs of other birds, such asLeach’s Storm-Petrel, a predatory seabird.The presence of contaminants in remotebird populations found on the west coast ofVancouver Island illustrates how DDE andPCBs can be dispersed long distancesthrough the atmosphere, fresh water andthe ocean.

SOURCE: Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, 1999. NOTES: Data are presented as geometric means of eggs sampled.Data for 1982, 1983, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996 and 1998 are based on pooled samples. Data are from the Great Blue Heron colonyat the University of British Columbia.

Toxic Contaminants in British Columbia

Since 1977 therehas been adecrease in thelevels of PCBs andDDE detected inthe eggs ofGreat Blue Heronsfrom a colonylocated near theUniversity ofBritish Columbia.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8Contaminants in Great Blue Heron eggs (mg/kg)

01977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls)

DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane)

Why is it important?� Human activities, including industry,

transportation, waste disposal, agriculture,forestry and recreation have contaminated theenvironment with substances that are toxic tohumans and other living organisms.

� One group of toxic substances, persistentorganochlorines, includes pesticides such asDDT and industrial compounds such as PCBs,dioxins (by-products of industrial processes)and furans. They are termed persistent becausethey linger in the environment for decades oreven centuries before breaking down.

� These substances tend to accumulate withinexposed organisms (bioaccumulation) andincrease in concentration as they rise throughthe food chain (biomagnification).

� Top predators, such as the Great Blue Heron,are particularly affected.

What is being done?� Measures designed to minimize or eliminate

exposure to contaminants include: stringentregulations for the management of toxic wastes;the use of pollution prevention planning;industry initiatives; and a program forresponsible management of householdhazardous waste.

� Pollution prevention planning encouragesindustry to reduce hazardous waste during theproduction process.

Clean, healthy and safe land, water and air for all living things, and provision of social,economic and outdoor recreational opportunities consistent with maintaining a naturallydiverse and healthy environment.


Persistent organicpollutants aretransported longdistances, bywind and water,until they settleat high latitudesand highaltitudes. This is aproblem in themountains ofBritish Columbiaand in theCanadian Arctic.

49

SOURCE: Environment Canada, 1998, Summary Report 1996, the NationalPollutant Release Inventory. Data are for 1996, the latest year for whichinformation is available. Data include permitted uses only.

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999.Pollution Prevention and Remediation Branch.

Adsorbable Organic Halide (AOX) discharges inpulp and paper effluent (tonnes/day)

19910

10

20

30

40

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

YukonPEI

Newfoundland

Nova Scotia

Saskatchewan

Northwest Territories

New Brunswick

Manitoba

British Columbia

Quebec

AlbertaOntario

On-site toxic substance releases (10,000 tonnes)

Cumulative number of contaminated sites remediated

1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 19980

200

400

600

800

1000

SOURCE: BC Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1999. PollutionPrevention and Remediation Branch. NOTES: Although 5,122 contaminatedsites have been identified, after investigation not all of these will be foundto be contaminated.

Between 1988and 1999, 5,122contaminatedsites wereidentified and867 werecleaned up.

On-site toxicreleases havedecreased inBritish Columbiafrom 32,079tonnes in 1993to 9,134 tonnesin 1996.

Pulp and papermills inBritish Columbiareduced AOXdischarges by anaverage of 82%from 1991 to1998.

Are contaminated sites being remediated?� Since 1992 an average of 97 contaminated sites

have been remediated per year.� Contaminated sites pose a threat to human

health, the environment and infrastructure. Ifcontamination is not contained, it can spread,leading to very costly site clean-ups.

� The most typical contaminants at sites inBritish Columbia are petroleum hydrocarbonsfrom gasoline stations. Other commoncontaminants include heavy metals andchlorinated hydrocarbons.

� AOX is a surrogate measure of the amount ofchlorinated organic compounds in pulp andpaper effluent discharge. Dioxins and furansare components of AOX.

� From 1991 to 1998, average AOX dischargeswere reduced by 82%, from 36.6 to 6.5 tonnesper day.

� In 1990 British Columbia established a legallybinding requirement to eliminate AOX fromthe pulp and paper bleaching process by theend of 2002. New regulations will result inbetter tracking of progress towards AOXreductions.

� On-going improvements in the processing ofpulp focus on reducing chlorine use andoptimizing effluent treatment.

How does British Columbia compare to other places?� According to the National Pollutant Release

Inventory (NPRI), Canada released 142,613tonnes of on-site pollution in 1996.

� The majority (77%) of British Columbia’sreleases were into air, with 18% into water, 5%onto land, and less than 1% underground.

� In 1996, the two substances with the largestreleases in British Columbia were methanol(3,501 tonnes) and ammonia (1,802 tonnes).

� Of the 176 substances tracked by NPRI, 10have been classed as toxic, six identified ascarcinogenic and nine as probablycarcinogenic.

� Pollutant loading data give an indication ofenvironmental stress, but cannot characterizethe impact on environmental health.

Are measures to reduce pulp and paper effluent effective?

50

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

I N D E X

Aagriculture

and species at risk 8, 37, 47integrated pest management 3, 19livestock grazing 37, 43, 45pollution from 25, 30, 33, 48organic 3, 19water use 34, 35

air quality 3, 16, 24, 25see also fine particulates

amphibiansforest-dependent 10, 38Oregon Spotted Frog 36, 37Pacific Giant Salamander 38, 47

aquatic organisms (freshwater) 3, 30, 34aquifers 3, 8, 32, 33Auditor-General of B.C. 1

Bbeehive burners 18, 24, 25bioaccumulation 48biodiversity 3, 15, 26, 36, 37, 42

and forestry 38, 40, 46and protected areas 20, 21genetic diversity 44habitat diversity 39

biomagnification 48birds

and egg contaminationBand-tailed Pigeon 40Black-headed Grosbeak 40Broadwing Hawk 36Burrowing Owl 36, 37Calliope Hummingbird 40Canada Warbler 47Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 10,

42, 43Common Loon 40forest-dependent 38forest-dwelling 40Fox Sparrow 40Great Blue Heron 12, 48Golden-crowned Kinglet 40Leach’s Storm-Petrel 48Least Flycatcher 40Marbled Murrelet 36, 38, 40neotropical migrants 40Olive-sided Flycatcher 40Passenger Pigeon 37

Pine Siskin 40population trends 40Red-eyed Vireo 40Ruby-crowned Kinglet 40Sage Grouse 37Sandhill Crane 37seabirds 38Spotted Owl 36, 38, 40, 47Spotted Towhee 40Warbling Vireo 40waterfowl 15, 30White-headed Woodpecker 36White Pelican 36wildlife tree users 40Willow Flycatcher 40Winter Wren 40Yellow-billed Cuckoo 37

Breeding Bird Survey 40

Cclimate change 3, 26, 44

and groundwater levels 32as indicator 7, 28–29

coastal B.C. 28, 33, 44, 46comparisons with other jurisdictions

greenhouse gases 27protected areas 21species at risk 37toxic contaminants 49water use 35

compliance and enforcement 16, 17, 19composting 23Conservation Data Centre 9, 10contaminated sites 3, 31, 49

Ddams 18, 30, 45developed countries 27developing countries 27domestic waste 3, 48

as indicator 6, 22–23provincial target 14, 22

drinking water 30, 33, 34, 35bottled 35

Eecological classification 17, 21ecoprovinces

Central Interior 23

Coast and Mountains 23, 30Georgia Depression 23, 30, 37Southern Interior 23, 30, 37Southern Interior Mountains 23, 30,

37Sub-Boreal Interior 30

ecosystemsalpine/high-altitude 12, 29, 39, 48aquatic (freshwater) 30, 38, 39, 45, 46diversity of 3, 21endangered 37forest, general 38, 39, 40, 41, 44, 45,

46, 47forest, old-growth 37, 40, 43grassland 37, 42, 43marine 21, 28, 44riparian 11, 29, 39, 43terrestrial, general 5, 21

emission trading 26energy

alternative sources 3, 5, 18, 19conservation 18consumption 3, 5, 18

environment and jobs 3, 4, 18, 19extinct species 4, 37

Dragon Lake Whitefish 37Hadley Lake Benthic Stickleback 37Hadley Lake Limnetic Stickleback 37Passenger Pigeon 37salmon stocks 11, 44

extirpated species 4, 37Common Downingia 37Pink Sand-verbena 37Sage Grouse 37Short-horned Lizard 37Yellow-billed Cuckoo 37White-tailed Jackrabbit 37

Ffertilizer, agricultural 19, 33fertilization, of lakes 30, 45fine particulates 22

as indicator 6, 24–25First Nations 15, 16, 42, 44

treaty negotiations 15, 16fish

as indicator 11, 44–45Broad Whitefish 39Bull Trout 41, 45, 47

51IN D E X

Chinook 39, 44Chum 44Coho 39, 44, 47Cutthroat Trout 44Dragon Lake Whitefish 37forest-dependent freshwater 10, 38,

39Hadley Lake Benthic Stickleback 37Hadley Lake Limnetic Stickleback

37Kokanee 45threats and protection 8, 28, 29, 30,

32, 34, 38, 41, 44, 45, 46, 47Nooksack Dace 38, 39Pink 44Rainbow Trout 45Salish Sucker 36, 47salmon stocks 3, 11, 44, 47Sockeye 44Steelhead 39, 44Umtilla Dace 39White Sturgeon 3, 45

fisheriescommercial 44recreational 30, 44, 45

forest fires 7, 24, 28, 43, 47Forest Practices Code 3, 11, 30, 38, 42, 45,

46, 47forestry

logging 8, 11, 21, 37, 38, 43, 44, 45,46, 47

roads 3, 41, 46, 47forest products, see also wood processing

certification of 16forest species at risk

as indicator 10, 38–41fossil fuels 5, 7, 18, 26, 27Fraser Valley 3, 24, 33, 47fungi 38

GGIS (geographic information systems)

17glaciers 3, 29global climate change, see climate changegreen economy

as indicator 5, 18–19Green Economy Initiative 18, 26

greenhouse gases 3, 18, 22, 29as indicator 7, 26–27

groundwateras indicator 8, 32–33contamination 22

Gulf Islands 33

Hhabitat fragmentation 41, 43habitat protection 20, 36, 38, 42, 44health, human

air quality 6, 24, 25contaminated sites 49drinking water quality 30, 33

hunting 42, 43hydroelectric power 8, 18, 21, 29, 35, 44,

45

Iincinerators 3, 6, 14, 22, 23indicators

and measurement of goals 13, 14as decision-making tool 1categorization of 17description of 1, 17development of 13future development of 16, 17highlights 3list of 2

industrialized countries 27industry 3, 22, 23, 25, 27, 30, 34, 35, 48

environmental 3, 4, 18, 19insects, see invertebratesinterior of B.C. 3, 28, 42, 45, 46

central 21southern 8, 21, 32, 33, 37, 42

international agreements 14, 15Agenda 21 15Convention on Biological Diversity

15, 21International Panel on Forest

Recommendations 15Kyoto Protocol 15, 26, 28Ramsar Convention 15UNESCO World Heritage

Convention 15introduced (alien) species 37, 47invertebrates 36, 38, 41, 47

Oppossum Shrimp 45

Llakes

Arrow 30Kootenay 30, 45Okanagan 45Osoyoos 31Quamichan 30

landfills 3, 6, 14, 22, 23large woody debris 39, 46legislation and regulations (B.C. unless

indicated otherwise) 3, 16

compliance strategies 16Endangered Species Act (U.S.) 45Environment and Land Use Act 20for protected areas 20Fish Protection Act 3, 30, 34, 44Forest Practices Code 3, 11, 30, 38, 42,

45, 46, 47Identified Wildlife Management

Strategy 4, 38, 42, 46, 47Landscape Unit Planning 4, 38Pesticide Control Act 19Smoke Control Regulations 24Species at Risk Act (federal) 36Streamside Directives 4Watershed Management Areas 4Water Protection Act 34Wildlife Act 36Winter Ungulate Ranges 4, 38

liquid waste management 30logging, see forestryLower Mainland 8, 19, 25, 32

Mmammals

Black Bear 41Caribou 10, 38, 39, 42, 43Cougar 42Coyote 39Elk 41Fisher 39, 47forest-dependent 38forest-dwelling 39Grizzly Bear 10, 36, 38, 41, 42, 43, 47Keen’s Long-eared Myotis 38Marten 39Moose 10, 39, 42Mule/Black-tailed Deer 10, 42Northern Flying Squirrel 39Pacific Water Shrew 47Sea Otter 36Vancouver Island Marmot 36, 37Western Red Bat 47White-tailed Deer 39White-tailed Jackrabbit 37wildlife tree users 39Wolverine 38Wolf 42

mapsBull Trout population status 45Caribou range trend 43Columbia Sharp-tailed Grouse range

trend 43climate change 28domestic waste disposal 23fine particulates 25

52EN V I RO N M E N TA L TR E N D S I N BR I T I S H CO LU M B I A, 2000

Grizzly Bear population viability 43groundwater contamination 33groundwater demand 33protected areas 21riparian area logged 46road density on forest land 41species at risk 37water quality index ratings 31water quality trends 30

mining 8, 21, 30, 31, 45ministry goals 13, 14monitoring 1, 16, 24, 30, 31, 32motor vehicles 24, 25, 27, 41, 43

Nnon-vascular plants 36, 38

mosses 36northern B.C. 3, 19, 21, 23, 43

Ooil and gas extraction 21Okanagan 19, 45ozone 29

Pperformance measures 1plants, see also non-vascular plants,

vascular plantsplant associations 36

PM10

6, 24, 25poaching 37, 45, 47policies, programs and initiatives 3, 16

air quality management plans 24Air Care 24Clean Energy Initiative 26Drinking Water Strategy 34Forest Renewal BC 16, 41Fisheries Renewal BC 44Fresh Water Strategy 34Green Economy Initiative 18, 26Greenhouse Gas Forum 26Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction

Trading Pilot 26Integrated Pest Management 3, 19Land and Resource Management

Plans 21land use planning 20Marine Protected Areas Strategy 20National Accord for Protection of

Species at Risk 36National Climate Change Process 28National Pollutant Release Inventory

49Non-point Source Pollution Action

Plan 30

Pacific Estuary ConservationProgram 15

Park Legacy Panel 20Protected Areas Strategy 20, 21, 42Public Buildings Energy Retrofit

Program 26South Okanagan Conservation

Strategy 37Transportation Demand

Management Plans 26Urban Salmon Habitat Program 44Watershed Plans 30Watershed Ranking Tool 16Watershed Restoration Program 30,

41, 44pollutants

see also toxic contaminantsaerosols 29ammonia 24, 49AOX 49arsenic 33carbon dioxide 22, 26, 27, 29chlorine 49DDT and DDE 12, 48dioxins 48, 49dissolved solids 31fine particulates 22flouride 33furans 48, 49heavy metals 23, 49hydrocarbons 24, 49lead 23methane 27, 29methanol 49nitrate 31, 33nitrogen oxides 24, 27, 29organochlorines 48PAHs 23PCBs 48pesticides 12, 19, 48PFCs 27phosphorous 31sulphate 31sulphur dioxide 24

pollutionarea sources 25agricultural 30, 33air 1, 18, 22, 25, 49from landfills and incinerators 22industrial 3, 24, 27, 30, 49mobile sources 25non-point sources 8, 30, 31point sources 25prevention 23, 30, 48

sedimentation 39, 41sewage and septic 30, 31, 33

population, human 5, 18, 22, 23, 26, 37protected areas 4

as indicator 5, 20–21Brooks Peninsula 20Carmanah Walbran 20, 21Churn Creek 42Graham-Laurier 20Itcha Ilgachuz 20Lac du Bois 21, 42Liard River Corridor 20Kakwa 20Muskwa-Kechika 21Nlaka’pamux 20Northern Rocky Mountain 20Pine LeMoray 20Protected Areas Strategy 3, 20, 21, 42provincial target 14Stein Valley 20system 36Tatshenshini-Alsek 15, 21Ts’yl

?-os 21

provincial targets 3protected areas 14, 20waste reduction 14, 22

pulp and paper 25, 49

QQueen Charlotte Islands 46

Rrecreation 3, 20, 29, 30, 34, 36, 41, 42, 44,

48recycling 6, 22, 23reptiles

forest-dependent 38Painted Turtle 36Short-horned Lizard 37Western Pond Turtle 36, 37

reservoirs 18, 30, 45riparian ecosystems on forest land 17, 39

as indicator 11, 46–47reserves for 38, 46see also ecosystems, riparian

riversColumbia 3, 45Elk 30Fraser 30, 45, 47Keogh 44Kootenay 3Nechako 3, 45Quinsam 30Salmon 30South Thompson 30

53IN D E X

regional districtsCapital (CRD) 23Fraser Valley 24Greater Vancouver (GVRD) 23

roads 3, 41, 45, 46, 47

Sseptic fields 33sewage 30, 31species at risk

as indicator 9, 36–37stewardship 3, 16, 20, 23, 36streams, Lower Fraser Valley 47stream restrictions 8, 34

Ttax shifting 18threatened/endangered species 3

(* designated “endangered” underWildlife Act)

Broad Whitefish 39Broadwing Hawk 36Burrowing Owl* 36, 37Golden Paintbrush 36Keen’s Long-eared Myotis 38Marbled Murrelet 36, 38, 40Mountain Caribou 42, 43Nooksack Dace 38, 39Oregon Spotted Frog 36, 37Pacific Giant Salamander 38, 47Pacific Water Shrew 47Salish Sucker 36, 47Sea Otter* 36Silvery Lupine 38Spotted Owl 36, 38, 40, 47Umatilla Dace 39

Vancouver Island Marmot* 36, 37Western Pond Turtle 36, 37White-headed Woodpecker 36White Pelican* 36White Sturgeon 3, 45

tourism 18, 20, 24toxic contaminants 3, 4

as indicator 12, 49–49see also pollutants

Uurban development 3, 8, 27, 37, 43, 44,

45, 47

VVancouver Island 8, 21, 25, 32, 33, 40,

42, 44, 46, 47, 48vascular plants

Antelope Brush 37Common Downingia 37forest-dwelling 10, 38Garry Oak 37Golden Paintbrush 36Pink Sand-verbena 37Silvery Lupine 38White Glacier Lily 36

vulnerable speciesBull Trout 41, 45, 47Canada Warbler 47Columbian Sharp-tailed Grouse 42,

43Fisher 39, 47Grizzly Bear 10, 36, 38, 41, 42, 43, 47Painted Turtle 36White Glacier Lily 36

Wwaste, see also domestic waste

disposal 6, 34, 48hazardous 3, 19, 22, 23, 48industrial 22, 23treatment 19

water licences 32, 34, 35water quality, groundwater 33water quality, surface 3, 16, 39, 41

as indicator 8, 30–31watershed restoration 30water supply 8, 29, 32, 33, 34, 39

see also groundwaterwater use 3, 4

as indicator 9, 34–45weather 7, 26, 28wetlands 15, 32, 37World Heritage Sites 15wildlife

direct wildlife activities 19managed 42, 43

wildlife range trends 3as indicator 10, 42–43of forest-dwelling mammals 39

wildlife tree users 39, 40wood processing

beehive burners 18, 24, 25fine particulate emissions 25pulp and paper 25, 49waste products 18, 49

wood stoves 24World Commission on Environment and

Development 14

54EN V I RO N M E N TA L TR E N D S I N BR I T I S H CO LU M B I A, 2000

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