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Midterm Exam Nov. 21pm to 4pm
• Room: 3002 NSH
• Open book– But no internet or cell phone
• May bring food.
• May step outside to smoke.
• May go to restrooms.
• May ask questions.
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Summary: Parts of Speech
• Claim:– Parts of speech can be defined by
• Distribution – where they appear• Morphology – which prefixes, suffixes, etc apply to them
• Each criterion of distribution or morphology is called a test.
• Methodology– Identify relevant tests– Apply tests– Judge grammaticality– Interpret results
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Annotation
• The Test methodology is state of the art for annotation projects, including many treebanking projects.
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Trees and Constituents
Grammars and Lexicons
11-721
September 10, 2007
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Phrasal Categories
This boy must seem incredibly stupid to that girl.Det Noun Modal Verb Adverb Adjective Prep. Det Noun
Noun Phrase Adjective Phrase
Prepositional Phrase
Noun Phrase
Verb Phrase
Sentence
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Phrasal Categories
• NP: Noun Phrase
• VP: Verb Phrase
• PP: Prepositional Phrase
• AP: Adjective Phrase
• AdvP: Adverb Phrase
• S: Sentence
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Tree Terminology• Mother
• Daughter
• Sister
• Dominate
• Immediately Dominate
• Node (branching or non-branching)
• Branch
• Terminal Node/Leaf Node
• Phrasal Nodes (non-terminal)
• Lexical Nodes (pre-terminal)
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Constituent
• A constituent is a string of words such that there is one node that dominates those words and no other words.
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Sam climbed up the ladder.
Sam picked up the ladder.
N V P Det N
N V P Det N
NPNP
NP
VP
S
V
NP
VPPP
S
Tree 1
Tree 2
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Discussion
• What are the constituents of Tree 1 and Tree 2?
• Which strings of words are constituents in one tree but not the other?
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Coordination as a diagnostic test for constituency
• To test whether a string of words s1 is a constituent, conjoin it using and with another string which– Is an uncontroversial constituent of the same
category as s1 or– (If you don’t have a hypothesis about the
category of s1), has the same part of speech sequence as s1
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Applying the coordination test
• Sam climbed [up the ladder] and [out the window].
• *Sam picked [up a ladder] and [out some new boots].
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Movement as a test for constituency
• A constituent might appear in different positions in a sentence, but stay in one piece.
• There are different movement rules that affect different constituents (NP, PP, AP, VP).
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Begin side track for some extra background
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Transformational Grammar and Movement Rules
S
NP VP
The kids V NP
ate the chocolate
Deep Structure
S
NP VP
The chocolate V PP
was eaten by the kids
Surface Structure
Meaning preserving tree-to-tree mapping
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Transformational Grammar
1. Sentences that mean the same thing have the same deep structure.
2. Tree-to-tree mappings convert deep structure trees into surface structure trees.
3. Tree-to-tree mappings must be meaning preserving, so that (1) remains true.
4. Government and Binding Theory and the Minimalist Program (Chomsky) are theories that characterize which tree-to-tree mappings are meaning preserving.
1. The kids ate the chocolate.2. The chocolate was eaten by the kids. (meaning preserving)3. The chocolate ate the kids. (not meaning preserving)
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Non-Transformational Grammar• In this class, we will not use transformational
grammar.
• There will be no tree-to-tree mappings. (There will be other kinds of mappings.)
• The canonical representation of meaning will not be a deep structure tree.
• There will be a different way to connect sentences that mean the same thing.
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Movement is still a useful metaphor at this stage in the course
• Sam climbed up a ladder.
• Up a ladder Sam climbed up a ladder.
• Sam likes chocolate.
• It is chocolate that Sam likes chocolate.
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End side track
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To use movement as a test for constituency
• First, identify a meaning preserving movement rule (tree-to-tree mapping).
• Give an example showing this movement rule applying to an uncontroversial example:– Sam ran into the room.– Into the room Sam ran.
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Applying the movement test
• Then apply the same rule to a controversial example that you want to test.
• Sam climbed up a ladder.• Up a ladder Sam climbed. passes the test
• Sam Picked up a ladder.• *Up a ladder Sam picked. fails the test
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Another movement rule
• Identify a meaning preserving movement rule and illustrate it with a non-controversial example:– He ran into the room.– It was into the room that he ran.
• Apply the movement rule to the controversial examples that you want to test.– He climbed up a ladder.– It was up a ladder that he climbed. passes the test– He picked up a ladder.– *It was up a ladder that he picked. fails the test
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Be sure that you are testing the right thing
• Are these sentences relevant in showing Tree 1 and Tree 2 have different structures?– It was a ladder that Sam climbed up.– It was a ladder that Sam picked up.– Sam climbed up a ladder and a wall.– Sam picked up a ladder and a rope.– ?*A ladder was climbed up by Sam.– A ladder was picked up by Sam.– A ladder he climbed up.– A ladder he picked up.
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Discussion
• Test each sentence with coordination and movement tests for Tree 1 and Tree 2.– I took out the garbage.– I turned off the light.– I turned off the highway.– I fell off my bike.– I looked up the number.
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Constituency of Verb Phrases
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A class participation exercise(based on Radford, Chapter 3, exercise IX)
• Goals of the exercise: – Relying on tests when your intuition fails– Adapting to inconsistent results
• (e.g., find evidence for disqualifying some of the tests)• The five trees on the following slide have all been proposed by
linguists, in published articles, for the sentence: He has been writing a letter.
• Unlike the previous exercise with particles and PPs, people do not have good intuitions about which structure is correct.
• We will learn several more tests for constituency, and apply them to these sentences in order to pick one of the trees as the correct one.
• The answer comes out different every year (depending on grammaticality judgments and creativity in finding evidence for disqualifying some tests).
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TREE 1
He has been writing a letter.NP PERF PROG V NP
AUX VP
S TREE 2
He has been writing a letter.NP V NP
V VP
V VP
SVP TREE 3
He has been writing a letter.NP V NP
V VP
VP
S
AUX
TREE 4NP PERF PROG V NP
AUX
V
VP
S
He has been writing a letter.
He has been writing a letter.NP V V NP
AUX VP
SVP
TREE 5
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Test 3: Deletion
• A constituent can be deleted, if you can identify an appropriate meaning-preserving deletion rule.
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Verb Phrase Deletion
• A meaning preserving deletion rule for VP (verb phrases): – John was writing a letter and Bill was writing a letter too.
– John was writing a letter and Bill was writing a letter too.
– John was writing a letter and Bill was too.
• Condition: you need to leave behind an auxiliary verb or insert do if there was no auxiliary verb.– John wrote a letter and Bill wrote a letter too.
– John wrote a letter and Bill did too.
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Note to myself. Feel free to read it.
• John wrote a letter and Bill too.• Stripping, not verb phrase deletion.• Sam likes chocolate, and vanilla too.• Sam likes chocolate and Sam likes vanilla too.• Looks like a non-constituent was deleted (so it’s
not left-peripheral ellipsis either). • It is still a test for constituency because the piece
left behind has to be a constituent (I think).
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Test 4: Pro-Forms
• A pronoun can substitute for a noun:– Sam went to school.– He went to school.
• Other pro-forms can substitute for other parts of speech.
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A Pro-VP: Do so
• Put do in the same form as the verb you are substituting it for.– The English verb forms are base, present, past, present
participle, and past participle.• John wrote a letter and Bill wrote a letter too.• John wrote a letter and Bill did so too.
– Write and do are in the past tense.• John was singing and Bill was singing too.• John was singing and Bill was doing so too.
– Sing and doing are present participles.
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A meaning-preserving movement rule for VPs
– I thought he was singing and he was singing.
– I thought he was singing and singing he was singing.
– I thought he was singing and singing he was.
• Like Verb Phrase Deletion, this movement rule must leave an auxiliary verb behind. If there is no auxiliary verb, insert do as an auxiliary verb. – I thought he would sing a song and he did sing a song.
– I thought he would sing a song and sing a song he did.
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Test 5: Adverb Placement
• Sentence Adverb:
• Probably he can rely on my support.
• He probably can rely on my support.
• He can probably rely on my support.
• ?He can rely probably on my support.
• ?He can rely on my support probably.
• VP Adverb:
• *Completely he can rely on my support.
• *He completely can rely on my support.
• He can completely rely on my support.
• He can rely completely on my support.
• He can rely on my support completely.
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Adverb placement
• Sentence adverbs must be immediately dominated by a node labeled S.
• VP adverbs must be immediately dominated by a node labeled VP.
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Non-Constituent Coordination
• John found the letter and Bill signed the letter.
• John found the letter and Bill signed the letter.
John found the letter
NP V Det N
NP VP
S
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Non-Constituent Coordination
• I gave a book to Mary and gave a letter to Sue.
• I gave a book to Mary and gave a letter to Sue.
I gave a book to Mary
NP V NP PP
VP
S
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Right Node Raising
• If you conjoin two strings of words that have identical final constituents, delete the first instance of the identical constituent.
• John found the letter and Bill signed the letter.
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Left Peripheral Ellipsis
• If you conjoin two strings of words that have identical initial constituents, delete the second instance of the identical constituent.
• I gave a book to Mary and gave a letter to Sue.