MICROALGAE AS A POTEI\TIAL SOURCE FOR BIODIESEL T'RODUCTION

7/30/2019 MICROALGAE AS A POTEI\TIAL SOURCE FOR BIODIESEL T'RODUCTION

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B IOD IVER S ITY EVALUATION-B OTANI CAL PERS PECTIVE 17 -28, 2012Edited by N.S. Atri, R.C. Gupta, M.l.S" Saggoo E V.K. SinghalPublished by Ws Bishen Singh Mahenilra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun, (India)

MICROALGAE AS A POTEI\TIAL SOURCE FORBIODIESEL T'RODUCTION|itender, {,J"8" Singh and A.S. Ahluwalia*Department of Botany, Panjab Llniaersityt Chandigarh-1"6A AM*Email : phyko s@pu. ac.in

Self sufficiency in energy requirements is critical to the success ofany growing economy. With the ever increasing demand for diesel andenvironmental squalor caused by burning of diesel fuel, research for thedevelopment of a sustainable alternative fuel is being carried all overthe world. Sustainable production of renewable energy is being hotlydebated globally since it is increasingly understood that first generationbiofuels, primarily produced from food crops and mostly oil seeds aretimited in their ability to achieve targets for biofuel production, climatechange mitigation and economic growth. These concerns have increasedthe interest in developing second generation biofuels produced fromnon-food feedstock such as microalgae, which potentially offer greatestopportunities in the longer terrn. Biodiesel has become an attractivealternative to diesel fuel in last many years. Microalgae are considered avery good feedstock for biodiesel production due to their very highyield and their no competition with food crops. Oil productivi$ of manymicro-algae greatly exceeds the oil productivif of the best oil producitgcrops. Major steps in harvesting this potential include inputs from researchu.d technologies along with monet ary inputs. Investing in R&D forbiomass energy is investing in our farmers, environment, economy -that is, in our future"

K"y Word s : Mic r o algae,B io d ies el, Transesterific ation.INTRODUCTION

The world is entering into a period of declining non-renewable energyresources; populariy know as "Peak Oil", while energ"y demand is increasing(Campbell, 2008). Continued use of petroleum based fuels is now'widelyrecogni zedas unsustainable because of depleting supplies and contributionof these fuels to pollute the environment. Over reliance on petroleum derivedfuels has caused carbon dioxide (COr) enrichment of the atmosphere whichhas already exceeded 450 ppm Cq* (e = equivalent contribution of allgreenhouse gases) , as already being in the dangerously high range and thisthreshold was exceeded 10 years earlier than had previously been predicted(IPCC,2007). The annual mean growth rate far 2007 was2.14 ppm - thefourth year in the past six to see an annual rise greater than 2 pp* (TheGuardian 12th May, 2008).


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18 Iv[icroalgae GS a Potential Biomass For Biodiesel."It is expected that with the development of new growing economies,such as India and China, the global consumption of energy will raise andlead to more environmental damage (IEA, 2007). India, like any otherdeveloping country, relies on energy for sustained growth and developmentand consequenfly depends on crude petroleum imported from other countriesto cater to the large demands of fuel in the automobile, industrial andagricultural sectors. India produced 34.11 million tones of crude oil in 2007

- 08, and imp orted l2'1,.67 million tones of crude oil worth Rs.2726.99 brlhon.In India, emissions from energy use in transport and industrial sectors arehigher than in agriculture sector (Naravana et al., 2009). The researchershave the daunting challenge to find out sufficient supplies of clean energyfor the future, which is intimately linked to global sustainability, economicprosperity, and quality of life (Campbell,2008).

Indian economy is essentially diesel driven and the consumption ofdiesel fuel is four to five times more than motor-gasoline which ischaracteristically differentfrom several developed economies. Therefore, inIndian context, there is an urgent need to identify and commercializerenewable alternative fuels for diesel substitution. Biodiesel has become asustainable substitute to diesel fuel as biodiesel is produced from vegetableoil or animal fat through a chemical process known as transesterification.Research on differentaspects of biodiesel production and utilizationin dieselengine has been reported by a number of researchers (Basha et a1.,2009;Jitender et a\.,2009;Li et a\.,2009; Nabi et a1.,2009; Oner and Alturu 2009;Patil and Deng, 2009; Sharma and Singh,2009;Yan et aI.,2009). Biodieselcan be used u" Litf,"t direct substitute or as an extender to fossil diesel fu'el incompression ignition engines and has the potential to reduce carbon dioxide,hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. Biodiesel is currentlyproduced from the oil synthesized by conventional fuel crops like latrophaand Karanja that harvest sun's energy and store it as a chemical energy. InIndian contex! latrophais the most potential crop for biodiesel production.latropha curcas is a hardy plant and can even thrive on waste and degradedland (Kumar and Sharma,2005).BIODIESEL AND ITS ADVANTAGES

Biodiesel is a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters obtained bytransesterification (ester exchange reaction) of vegetable oils or animal fats.These lipid feedstocks are composed by 90 - 98% (weight) of triglyceridesand small amounb of mono and diglycerides, free fatty acids (1 - 5%), andresidual amounts of phospholipids, phosphatides, carotenes, tocopherols,sulphur compounds and haces of water (Bozbas,2008). Transesterificationis a multiple step reaction, including three reversible steps in series, wheretriglycerides are converted to diglycerides, then diglycerides are convertedto monoglycerides, andmonog$cerides arethenconvertedto esters (biodiesel)and glycerol (by-product). The overall transesterification reaction is described


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'fitender, U"B. Singh andA.S. Ahluwalia 19in Figure l-, where the radicals R1-, R2, R3 represent long chain hydrocarbons,known as fatty acids"

CII

(!:llCH:-O-C-Rl

Cru'-0-C-RsTriglyccridcs

oll-o-e-Rr t0il

catsll'st3R'oH F*.

otRt * C- 6RtoIlh-c-oR' +0IR3-C-ORt

Estcrs

Cllr * flfiCII *. 0llcHr * 0HGI"yccrollcohol

Fig.l: Transesterification of triglycerides (overall reaction)Primary advantages of biodiesel are that it is one of the most renewable

fuels and also non-toxic and biodegradable (Gerperg 2005). Today, biodieselhas come to mean a very specific chemical modification of natural oils. Theuse of vegetable oils as altemative fuels has been around for 100 years whenthe inventor of the diesel engine Rudolph Diesel fust tested peanut oil in hiscompression ignition engine (Shay, 1993). Oilseed crops such as rapeseedand ioybean oil have been extensively evaluated as sources of biodiesel' Oneof the biggest advantages of biodiesel compared to many other alternativetransportation fuels is that it can be used in existing diesel engines withoutmodification, and can be blended in at any ratio with peholeum diesel.Biodiesel produced fromvarious vegetable ofu haveviscosities close to thoseof diesel. The volumehic heating vilues are little lower, but they have highflash points. The performance of diesel engine with biodiesel is generallycomparable to that of conventional diesel fuel with reduced engine emissionof particrrlates, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxides. Since the characteristicsof biodiesel are similar to those of diesel, the former is a strong candidate toreplace diesel in the future.

Inview of the environmental considerations, biodiesel is considered as'carbon neutral' because all the carbon dioxide (COr) released duringconsumption had been sequestered from the atmosphere for the growth ofvegetable oil crops (Barnwal and sharma, 2005). Commercial experience*ith biodi"sel his been very promising. Biodiesel performs as well aspetroleum diesel, while reducing emissions of particulale m.after, carbonmonoxide (Co), hydrocarbons and oxides of sulphur (sox) (Barnwal andSharma, ZObS). Emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are, however, higherfor biodiescl in many engines. Biodiesel virtually eliminates the notorious


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20 Ivlicroalgae as n Potential Biamass For Biodiesel..,

black soot emissions associated with diesel engines and the total particulatematter emissions are also much lower. Other environmental benefits ofbiodiesel include the fact that it is highly biodegradable and appear to reduceemissions of air tsxics and carcinogens (relative to petroleum diesel). usageof biodiesel will allow a balance to be sought between agriculture, economicdevelopment and the environment.

The'centerpiece of India's plans for biodiesel development andcom.mercialization was the National Biodiesel Mission (NBM), formulatedby the Plannirig Commission of Government of India. Based on extensivereseafch carried out in agricultural research centers, it was decided to uselatropha carcas oilseed aS the major feedstock for India's biodiesel programme.NBM was planned for two phases. Phase I was termed as demonstrationphase and has been carried out from year 2003 to 2007 (Planningbomrnission, 2003). The woik done during this phase were development oflatro,phaoilseed nurseries, cultivation of latropha on 400,000 ha waste land,setting up of seed collection and, latropha oil expression centers, and theirrstallation of 80,000 Mt/year transesterification to produce biodiesel fromlatropka oil. Phase II planned with a selfsustaining expansion of theprogramme leading to the production of biodiesel to meet 20 % of the county'sdiesel requiremenb by 201L-2u12. The lack of assured supplies of vegetableoil feedstock has foiled efforts by the private sector to set up biodiesel plantsin India. Commercial biodiesel production has not yet started in India. So farcnly two'firrns, Naturol Bioenergy Limited (NBL) and Southetn OnlineBiotiEe&nslogies, have'enbarked or,t biodiwel projects, both in the southernstatedf AndhraFradesh. Naturol'Bitlenirgyliorited'(NBl), a jointventurewith the Austrian biodiesel firm Energea Grnbh and the investment firm FeClean Energy (USA), has planed to install a 300 tonnes /day (t/d)/(90,000tonnes/year) (t/fl biodiesel plant in Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh' So, thereare many conshaints for the biodiesel production in India and phase I ofNBM has not given the anticipated resulb. Recent research and developmenton microalgae has exposed a new road ahead that can be promisingsustainable feedstock for biodiesel production,MICROATGAE, AN EMERGING FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODIESELPRODUCTIONBiodiesel from microalgae seems to fe the only renewable biofuel thathas the potential to completely displace petroleum-derived transport fuelswithouiadversely affecting supply of food and other crop products (chisti,2008). Algal ponds and bioreactors for algae production are situated on non-arable land, h owever,latropfta is mainly grown on marginal land. Availabilityof feedstock for biodiesel production has always been a matter of concernand challenge for biodiesel industry and in this context, yield of biodieselcrop should be as high as possible for biodiesel industry to survive. Table-1summarizes the yield per acre of various feedstocks.


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Table-l: Comparison of microalgae with other biodiesel feedstocks.Plant source Seed oilcontent(% oil by:wt" inbiomass)

Oil yietrd(L oIL/ha year)Land use(r* year /kgbiodiesel)

Biodieselproductivity(kgbiodiesel/ hayear)CornlMaize (Zea mays L.) 44 1,72 66 152Hemp (Cannabis satiua L.) 33 363 31 321Soybean (Glycine max L.) 18 636 18 562Jatropha {lntroplta ntrcas L.) 28 741 15 656Camelina (Cnrnelfuta satiua L.) 42 91,5 72 809C-anola/ Rapesee d (Brassiu nayts L.) 41 974 12 862Sunflow er (Heliantlrus anrunts L.) 40 1070 1.1 946Castor (Ricinus comtnunis) 48 1,307 9 1L56Palm otl (Elaeis gttineensis) 36 5366 2 47 47Microalgae (low oil content) 30 58,700 0.2 5t,927Microalgae (medium oil content) 50 97,800 0.1 I6,515Microalgae (high oil content) 70 136,900 0.1 121,1.94

litender, U.B. Singh and A.S. Ahluutalia 21

(Source: Mata et al., 2070)Microalgaehre bunlight- driven cell factories thatconvert carbon dioxideto potential biofuels, foods, feeds and high value bioactives (Chigti,20OZ1,:

They cornprise a l,arge and diverse group of photosynthetic organisms thatexhibit a variety of habitats in temperate, tropical and polar regions. Mostcommonly, these organismsflourish in aquatic habitats. However, they canalso grow in soil, deserb, oil-fields, bare rocks, hot springs, etc. (Dhingra andAhluwalia, 2007).It contains lipids and fatty acids as mernbranecomponents, storage products, metabolites and sources of energy. Algalstrains, diatoms and cyanobacteria (categorized collectively as "Micro-algae") have been found to contain proportionally high levels of lipids(over 30%). Microalgal biomass, like other plant biomass, is potentiallysuitable for conversionto liquid (gasoline, biodiesel, ethanol) and gaseous(methane and hydrogen) fuels. Most of the oleaginous microorganisms likemicroalgae, baciilui, fungi and yeast are all available for biodieselproduction (Meng et al., 2009).

Microalgae have a number of unique benefits. As aquatic species, theydo not require arable land for cultivation. This means that algal cultivationdoes not need to compete with agricultural commodities for growing space.In fact, algal cuitivjation facilities can be built on marginal land that has fewother useJ. Algae also have a greater capacity to absorb CO, than land plane,lnd are not pione to photosynthetic inhibition under conditions of intense;unlight. Afier oil extraction from algae, the remaining biomass fraction canre nr6d as a high protein feed for livestock which gives further value to the


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22 lvficron\gne frs n Fatemtin| Biomnss For Bi*diesel.""

process and red.uees waste to even zero (Campbell, 2008)' Microalgae apPeartobetheadvantageofcostsdependingo:ritsqp6rabilityofhigherphotosynthetic efficiency, larger biomass and faster growth rate compared[o tf,ut f f ol crops. Oil conteni of many microalgae is usually Si % of its dry*"ight 1so"g et il.,ZOO}l.Oepending on species, microalgae produce differerrttirrfi, .i fipias, hydrocarbons ana otnei complex,oils. Not all algal oils are,"ituuru r* *aking biodiesel, however, suitable oils occur conunonly. using-*i.ioufguu to proiuce biodiesel will not interfere with the producfion offood, foider uod oth", ptoducts derived from crops. The micro-algal strains*i,iit i*h oil or lipid content are summarized in Table-2 and are of greati.rt r"riio tt u q.roi fo, u r*tainable feedstock for the production

of biodiesel(Chisti,2A0n.

(Source; Chisti,2007)There are many advantages of microalgae over h$her plants as a source

of kansportation biofu els like:r Microalgae synthesize and accumulate large quantities of neuhal lipids/oil t20-50% dry celt weight (Dcw)l and grow at high rates (e.g. 1-3doublings/daY).r oil yield per unit area of microalgal cultures could greatly exceed theyield of best oilseed croPs.oMicroalgaecanbecultivatedinsaline/brackishwater/coastalseawater

on non-arable land, and do not compete for resources with conventionalagriculture.r Microalgae tolerate marginal lands (e.g" desert, arid and semiarid lands)that areirot suitable for conventional agriculture'

Table*?: Oil e#ffitemt of $offite microalgae"fuf ie roalgae mig c*ffi#emt {% dry weighft}S eewe desffiE &s *bliEutwsS cene deswlws dimorPkusCklsrelln wwlgffiYdsBotryoeCIrcer.ds s$3.C\il*rella $p"{ryp tke ert diwitr W gyAW:Cyiliwdrst'iqeew_f,ff:ffiMwnldelfn priwr.l#{tefsmelaryses s$3.tvfl.sw rullgnwtksa s sre J s ru mFJmrereoelafores sP.


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fitender, 1/"ts" 9irugl.' nndA.S" Ahlwwnhiq 23

o Microalgae utilize nitrogen and phosphorus from a variety ofwastewater sources (e.g. aglicultural run-off, concentrated animalfeed operations and industrial and municipal wastewaters),providing the additional benefit of wastewater bioremddiation.I Microalgae sequester co, from flue gases emitted from fossil fuel-firedpower plants and other sources, thereby reducing emissions of a majorgreenhouse gas. 1 kg of algal biomass requires about 1.8 kg of Ce.r Microalgae produce value-added co-products or by-products (e.g.,biopolymers, proteins, polysaccharides, pigments, animal feed andfertilizer) and does not nebd herbicide and pesticide.I Microalgae grow in suitable culture vessels (photobioreactors)throughout the year with higher annual biomass productivid on anarea basis.Microalgae are currently cultivated commercially for human nutriuonai,products around the world in several small- to medium-scale produ-ctionsystems, producing a smaller amount to several hundred tons of biomassannually. About half of this production takes place in mainland China, withthe rest in Japan, Taiwan, U.S.A., Aushalia and India, and a few smallproducers in some other countries as well (Benemann, 1997;2009).Microalgalcultivation using sunlight energy can be carried out in open or covered pondsor closed photobioreactors, based on tubular, flat plate or other designs.closed systems are much more expensive than open ponds and presentsignificant operating challenges (overheating, fouling, etc.) and due to gaoexchange limitations, among others, cannot be scaled-up much beyond abouta hundred square meters for an individual growth unit. unlike the openponds, photo bioreactors essentially permit single-species culture ofmicroalgae for prolonged durations. Photo bioreactors have been successfullyused for producinglarge quantities of microalgal biomass (Chisti, 200n.Xiet al. (2006) extracted microalgal oil from the heterotrophic cells using n-hexane and then hansmuted it into biodiesel by acidic transesterification"The heating value of biodiesel was found to be 41MJkg/L, the density as0.86akg/L and the viscosity as 5.2x10a Pas (at 40"C) (Xu ef aL,20A6).

MICROATGAE BIODIESET VATUE CHAIN STAGESAlthough in a simplistic view, microalgae may not seem to differsignificantly from other biodiesel feedstocks, they are microorganisms rivingessentially in liquid environments, and thus with particular cultivation,harvesting, and processing techniques that ought to be considered in orderto efficiently produce biodiesel. All existing processes for biodiesel productionfrom microalgae include a production unit where cells are grown/ followedby the separation of the cells from the growing media and subsequentlipidsextraction. Ther; biodiesel or other biofuels are produced in a form akin toexisting processes and technologies used for other biofuel feedstocks. t{,ecently


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24 Microalgae as a Potential Biomass For Biodiesel.."other possibilities for biofuel production are being pursued instead of thetransesterification reaction, such as the thermaf &acking (or pyrolysis)involving the thermal decomposition or cleavage of the triglycerides andother orghnic compounds presented in the feedsiock, in simpter molecules,namely alkanes, alkenes, aromatics, carboxylic acids, among others (Babu,2008; Boatenget a1.,2008). Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of thealgal biodiesel value chain stages, starting with the selection of microalgalspecies depending on local specific conditions and the design andimplementation of cultivation system for microalgal growth. It is followed bythe biomass harvesting, processing and oil exhaction to supply the biodieselproduction unit.ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY OF BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

There is a common myth about biodiesel that it costs too much, but it isnothue altogether. The economic feasibility of biodieselproduction dependsupon the fact that the feedstock biomass should be producible with low-input (ie. less fert'lizer, pesticides and energy) on land with low agriculturalvalue and requires low-input energy to convert feedstocks into biodiesel(Haas et al., 2006; Hill ef al., 2006). They also reported a direct linearrelationship between the cost of feedstock and biodiesel production cost.

CO, Nutrients

Algal culturc(0,t)2{.1.06oh nt TSS:total suspendetl solids)

Algal efliment (2-7% TSS)

Algal Slurry (5-15% TSS)

Algal Cake (15-25% TSS)

Lipids and free fally acids

Algae and Site Selection

Algae cultivation

Nutrientsrecycle

Harvesting

Biomass processing(dewatering, thickenhg, filtering, dryng)

il extractioncell disruption and oil extraction)

Biodiesel ProductionFig.2: Microalgal biodiesel value chain stages


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litender, U.B. Singh andA.S. Ahluwalia 25Ramesh et aI. (2007) calculated a net cost of production of latrophabiodieselas Rs. Zi9 /1. There is, therefore, utmostneed to explore microalgae as alternatefeedstock for biodiesel with minimal cost

It can be safely concluded that use of microalgae as a source of biomassfor biodiesel production will be much cheaper than other plant crops, becausemany unicellular algae multiply their biomass within a short time. Thus useof microalgae for biodiesel production poses no problem atleast at economiclevel. Acclim at:rzrng microalgae for using flue gas in place of CO, for theirgrowth can improve the economic feasibility of microalgal biodiesel throughearning of carbon credits. The biggest and most important hurdle andutthzabion of microalgal fuel is the high cost and energy requirement" Theforthcoming research and technology should concentrate on reducing theexpenditure and improving the cost-effectiveness of microalgal fuel. Theseinclude strategies like selection of cost effective technologies for biomassharvesting and dryirg, highvalue co-product skategy, best strain selectiorymetabolic engineering and systems biology approaches and linkingmicroalgal production with wastewater treatment. Biotechnology should beused for maki^g biodiesel production from algae, a cheaper process. If s atime to go for highvalue lowvolume products frombiomass. Algalbiorefineryhas a great potential to achieve this goal.CONCLUSION

It can be said that algae are not just aquatic weeds rather these can proveto be the most potent raw material source for biodiesel production that toowithout endangering global food security and warming. Moreover, use ofalgae in biodiesel production can also act as a potential tool for carbonsequestration and curbing climate change. But before these optimisticassumptions come hue, there are certain challenges in fulfilling these dreams.These include extensive research trials / experiments for standardizing theprotocol for specific algal species for ensuring continuous supply of biofuel,identification of environmental factors/stresses that can enhance oil/lipidaccumulation in microalgae without affecting their growth rate, involvementof genetic engineering technology to increase the activity of enzymes relatedto lipid production and storage. Focused efforts in developing microalgaewith high lipid content for biodiesel production would be a new andpromising approach in biofuel production. There is utnnost need to developways for producing enormous amount of biomass for algal oils. Closedbioreactors save water in minimizing evaporafion whereas open race wayponds ufilize solar energy. Larger amount of microalgal biomass can also beachieved through various approaches involving improvement of algal strains,optimum lightquantity, quality and duratioru culture nutrienb, heterotrophy,temperature, etc. It is better to employ algal strains which normally grow insaline water because they accumulate more hydrocarbons and do not getcontaminated even in the open ponds.


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zfr fuLir:ronlgae #s # Fsterttial Bismsss Fsy ffiisciesel",.ACNOI,T/LEDGEMEI{TS

The authors are indebted to the university Grants Commission, NewDelhi (A'S. Ahluwalia)forSAP-DRS-II grants and to rhe Council of Scientificand Industriar Research, New Derhi fliLnder and u.n. si"jr,jlr;;;ffi;;financial assistance in the form of pi_Snn.REFERENCESBabu' B'v' 2008' Biomass pyrorysis: a state-of-the-art review. BiofuersBioproducts and Biorefining Z ZOZ_+1+.ffinrnrntal, B"K. effid sharrxra, M"p. z0#s" praspects sffrcm vegetable oils in India. Reweztsabie Srsstsiresble378 "

biodiesel prcdLeeti*nEwergy Reaierus g: g6g*Basha' s'A', Raja, G.K' ancl Jeb araj, s.2009. Areview on biodieser productiorlcombustiorL emissions and perform ance. Renewabre and sustaiiable EnergyReaiezus 1.S: 1628-L634.Benemann, J'R' 1'997.-Co, Mitigation with microargae systems. EnergyConseraation and Mani mrnlgg, 475_479.Benemann, J.R. 200s' opportunities and chalrenges in algae biofuelsproduction . http : / / www. oilgae. c om / btogi 2aOs1 oi,, ar -john_r_benem ann-new-white-p aper, html.Boateng, A.A., Mullerx C,A., Goldberg, N., Hicks, K.8., Jung, H.J,G. and Lamb,l.F's. 2008. production of bio-oil fro m olfolfn,t"-, tf'n"ial"a_*a rurtpyrolysis. rndustriat and Engineering Ctint-istry Reseaich *z: itts_zz.Bazbas, K' 2009. Biodieser as an alternative motor fuel: production andpolicies in the European union. Renaoable and sustainaui i"rrgy Reaiews!2:542-582"Campbell, M.N" 2008. Biodieser argae as a renewabre source for riquid fuer.Guelph Engineering laurnal t: Z_f .chisti, Y' 2007. Biodieser from microatgae. Biotechnorogy Aduances 2s: 294-306.Chisti, Y, 2008' Biodieser from microargae beats bioethanor. Trends inBiotechnology 2& 126-181. :1Dhingra, R. and Ahluwalia, A.S. 2002. Genus phormidiumKutzing ex Gomont(Cyanoprokaryote) from diverse habitats of punjab. /o "*ot ii7i* sotanicarSociety 86 z 86-94.Gerpen, v.j. 200s. Biodieser processing and produc tion, Fuer processTechnology 862 1,097-1,107.Hass, M.J., McAloon, A.1., yee, W.C. and Foglia, T.A. 2006. A process toesfimate biodieser production costs. Bioresource Technrtlogy 9iz G71-67g.


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{itender, U.B" Singh nnd A"S" Ahluzualia n17.d- JHill, J., Nelson, E., Tilman, D., Folasky, S. and Iiffany,D.20A6. Environmental,econornic and energetic costs and benefits of biodiesel and ethanolbiofuels. Proceedings of IIrc National Academy of Sciences, USA.'L03:L1206-"I'1210.Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007. Fourth assessment reportof the IPCC on clirnate change. Climate change: impacts, vulnerabilityand applications. pp. 21,1,-277.International Energy Agency 2007. World Energy Outlook 2007. China andIndia Insights, Paris, France.Jitender, A., Mahajan, A. and Ahluwalia, A.S. 2009. I{enerr"able energysources: Potential of microalgae for production of envitonmental friendlybiotuels. In: Algal Biology and Biotechnology (Khattar J.l.S., Singfi'D.P.,and Kaur G. eds.), , I.K. International Publishing house Pvt. Ltd., NewDelhi, pp. 217-225.Kumar, N. and Sharma, P.B. 2005. latropha curcas- A sustainable source forproduction of biodiesel. lournal of Scie.ntiJic and Industrial Research 64t883-889"Li, S,, Wang, Y., Dong, S., Chen, Y., Cao, F., Chai, F. and Wang" X. 2009.Biodiesel production fuom. Entca satiaq Gars vegetable oil and motor,

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28 Microalgae a? a Potential Biomass For Biodiesel,.,Sharma, Y.C. and Singh, B.2A0g. Development of biodiesel: Current scenario.Renewable and Susfainable Ene{gA Reaiews L3: 1646-1651,.Shay, E.G. 1993" Diesel fuel from vegetable oil: status and opportunities.Biomass'and Bioenergy 4: 222-242:Song, D., Fu, J. and Shi, D. 2008. Exploitation of oil-bearing microalgae forbiodiesel. Chinese lournal af Biotechnology 242 34'1,.-34g.Xu, H., Miao, X. and Wu, Q. 2006" High quality biodiesel production from amicroalgae Chlorella protothecoides by heterotrophic growth in fermenters"lournal of Biotechnology 126: 499-507.Yan Shuli, Kim Manhoe, Salley Steven, O. and Ng, K.Y" Simon . 2009. Oil

transesterification over calcium oxides modified with lanthanum" AppliedCatalysis A: General 360: 16g-170.

MICROALGAE AS A POTEI\TIAL SOURCE FOR BIODIESEL T'RODUCTION

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