Minerals in Greenland

No. 12 - February 2008

Minerals inGreenland

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Minerals are an integrated part of thegeological history. The variation andwealth of minerals in Greenland havebeen significant in rendering thecountry with its prominent place onthe geological world map, sharedwith only very few other regions. Intheir widest context, minerals under-standably attracted a great deal ofattention from the first explorationsin the early 1800s.

Introduction

Minerals and mineral resources have beenidentified as a cornerstone of Greenland’seconomical development. Therefore manyinitiatives have been implemented to accel-erate the establishment of the mineral in-dustry. After 150 years of almost continu-ous mining, and following a brief breaksince 1990, Greenland now seems to beentering a new phase of mineral exploita-tion, with the opening of new mines: agold mine in South Greenland in 2005 andan olivine mine in West Greenland in 2005.

From being a classical collection ofmuseum curiosities, the mineral wealth ofGreenland has turned into a foundation formodern mineral exploitation. Today tradi-tion and mineral know-how give us adetailed picture of Greenland’s mineralresources. It all began in the early 1800swhen the German actor, playwright andmineralogist, Karl Ludwig Giesecke, becameone of the first to work systematically withGreenland's mineralogy. Giesecke stayed inBerlin from February to June 1801, andhere he wrote a comprehensive ‘manu-script’ (350 pages) on the classification ofminerals. This ‘manuscript’ was preservedprobably because Giesecke kept it with himduring all the six summers and seven win-ters he later spent in Greenland. Many ofhis belongings and mineral collections,which Giesecke sent to Denmark on severaloccasions during his travels in Greenland1806-13, was seized by British warshipsduring the uncertain years following theNapoleonic wars.

Giesecke travelled by umiaq - an open Inuitskin boat - in South and West Greenlandfrom 1806-13. Several mineralogical recordswere made during this long period andthese later formed the basis of modern min-eralogical research of Greenland minerals.At a site by Aluk near Kap Farvel, Gieseckecollected a black mineral, believing it to bethe well known mineral, hornblende.Giesecke’s samples from this trip werestolen by English warships and ended withRobert Allan, a Scottish mineralogist. AScottish chemist, Thomas Thomson, laterstudied the samples and discovered thatthey contained a hitherto unknown mineralwhich he named ‘allanite’ in 1811. All thiswas due to the divisions in Europe causedby the Napoleonic wars, which also meantthat Giesecke was unable to leave Green-land. Since then, allanite has becomeknown as a common accessory mineral inthe granite bedrock areas the world over.

Following Giesecke’s journey, a researchtradition of the study of minerals developedrapidly in Denmark and Greenland and thisinfluenced the studies of the geology ofGreenland and sharpened the awareness ofthe significance of minerals in geological

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Slab of basalt from Disko in West Greenland studded with grains and crystals of metallic iron. Field of view: 20 x 24 cm.

Well developed crystal of allanite from the typelocality near Aluk in south-east Greenland.Crystal size: 1.2 x 3.5 cm. Photo RB.

Minerals in Greenland


Nalunaq

Ilímaussaq

Ivittuut

Maarmorilik

Kangerlussuaq

Skaergaard

I N L A N D I C E

Kap Farvel

Qeqertarsuatsiaat

Maniitsoq

Sarfartoq

Disko

Mestersvig

Gardiner

Narsaarsuk

Aluk

Ameralik

500 km

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Palaeogene basalts

Cretaceous–Palaeogene sediments, Nuussuaq Basin inWest Greenland and Kangerlussuaq Basin in East Greenland Carboniferous–Palaeogene sediments, Wandel Sea Basin in eastern North Greenland

Carboniferous–Cretaceous sediments, North-East Greenland

Carboniferous–Cretaceous sediments, Jameson Land Basin in East Greenland

Devonian Basin of North-East Greenland

Shelf

Trough

Caledonian orogenic belt

Meso- to Neoproterozoic sediments and volcanic rocks

Palaeoproterozoic orogenic belts

Archaean craton

Intrusive complexes: Palaeogene in East Greenland, Mesoproterozoic in South Greenland (Gardar Province)

Fault, thrust

Lower Palaeozoic sediments, North Greenland, Franklinian Basin

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GREENLAND

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Geological map of Greenland with mineral localities


processes. Almost 80 recognised mineralsfrom Greenland were found and describedfor the first time. A larger number ofknown minerals were described in moredetail, contributing to the completion of thegeological history. Today more than 500minerals from Greenland have been regis-tered; a significant proportion of the world’sapproximately 4000 known minerals.

As the type locality for 77 minerals(2008), Greenland has been rendered a spe-cial place in mineral research, even thoughmany minerals are limited to unusual andrare formations. At all events, several ofthem have shown the way to understand-ing the geological processes and identifyingpossible deposits of mineral resources. Innaming minerals from type localities, miner-alogists in complete accord with tradition,have helped retain the knowledge of thehistory, geography and geological explo-ration. Mineral names such as eskimoite,leifite and vikingite have a clear reference toGreenland’s cultural history. Important sitesin Greenland have similarly become worldfamous through names such as kaersutite,narsarsukite, naujakasite, tugtupite andtuperssuatsiaite. Examination of nameswhich directly refer to important people inearly geological exploration such as bøg-gildite, bøgvadite, kornerupine, lorenzenite,rinkite, steenstrupine and ussingite, bringsto mind the Danish exploration work. Asimilar list of minerals named after contem-porary geologists is just as extensive and areminder that exploration is still alive andwell.

Minerals and mineral resources

Mineral resources have a high priority in thesocio-economic development of today’sGreenland. Such priorities require the pres-ence of a large number of mineral resourceswhich form the foundations of mineralexploitation and mining, just as in otherparts of the world. From 1990 to 2004there was no exploitation of minerals, afteralmost 150 years of mining. On the otherhand, there has been great activity in theexploration for new deposits and surveys ofexisting finds. Mineral resources known inGreenland so far are primarily located as the

primary in-situ deposits. This contrasts withthe secondary supergene deposits wherethe mineral resources are enriched in graveland sand in rivers and on beaches, formedby erosion of the mountains. Many of thesecondary deposits in Greenland were prob-ably removed by glaciers of the Ice Age. The geological conditions in the Greenlandgeological environment are now wellknown and the many useful minerals pro-vide good opportunity for identifying locali-ties where exploitation of mineral resourcescould take place. Known mineral deposits

contain gold, the platinum group elements,molybdenum, nickel, the specialty metalstantalum and niobium (in the mineral pyro-chlore) as well as several forms of industrialminerals. Industrial minerals are a largegroup of mineral resources which can beused directly after mining without particularrefining. This may include minerals for theconstruction sector, for casting and grindingas well as minerals used as fillers for thepaper and dyeing industry. Efforts up tonow may also lead to new finds of dia-monds as well as exploitation of wellknown deposits of rubies.

Mineral exploitation in Greenland can beaccomplished under very varying conditions,and this is illustrated in the history of thethree most important mining companies.From 1856–1987 the mineral cryolite wasexploited as an industrial mineral nearIvittuut in South Greenland where a total of3.7 million t of cryolite ore was mined froman open pit. The brief period from 1956 to1963 saw lead-zinc exploitation in Mesters-vig in East Greenland, when 0.6 million t ofgalenite and sphalerite ore were extractedvia underground mining. From 1973 to1990 there was extensive zinc-lead-silvermining in Maarmorilik, from where 11.3million t of ore containing sphalerite and sil-ver-containing galenite were extracted inunderground mining. All these activitiesceased because the reserves of ore hadmore or less been exhausted.

Cryolite – Greenland’s ’whitegold’

’White gold’ has with good reason becomethe term associated with exploitation of cry-olite in Greenland. This wealth meant thatthe owners of the mining company reallydid have free access to something whichapproached a ‘vein of gold', or better, formoney flooded in and expenses were small.There was no way of foreseeing this adven-ture when mining began at the site in1856.

The cryolite deposit was first described indetail during the exploration in 1806-1813 carried out by the mineralogist K.L.Giesecke. The chemist, Professor JuliusThomsen, described a process whereby cry-

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Group crystals of red corundum (ruby) in micaschist, Maniitsoq area, West Greenland. Longest crystal: 15 cm. Photo OJ.

Blue Lazurite cystals surrounded by white scapo-lite and black amphibole, Maniitsoq area, WestGreenland. Size of sample: 5.0 x 5.5 cm. PhotoOJ.

M I N E R A L S I N G R E E N L A N D


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olite could be converted into soda, which atthat time was an important element in aspiralling chemical industry. In 1854-56 thefirst shipments of cryolite were sent toDenmark, and in 1859 the first cryolite fac-tory could be opened in Copenhagen. Atthe same time there were also experimentswith other uses of cryolite: manufacture ofalum and as a fluxing agent in the manu-facture of mirrors and enamelling. Mineralssuch as jarlite, thomsenolite and weberitefrom the site are named after people whowere important for exploitation of thedeposit. Cryolite belongs to a group of min-erals containing fluorine, all of which areextremely rare and only found in very few -other places in the world.In 1886 two scientists, the American C.M.Hall and the Frenchman P.T. Héroult, inde-pendently of each other, were ready with amethod to make aluminium, and cryolitewas an essential additive in the process. The

metal had already been demonstrated in1825 by the Dane, Professor H.C. Ørsted,who was also Julius Thomsen’s tutor. Atthat time the experiment was very difficultas the only aluminium ore available, baux-ite, had a melting point of 2000°C. Thenew process, using cryolite, halved this tem-perature. With the aluminium industry asthe customer, the way was now paved forthe future use of cryolite, which no longerrequired costly processing in the factory inCopenhagen. Now, the ore only neededcleaning of a few impurities such as theminerals siderite, galenite and chalcopyrite.However, demand for aluminium was notgreat in 1902, when the firm became a lim-ited company under the name ØresundsChemiske Fabriker. The First World Warchanged this situation dramatically and rev-enues rocketed as new applications in therapidly growing aviation industry began toshow themselves.

Since the issue of the first exploitation con-cession in 1859, the state had secured itselfa moderate tax for each tonne of cryoliteextracted. In 1940 the concession was upfor renewal and the Danish state took overhalf of the shares in the company, whichwas converted to Kryolitselskabet ØresundA/S. During World War II, the mine contin-ued to produce cryolite, which was instru-mental in the procurement of aluminium tothe allied forces.

Rapid industrial expansion in the postwar years saw increasing demand for alu-minium and after 100 years, purified cryo-lite was still the main product of the mine.In 1987 the final profitable residues of cryo-lite ore were shipped from Ivittuut, however,and the company was closed. An importantpart of the story is that, throughout its life-time, the cryolite mine in Ivittuut was theonly one of its kind in the world. Today theformer mine site is an open pit quarry full of

Piles (box formed) of cryolite on the quay ready for loading in Ivittuut 1920,South Greenland. Photo: IMMM archive. Insert : Cryolite rock (white) withsiderite crystals (brown) from the Ivittuut cryolite mine, South Greenland. Size of sample: 8 x 10 cm.


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a: Group of cryolite crystals, Ivittuut. Field of view: 11 x 16cm. Photo: OJ.

b: Group of pachnolite crystals, Ivittuut. Field of view: 3 x 3 cm. Photo: OJ.

c: Cassiterite crystals in cryolite, Ivittuut. Field of view: 2.0 x 2.0 cm, Photo: OJ.

d: Siderite crystals, Ivittuut. Fieldof view: 4.5 x 4.0 cm. Photo: OJ.

e: Column of ikaite from the type locality near Ivittuut. Length of column: 40 cm. Photo: IMMM.

f: Botryoidal fluorite masses, Ivittuut. Field of view: 2,5 x 4.0 cm. Photo: OJ.

Minerals from the Ivittuut cryolite deposit

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a: Steenstrupine crystal in albite, Ilimmaasaq. Field of view: 1 x 1.2 cm. Photo: OJ.

b: Group of villiaumite crystals, Ilimmaasaq. Field of view: 6 x 6 cm. Photo: OJ.

c: Granular mass of ussingite, Ilimmaasaq. Size of sample: 7.4 x 9.4 cm. Photo: OJ.

d: Polylithionite mica, Ilimmaasaq. Size of sample: 8.3 x 11.3 cm. Photo: OJ.

e) Sorensenite (pink) in albite rich rock, Ilim-maasaq. Size of sample: 5 x 7 cm. Photo:OJ.

f: Tugtupite (red) togeth-er with white albite and brown sphalerite, Ilimmaasaq. Size of sample: 8 x 10 cm.

Minerals from the alkaline complex Ilimmaasaq

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a: Group of magnetite crystals, Gardiner. Field of view: 3.6 x 7.5 cm. Photo: OJ.

b: Titanite crystals in natrolite, Gardiner. Field of view: 2.4 x 3.0 cm. Photo: OJ.

c: Bundle of pectolite crystals, Batbjerg near Gardiner. Field of view: 7.4 x 9.4 cm. Photo: OJ.

d: Perovskite crystal, Gardiner. Field of view: 5.5 x 7.8 cm. Photo: OJ.

e: Apatite crystals, Gardiner. Photo: OJ.f: Andradite garnet crystals in natrolite, Gardiner.

Field of view: 4.8 x 7.2 cm. Photo: OJ.

Minerals from the alkaline complex at Gardiner

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invasive seawater and as an innocent inlandlake it says very little about the greatestmineral adventure Greenland has seen todate.

The classic mineral collection

The research tradition surrounding Green -land’s minerals, which developed afterGiesecke’s travels in Greenland in the early1800s, quickly became visible in Denmarkand the rest of Europe in the increasinglypopular natural science museums. Gieseckegenerously donated collections and valuablepieces to royalty, scientific societies andselected individuals from throughoutEurope; collections which understandablyincluded unique mineral samples fromGreenland. Cities such as Berlin, Weimar,Munich, Frankfurt and Augsburg in Ger-many, Graz and Vienna in Austria, and notleast Copenhagen benefited from these col-lections. The largest collection ended inVienna with the Austrian Kaiser. The collec-tion included 872 mineral samples, mostlyfrom Greenland. The extremely unusualminerals cryolite, arfvedsonite and eudialytewere amongst the classic mineral sampleswhich at that time could only be obtainedfrom Greenland. Even though tourmalinewas already well known in collections from

other places than Greenland, one ofGiesecke’s colleagues in Scotland, RobertAllan, remarked in 1813 on the impressivetourmaline crystals from Greenland, “thatthey were not lacking in any museum”.

The deposits at Ivittuut (Ivigtut) and laterat Ilimmaasaq (Ilímaussaq) soon contributednew, much sought-after minerals asresearch developed. Disko, further northalong the west coast, yielded samples oftelluric (metallic) iron, which were alsoamongst popular museum pieces. TheDanish mineralogists of the time also hadaccess to Norwegian specialities such asmetallic silver, Icelandic materials of doublespar (calcite) and rare zeolites, and theseprovided a formidable basis for publicity,and for exchanges of minerals. Thus, fromearly on, the Geological Museum inCopenhagen could establish a collection ina class of its own, which still provides thereference foundation for innumerable min-eralogical and geological studies.

Famous mineral occurrences inGreenland

As demonstrated since the early 1800s,Giesecke initiated the reputation of the siteknown as the cryolite mine at Ivittuut(Ivigtut) in South Greenland. For about 200

years the deposit has been the breedingground for much of the mineralogical andgeological exploration in Greenland. Activ-ities in Ivittuut resulted in finds of numerousminerals in the cryolite mass and the sur-rounding rocks. Close to 20 of the mineralswere new to science and they have receiveda reputation as being characteristic mineralsof the site.

Other geological deposits in Greenlandhave later received correspondingly greatattention because of the unique mineralaccumulations. The Ilímaussaq nepheline-syenite intrusion near Narsaq in SouthGreenland has made a particular contribu-tion to the number of new minerals. Thepegmatite deposit at Narsaarsuk(Narssârssuk) is in the same category offamous mineral deposits, and all these arefrom the same geological environment andperiod; the Proterozoice Gardar period. InEast Greenland the Palaeogene formations,the Gardiner alkaline complex and theSkaergaard layered gabbro intrusion, aredeposits with many notable minerals. TheFiskenæsset anorthosite complex atQeqertarsuatsaat in West Greenland is anexample of a famous mineral location with-

Group of crystals of narsarsukit in quartz fromthe type locality at Narsaarsuk in South Green-land. Field of view: 4.4 x 5.2 cm. Photo: OJ.

Trenching for samples at the type localityNarsaarsuk in South Greenland. Photo: OJ.

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in the bedrock environment. Because of themineral knowledge now available, all theseformations are at the centre of modernmineral resources exploration in Greenland.The Ilímaussaq intrusion in South Greenlandwill perhaps receive the same attention asthe cryolite deposit, mineralogically speak-ing as well as from a geological history per-spective. The intrusion was to become anenormous research field and the naming ofrock types enriched geological nomencla-ture with several more Greenlandic-sound-ing names. The deposit has made greatcontributions to the number of new miner-als of which 11 are still only known fromthis one location. A few of the many exam-

ples are steenstrupine, eudialyte and tug-tupite, and these have made the intrusionworld famous in both a research and miner-al resources context. Steenstrupine, whichhas been at the centre of attempts to ex-tract uranium, and eudialyte is an extremelywell suited zirconium ore. Tugtupite is rec-ognised as a much sought after stone forjewellery after its origin was described fromGreenland.

The minerals in Greenland’s Archaeanbasement have often attracted attention.From the basement in West Greenland,these include, graphite, beautiful crystals ofreddish corundum (such as rubies and sap-phires), and black tourmaline, azure-bluelazurite, sky-blue sapphirine, turquoise ama-

zonite or grains of gold in quartz veins, andthere are many more. It is characteristic thatmany of these mineral types have also beenat the centre of mineral resources projectsand expectations of financial adventures.

The oldest bedrock in the West Green-land Kangerlussuaq area has recentlygained attention with a number of dykes ofkimberlite and ultramafic lamprophyre fromthe Cambrium period. These dykes havereveal ed diamond contents and to dateexplorations have demonstrated more than1000 microdiamonds and a small numberof macrodiamonds. The largest diamondfound so far of 2.39 carats, was reported in2006.

From younger periods in the Palaeo -gene there are examples of minerals whichresulted from the dominant alkaline, ultra-basic and carbonatitic magmatism. TheGardiner complex in East Greenland hasturned out to be one of Greenland’s treas-ure chests of crystals. There are 60 differentminerals here, developed in the most per-fect crystal shapes and often in sizes of sev-eral centimetres. There are incredibly well-developed examples of perovskite, mag-netite, titanite, and apatite which bear wit-ness to the perfect conditions for crystal for-mation found here.

A mineralogical speciality is the depositof telluric iron in the Palaeogene basalts ofWest Greenland. Lumps of elementary

Plenty of coarse-grained phlogopite on the sur-face of eroded ridges of phlogopite rich rocksin the alkaline deposit Gardiner in East Green -land. Photo: OJ.

Diamonds from kimberlite dykes in the Kanger -lussuaq area in West Greenland. (a) is a microdiamond. (b) is a 2.4 carat diamond. Photo: HR.

In-situ gold in ore (quartz vein) from theNalunaq Gold Mine in South Greenland..

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a: Large group of leifite crystals, Narsaarsuk, South Greenland. Field ofview: 8.5 x 14.0 cm. Photo: OJ.

b: Greyish green crystals of apatite in carbonatitic dolomite, Sarfartoq, West Greenland. Size of sample: 8 x 12 cm.

c: Crystals of epididymite grown as trillings, Narsaarsuk, South Green-land. Length of crystal: 1 cm. Photo: RAG.

d: Cleavage fragment of red corundum (ruby), Qeqertarsuatsiaat, West Greenland. Field of view: 4.9 x 4.4 cm. Photo: OJ.

e: Crystal of kornerupine in anorthosite rock, Qeqertarsuatsiaat, West Green-land. Field of view: 5.0 x 5.6 cm. Photo: OJ.

f: Crystal of black tourmaline, Ameralik fjord, West Greenland. Size of crystal: 5 x 14 cm. Photo: OJ.

Minerals from West and South Greenland

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metallic iron have been formed in nature byprocesses in which the basalt has been incontact with earlier coal deposits.

Of course, if mineral names are to beapproved by international bodies, the min-erals must be well defined natural chemicalcompounds. When naming minerals, miner-alogists have demonstrated no lack ofimagination, but even so it has not beenpossible to reserve Greenland’s most obvi-ous name sources for genuine minerals. Onthe other hand exciting rocks have receivedthese names: the flaming amphibole rock‘Nuummit’ after Greenland’s capital, andthe grass-green fuchsite quartzite ‘Green-landite’.

Concluding remarks

Although many mineral finds in Greenlandare from deposits of varying number andrarity, in many cases they have been vital formineral research. Together with the well-described and comprehensive special de -posits, it is clear that Greenland’s mineralshave affected mineral resources develop-ment to an exceptional degree. Accordingly,Greenland has been rendered an interna-tionally high status as the keeper of aunique wealth of minerals and mineralresources.

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Fiskenæsset area, West Greenland. Open File

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Meddelelser om Grønland 149, 442 pp.

Harpøth, O., Pedersen, J.L., Schønwandt, H.K.

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Jensen, A. & Petersen, O.V. 1982: Tugtupite: a

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Johnsen, O. 2002: Minerals of the World, Oxford

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O.1985: The Gardiner complex a new locality in

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lution of the Ivigtut cryolite deposit, SW

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Front cover photographEudialyte crystals (red) surrounded by

white sodalite from the Ilimmaasaq,

South Greenland. Field of view: 2.0 x

3.4 cm. Photo OJ.

Bureau of Minerals and Petroleum(BMP)

Government of GreenlandP.O. Box 930

DK-3900 NuukGreenland

Tel: (+299) 34 68 00Fax.: (+299) 32 43 02

E-mail: [email protected]: www.bmp.gl

Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS)

Øster Voldgade 10DK-1350 Copenhagen K

Denmark

Tel: (+45) 38 14 20 00Fax.: (+45) 38 14 20 50E-mail: [email protected]: www.geus.dk

AuthorsK. Secher and O. Johnsen

EditorKarsten Secher, GEUS

Graphic ProductionHenrik Klinge Pedersen, GEUS

PhotographsGEUS unless otherwise stated

IMMM: Ivittuut Museum ArchiveHR: Hudson Resources

OJ: O. JohnsenRB: R. Bode

RAG: R. A. Gault

PrintedFebruary 2008 © GEUS

PrintersSchultz Grafisk

ISSN1602-818x

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Minerals in Greenland

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