Mid Term! Power Point Big One

8/8/2019 Mid Term! Power Point Big One

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Nursing

Anatomy and Physiology 1


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y The study of the structure of an organism and therelationship of its parts

y Investigating human structure via dissections and

other methods


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BodyType:

Thin Muscular Heavy


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y Basic component of control mechanism forHomeostasis

y Inhibitory

y Stabilize physiological variablesy Produce an action that is opposite to the change that

activated the system

y Responsible for maintaining homeostasis

y More common than positive feedback


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Opposite of Covalent

Chemical Bond formed bythe transfer of one atom toanother

When dissolved in water,

becomes an Ion

Ions with opposite chargesare attracted to each other

Ions can be positively or

negatively charged

The strong electrostatic forcethat binds the positively andnegatively charged ionstogether

ALSO CALLED:ELECTROVALENT


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y Oxygen (65% of human body weight) cellularrespiration; component of water

y Carbon (18.5% body weight) backbone of organicmolecules

y Hydrogen (9.5% body weight) energy transfer andrespiration; component of water and most organicmolecules

y Nitrogen (3.3%) Component of all proteins and

nucleic acidy Calcium (1.5%) Component of bones and teeth;

triggers muscle contraction


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y Microtubules are conveyer belts inside the cells. Theymove vesicles, granules, organelles like mitochondria, andchromosomes via special attachment proteins.

y Tiny, hollow tubes that are the thickest of cell fibers.

y Made of protein subunits and arranged in a spiraly Function is to move things around inside the cell

y Microtubules may work alone, or join with other proteinsto form more complex structures called cilia, flagella or

centriolesy Which area of the cytoplasm near the nucleus coordinates the

building and breaking of microtubules in the cell?

x Centrosomes!


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y Synthesize proteins, which move to the Golgi Apparatusand then eventually leave the cell

y Attached to the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum or lie freescattered throughout the cytoplasm

y A non-membranous structure composed of rRNA andprotein

y Make proteins for export or for cells domestic use

Ribosomes are organelles thatFloat in the cytoplasm and attach to the

endoplasmic reticulum


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y Part of the Cytoskeleton

y Intricately arranged fibers of varying length that forman irregular, three-dimensional lattice

y Support endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, andfree ribosomes

y Microfilaments are the smallest and serve as cellularmuscles

y Intermediate filaments are medium sized and act asthe framework in many cells

y Microtubules are the largest and move things around


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y Maximum pressure that could develop in a solutionwhen it is separated from pure water by a selectivelypermeable membrane

y

Allows prediction of the direction of osmosis and theresulting change in pressure

y Isotonic when two fluids have the same potentialosmotic pressure

y Hypertonic high pressure; shrivel as water flowsout

y Hypotonic low pressure; swells when water flows in


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P.M.A.T.(People Must Always Think)

y Prophasey Metaphase

yAnaphase

y

Telephase


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y Types ofTissuesy Epithelial functions are for protection, sensory functions,

secretion, absorption, excretion.y Squamousy Cuboidal

y Columnary Psuedostratified Columnar

y Connective functions are to connect, support, transport,and protecty Fibrousy Bone

y Cartilagey Blood

y Muscle smooth, skeletal, cardiacy Nervous function is for rapid regulation and integration of

body activities


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y Connective tissue is a form of fibrous tissue. It is one ofthe four types of tissue in traditional classifications (theothers being epithelial, muscle, and nervous tissue).

y Ground substance consists largely ofproteoglycans and

hyaluronic acid.y Collagen is the main protein of connective tissue in animals

and the most abundant protein in mammals, making upabout 25% of the total protein content

y Fiber types as follows:

y collagenous fibers

y elastic fibers

y reticular fibers


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y Cells ofConnective Tissuey 1. Fibroblasts These are the stars of the connective tissue show.They manufacture and maintain the extracellular material.Fibroblasts migrate throughout the ECM wherever they areneeded, such as scar formation. By the way, the fibroblast is

actually a misnomer since it is a mature cell (not a precursor).y 2.Adipocytes These cells are (unfortunately at times) extremely

effecient at storing energy in the form of triglycerides. Exerciseall you want, but you'll still have the same numberof adipocytes.But don't cancel you membership to the gym just yet becauseeach cell will, of course, decrease in size.

y 3. Blood Blood is actually a connective tissue which is coveredquite extensively in the Blood and Lymphoid sections.Remember that the immune cells extravasate into the ECM whenresponding to foreign invasion.


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y Chondrocyte is the only cell type presenty Lacunau house cellsy Avasculary Heals slowlyy Perichondrium membrane surrounding cartilagey Hyaline

y Shiny and translucent, most prevalent, located at the ends ofarticulating bones

y Fibrocartilagey Semirigid and the most durable strongest type of cartilagey Found on intervertebral disks and pubic symphasis and shock

absorption between bones at the kneey Elastic

y Fine elastic fibers located near the external ear and larynx for strengthand flexibility


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Why Do You Get Goose Bumps?

Because youre cold or frightened. When you feel chilled, the muscles around your hairfollicles contract, causing the hairs to stand up to create a layer of insulation, explainsRichard Potts, Ph.D., an anthropologist and the director of the HumanOrigins Programat the Smithsonian Institutions National Museum of Natural History, in Washington,D.C.

All mammals share this hair-raising trait. But "humans dont have enough body hair forthe response to make a difference; its a vestigial reflex left over from when we had furrycoats,"Potts says.The goose bumps people get when theyre scared may be anothervestigial reflex. Potts and others theorize that aeons ago, when the plentiful hair on ourancestors bodies stood on end, they appeared more menacing, and, he says, predatorswould move on to look for less imposing prey.


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The mixed secretions of sebaceousand ceruminous glands form a brown waxy

substance called theCerumen or

Ear Wax!


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What happens if I dont get enough?y One of the first detectable signs of vitamin A deficiency is night

blindness or the inability to see in dim light. Common indeveloping countries but rare in the United States, nightblindness is a reversible condition that responds rapidly to

treatment. However, if the deficiency becomes more severe, itdevelops into an irreversible condition termed xerophthalmia,which is a drying of parts of the eye that will eventually result inblindness. Other effects of vitamin A deficiency includedecreased immune function; dry, scaly skin; problems withreproduction; and cessation of bone growth.

y Since vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin, it can be stored in thebody. Thus, a healthy adult who stopped eating good foodsources of the vitamin might not see deficiency symptoms untilthese stores were depletedpossibly for several months.


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In long bones, there areepiphysis. They are the ends ofthe bones.The epiphysis is the rounded

end of a long bone, at its jointwith adjacent bone(s). Between the epiphysis and diaphysis(the long midsection of the long bone) lies themetaphysis, including the epiphyseal plate (growth plate).At the joint, the epiphysis is covered with articularcartilage; below that covering is a zone similar to the

epiphyseal plate, known as subchondral bone.The epiphysis is filled with red bone marrow, which

produces erythrocytes (red blood cells).


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The humerus is the bone of the upper arm. The smooth, dome-shaped head of the bone lies at an angle to the shaft and fits intoa shallow socket of the scapula (shoulder blade) to form theshoulder joint. Below the head, the bone narrows to form acylindrical shaft. It f lattens and widens at the lower end and, at

its base, it joins with the bones of the lower arm (the ulna andradius) to make up the elbow. Some people say the "funny bone"is named because it is next to the humerus. It really isn't a boneat all, but is the ulnar nerve, which passes under a prominence ofthe humerus, where it is vulnerable. To find the funny bone, putthe point of the right elbow on a table. Above and to the left ofthe point is a big knob. When it is struck, the blow pushes thenerve against this knob, causing temporary paralysis. It is nolaughing matter, but it is a "funny" feeling.


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y bone matrix the intercellular substance of bone,consisting of collagenous fibers, ground substance,and Inorganic salts

yMovie on Matrix


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y Make up the framework of the hand

y Between the Carpal and Phalanges


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y The cranial opening of thepelvis

y they are midline structures

y Above the Pelvic inlet is thefalse pevis, below is the truepelvis. It runs inline with thepelvic outlet

y Pelvic inlet starts at the

prominent sacrum and endsat the upper pubicsymphasis.


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y Knee Cap

y Largest Sesamoid Bone in the Body


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y In Biaxial joints the articular surface of one bone isoval (ellipsoid) and it fits into an identically shapedsocket on the other bone. All movements exceptrotation can occur in this shape of joint. Examplesinclude the Radio carpal and Metacarpophalangeal

joints.

y A joint in which there are two principal axes ofmovement situated at right angles to each other.


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"The SITS muscles":

Clockwise from top:

Supraspinatus

InfraspinatusTeres minor

Subscapularis

A pro baseball pitcher has injured his rotator cuffmuscles. As a result, he SITS out for the rest of thegame, and then gets sent to the minor leagues


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y Freely moveable

y The following is not among the structures thatcharacterize synovial joints TENDONS!

y These are the structures that characterize synovialjointsJoint capsule, Articular cartilage andLigaments

y Some synovial joints contain a closed pillow-like

structure called a bursa


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y Range of motion atsynovial joints

y Turning the sole of thefoot outward

y Considered a specialmovement


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y Skeletal muscle fibers are not all the same. Traditionally, they were categorized depending on theirvarying color.

y Red Fibers: Those containing high levels of myoglobin and oxygen storing proteins had a redappearance. Red muscle fibers tend to have more mitochondria and blood vessels than the whiteones.

y White Fibers: Those with a low content had a white appearance.

y To further confuse the issue skeletal muscle fibers are also classified, depending on their twitchcapabilities, into fast and slow twitch.

y Fast Twitch: Some authors define a fast twitch fiber as one in which the myosin can split ATP veryquickly.

y However, fast twitch fibers also demonstrate a higher capability for electrochemical transmission ofaction potentials and a rapid level of calcium release and uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Thefast twitch fibers rely on a well developed, short term, glycolytic system for energy transfer and cancontract and develop tension at 2-3 times the rate of slow twitch fibers.

y Slow Twitch: The slow twitch fibers generate energy for ATP re-synthesis by means of a long termsystem of aerobic energy transfer. They tend to have a low activity level of ATPase, a slower speed of

contraction with a less well developed glycolytic capacity. They contain large and numerousmitochondria and with the high levels of myoglobin that gives them a red pigmentation they havebeen demonstrated to have high concentration of mitochondrial enzymes, thus they are fatigueresistant.


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y The 2 main categories of muscle fibers become 3 when we split thewhite muscle fibers into 2 sections. So we expand further:

y Type I Red fibers. Slow oxidative (also called slow twitch or fatigueresistant fibers). Contain:

y Large amounts of myoglobin.y

Many mitochondria.y Many blood capillaries.y Generate ATP by the aerobic system, hence the term oxidative fibers.y Split ATP at a slow rate.y Slow contraction velocity.y

Resistant to fatigue.y Found in large numbers in postural muscles.y Needed for aerobic activities like long distance running.


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y Type IIa Red fibers. Fast oxidative (also called fast twitch A or fatigue resistant fibers).Contain:

y Large amounts of myoglobin.

y Many mitochondria.

y Many blood capillaries.

y High capacity for generating ATP by oxidation. Split ATP at a very rapid rate and, hence,

high contraction velocityy Resistant to fatigue but not as much as slow oxidative fibers.

y Needed for sports such as middle distance running and swimming.

y Type IIbWhite. Fast glycolytic (also called fast twitchB or fatigable fibers). Contain:

y Low myoglobin content.

y Few mitochondria.

y

Few blood capillaries.y Large amount of glycogen.

y Split ATP very quickly.

y Fatigue easily.

y Needed for sports like sprinting.


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y Every organelle and macromolecule of a muscle fiber are arranged toensure form meets function. The plasma membrane is called thesarcolemmawith the cytoplasm known as the sarcoplasm. In thesarcoplasmare the myofibrils.The myofibrils are long protein bundlesabout 1 micrometer in diameter each containing myofilaments. Pressedagainst the inside of the sarcolemma are the unusual flattened nuclei.

Between the myofibrils are the mitochondria. While the muscle fiberdoes not have a smooth endoplasmic reticulum it contains asarcoplasmic reticulum.The sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds themyofibrils and holds a reserve of the calcium ions needed to cause amuscle contraction. Periodically it has dilated end sacs known asterminal cisternae. These cross the muscle fiber from one side to theother. In between two terminal cisternae is a tubular infoldings called a

transverse tubule (T tubule). TheTTubule are the pathway for theaction potential to signal the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calciumcausing a muscle contraction.Together two terminal cisternaeand atransverse tubule form a triad.


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y A single muscle fiber is a cyclindrical, elongated cell. Muscle cellscan be extremely short, or long. The sartorious muscle containssingle fibers that are at least 30 cm long. Each fiber is surroundedby a thin layer of connective tissue called endomysium.Organizationally, thousands of muscle fibers are wrapped by a

thin layer of connective tissue called the perimysium to form amuscle bundle. Groups of muscle bundles that join into a tendonat each end are called muscle groups, or simply muscles. Thebiceps muscle is an example. The entire muscle is surrounded bya protective sheath called the epimysium. Between and within

the muscle cells is a complex

latticework of connective tissue,resembling struts and crossbeams that help to maintain theintegrity of the muscle during contraction and strain. It is anamazing cellular system even before it contracts!


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y Skeletal muscle is made up of individual componentsknown as muscle fibers. These fibers are formed fromthe fusion of developmental myoblasts. The myofibersare long, cylindrical, multinucleated cells composed ofactin and myosin myofibrils repeated as a sacomere,the basic functional unit of the cell and responsible forskeletal muscle's striated appearance and forming thebasic machinery necessary for muscle contraction. The

term muscle refers to multiple bundles of musclefibers held together by connective tissue.


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There are three types of muscles:

Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and causes movements of the body.Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle (because of its bandingpattern when viewed under a microscope) or voluntary muscle (because

muscle contraction can be consciously controlled).

Cardiac muscle is responsible for the rhythmic contractions of the heart.Cardiac muscle is involuntaryit generates its own stimuli to initiatemuscle contraction.

Smooth muscle lines the walls of hollow organs. For example, it lines thewalls of blood vesselsand of the digestive tract where it serves to advance the movement ofsubstances. Smooth muscle contraction is relatively slow and involuntary.


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y Superficial muscles are named according to:

Location, function, shape and/or size.

Most muscles have names that are descriptive. Musclesare named according to their location, origin andinsertion, direction of muscle fibers, size, shape, typeof action produced, or other criteria, such as nearby

bones.


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y any of the ring-like muscles surrounding and able tocontract or close a bodily passage or opening. One ofthe most important human sphincter muscles is thesphincter pylori, a thickening of the middle layer ofstomach muscle around the pylorus (opening into thesmall intestine) that holds food in the stomach until itis thoroughly mixed with gastric juices. Othersphincters are involved in excretion of waste: the

sphincter ani externus keeps the anal opening closedby its normal contraction, and the sphincter urethraeis the most important voluntary control of urination


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y Types of joints found in the human body: junction of two bonesthat permits movement.Ribs and vertebrae = semi-mobile joints: ribs: bones of the thoraciccage. Vertebra: each of the bones of the spinal column. Semi-mobile

joints: very restricted flexibility.

Vertebrae = cartilaginous joints: vertebra: each of the bones of thespinal column. Cartilaginous joints: flexibility due to cartilage, anelastic tissue.Skull = immovable joints: skull: bony case of the brain. Fixed joints:

joints that do not allow flexibility.Elbow = hinged joint: elbow: joint connecting the forearm to theupper arm. Hinged joint: flexible in only one direction.Hip= ball and socket joint: hip: part on the side of the body, betweenthe waist and the top of the thigh. Ball and socket joint: flexibility dueto a domed bone that turns in a cavity of the same shape.


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y Classification of joints

y FIBROUS JOINTS (SYNARTHROSES) Immovabley SUTURESy SYNDESMOSESy GOMPHOSES

y CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS (AMPHIARTHROSES)Slightly Moveabley SYNCHONDROSES (Hyaline cartilage)y SYMPHYSES (Fibrocartilage)

y SYNOVIAL JOINTS (DIARTHROSES)Moveabley UNIAXIAL

y GINGLYMUS (Hinge)y TROCHOID (Pivot)

y BIAXIALy CONDYLOIDy SADDLE

y TRIAXIALy BALLAND SOCKETy PLANAR*


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Joint Type Movement at joint Examples Structure

Hinge Flexion/ExtensionElbow/Knee Hinge joint

Pivot Rotation of one bone around another Top of the neck(atlas and axis bones)

Pivot Joint

Ball and SocketFlexion/Extension/Adduction/

Abduction/Internal & External RotationShoulder/Hip

Ball and socket joint

SaddleFlexion/Extension/Adduction/

Abduction/CircumductionCMC joint of the thumb

Saddle joint

CondyloidFlexion/Extension/Adduction/

Abduction/CircumductionWrist/MCP & MTP joints

Condyloid joint

Gliding Gliding movementsIntercarpal joints

Gliding joint


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y The structure of the smallest functional unit of muscletissue is the sarcomere. A single muscle myofibril containsabout 10,000 sarcomeres, which are laid end to end, andthe interactions within these units are responsible for

muscle shortening and contraction.General Characteristics and functions: Made up ofelongated cells containing the contractile proteins myosinand actin. These proteins allow muscle to contract - i.e.,change their length and exert tension - alowing them togenerate mechanical force for locomotion, the pumpingaction of the heart, vasoconstriction, intestinal peristalsis,etc.


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y

Cardiac muscle - Found in the heart and the bases of the large veinsthat supply the heart. Unlike the syncytial organization of skeletalmuscle, cardiac muscle is composed of individual, branched cells lyingparallel to each other with central nuclei. Like skeletal muscle, cardiacmuscle is also striated. An important distinguishing characteristic of

cardiac muscle is the presence junctional complexes calledintercalated disks . These structures join individual cardiac musclecells in an end-to-end fashion. More importantly, intercalated diskscontain gap junctions that facilitate transmission of the contractilestimulus between muscle cells. This insures that the pumping action ofthe heart is coordinated. Cardiac muscle has a greater concentration ofmitochondria, and a greater blood supply, than skeletal muscle.

Cardiac muscle cells are innervated by the autonomic nervous systemand, unlike skeletal muscle, their contraction is not under voluntarycontrol.


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y

Cardiac muscle also has an intrinsic ability to contractspontaneously and rhythmically (automaticity). Thisactivity is generated from a specialized subset of cardiacmuscle cells called cardiac conduction cells (also calledPurkinje cells). They are located in the sino-atrial andatrio-ventricular nodes, as well as the bundle of His,bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers of the ventricles.Unlike skeletal and smooth muscle which retain someregenerative ability, injured cardiac muscle cells cannotrenew themselves. When cardiac muscle cells die, they arelost forever. Injured cardiac muscle is replaced by scartissue.


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y

Smooth muscle - Bundles and sheets of individualfusiform cells (thicker in the middle than at the ends) withcentrally located nuclei. Not as well organized as skeletal orcardiac muscle. Nevertheless, groups of smooth musclecells are often bound together by connective tissue so thatthey can function as a unit. Additionally, gap junctionsbetween smooth muscle cells help coordinate theircontraction. Smooth muscle is not striated because actinand myosin filaments are not arranged in the tight, parallelbundles seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Instead, thesecontractile proteins are anchored to the plasma membraneand arranged in a crossing pattern within individual cells.


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Each person needs to pick 10 of the areas studied and

come up with possible and realistic test questions thatmight be on the mid term.

Look at past tests, on Elsevier and in the book.

Mid Term! Power Point Big One

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