SCIENTIFICMETHODS

METODE ILMIAH

Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring

new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating

previous knowledge.

It is based on gathering observable, empirical and

measurable evidence subject to specific principles of

reasoning, the collection of data through observation and

experimentation, and the formulation and testing of

hypotheses.

Bagaimana mempelajari metode penelitian ?

HIPOTESISAlthough procedures vary from one

field of inquiry to another, identifiable features distinguish

scientific inquiry from other methodologies of knowledge. Scientific researchers propose hypotheses as explanations of

phenomena, and design experimental studies that test these hypotheses for

accuracy.These steps must be repeatable in order to predict dependably any

future results. Theories that encompass wider

domains of inquiry may bind many hypotheses together in a coherent

structure. This in turn may assist in the

formation of new hypotheses, as well as in placing groups of hypotheses

into a broader context of understanding.

Menyusun Hipotesis

DIUNDUH DARI: http://explorable.com/research-methodology

RELIABILITAS DATA

Among other facets shared by the various fields of inquiry is the

conviction that the process must be objective to reduce a biased interpretation of the results.

Another basic expectation is to document, archive and share all

data and methodology so it is available for careful scrutiny by other scientists, thereby allowing other researchers the opportunity to verify results by attempting to

reproduce them.

This practice, called "full disclosure", also allows statistical

measures of the reliability of these data to be established.

Scientific Method:Scientific arguments of logic basically take on four possible forms; 1) the pure

method of deduction, where some conclusion is drawn from a set of propositions (i.e. pure logic), 2) the method of induction, where one draws

general conclusions from particular facts that appear to serve as evidence, 3) by probability, which passes from frequencies within a known domain to conclusions of stated likelihood, and 4) by statistical reasoning, which

concludes that, on the average, a certain percentage of a set of entities will satisfy the stated conditions.

Diunduh dari: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/lectures/science/index.html

UNSUR-UNSUR METODE ILMIAH

There are multiple ways of outlining the basic method shared by all of the fields of

scientific inquiry.

The following examples are typical classifications of the most important components of the method on which there is very wide agreement in the

scientific community and among philosophers of

science, each of which are subject only to marginal

disagreements about a few very specific aspects.

The scientific method has four steps:Observation/experimentation

Deduction Hypothesis Falsification

Diunduh dari: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/lectures/science/index.html

The scientific method involves the following basic facets:

Observation. A constant feature of scientific inquiry, observation includes both unconditioned observations (prior to any theory) as well as the observation of the experiment and its results.

Description. Information derived from experiments must be reliable, i.e., replicable (repeatable), as well as valid (relevant to the inquiry).

Prediction. Information must be valid for observations past, present, and future of given phenomena, i.e., purported "one shot" phenomena do not give rise to the capability to predict, nor to the ability to repeat an experiment.

The Hypothetico-Deductive Method of Science

Diunduh dari: http://www.kahome.co.uk/scien.htm

Control Actively and fairly sampling the range of possible

occurrences, whenever possible and proper, as opposed to the passive acceptance of opportunistic data, is the

best way to control or counterbalance the risk of empirical bias.

Identification of causes.

Identification of the causes of a particular phenomenon to the best achievable extent. For cause-and-

effect relationship to be established, the following must be

established:

Time-order relationship. The hypothesized causes must precede

the observed effects in time.

Covariation of events. The hypothesized causes must

correlate with observed effects. However, correlations between

events or variables are not necessarily indicative of causation.

CAUSAL INFERENCE The identification of the cause or causes of a

phenomenon, by establishing covariation of cause and effect, a time-order relationship with the cause preceding

the effect, and the elimination of plausible alternative causes.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD An approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical rather than intuitive processes, testable hypotheses,

systematic and controlled observation of operationally defined phenomena, data collection using accurate and

precise instrumentation, valid and reliable measures, and objective reporting of results; scientists tend to be critical

and, most importantly, skeptical.

THEORY A logically organized set of propositions which serves to define events, describe relationships among events, and

explain the occurrence of these events; scientific theories guide research and organize empirical knowledge.

Diunduh dari: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/shaugh/ch01_concepts.html

ELIMINASI ALTERNATIF

YANG “plausible “

This is a gradual process that requires repeated experiments by multiple researchers who must be able to

replicate results in order to corroborate them.: All hypotheses and

theories are in principle subject to disproof.

Thus, there is a point at which there might be a consensus about a

particular hypothesis or theory, yet it must in principle remain tentative.

As a body of knowledge grows and a particular hypothesis or theory

repeatedly brings predictable results, confidence in the hypothesis or theory

increases.

Goals of the Scientific Method 1. The scientific method is intended to meet three goals:

description, prediction, and understanding. 2. Psychologists seek to describe events and relationships

between variables; most often, researchers use the nomothetic approach and quantitative analysis.

3. Correlational relationships allow psychologists to predict behavior or events, but do not allow psychologists to infer what causes these relationships.

4. Psychologists understand the cause of a phenomenon when the three conditions for causal inferences are met: covariation, time-order relationship, and elimination of plausible alternative causes.

5. The experimental method, in which researchers manipulate independent variables to determine their effect on dependent variables, establishes time-order and allows for a clearer determination of covariation.

6. Plausible alternative causes for a relationship are eliminated if there are no confoundings in a study; a study free of confoundings has internal validity.

7. External validity refers to the extent to which a study's findings may be used to describe different populations, settings, and conditions.

Diunduh dari: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/shaugh/ch01_concepts.html

METODE ILMIAH

Another simplified model sometimes utilized to summarize scientific method is

the "operational":

The essential elements of a scientific method are operations, observations,

models, and a utility function for evaluating models.

Operation - Some action done to the system being investigated Observation - What happens when the operation is done to the system

Model - A fact, hypothesis, theory, or the phenomenon itself at a certain moment Utility Function - A measure of the usefulness of the model to explain, predict, and control, and of the cost of use of it

Scientific and Nonscientific Approaches to Knowledge

1. The scientific method is empirical and requires systematic, controlled observation.

2. To achieve control in a research situation, researchers manipulate independent variables or select levels of individual differences variables to determine their effect on behavior.

3. Dependent variables are measures of behavior used to assess the effects of independent variables.

4. Scientific reporting is unbiased and objective; clear communication of concepts occurs when operational definitions are used.

5. Scientific instruments are accurate and precise; physical and psychological measurement should be valid and reliable.

6. A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon; testable hypotheses have clearly defined concepts (operational definitions), are not circular, and refer to concepts that can be observed.

7. Scientists adopt a skeptical attitude and are cautious about accepting explanations until sufficient empirical evidence is obtained.

Diunduh dari: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/shaugh/ch01_concepts.html

PEMODELAN

One of the elements of any scientific utility function is the refutability of the model.

Another is its simplicity, on the Principle of Parsimony also known as Occam's Razor.

The following is a more thorough description of the method.

This set of methodological elements and organization of procedures will in general tend to be more characteristic of natural

sciences and experimental psychology than of disciplines commonly categorized as

social sciences.

Among the latter, methods of verification and testing of hypotheses may involve less stringent mathematical and statistical

interpretations of these elements within the respective disciplines. Nonetheless the cycle of hypothesis, verification and formulation of

new hypotheses will tend to resemble the basic cycle described below.

Scientific modelling

In science, a model is a representation of an idea, an object or even a process or a system

that is used to describe and explain phenomena that cannot be experienced directly. Models are

central to what scientists do, both in their research as well as when communicating their

explanations. 

MODELS are a mentally visual way of linking theory with experiment, and they guide

research by being simplified representations of an imagined reality that enable predictions to

be developed and tested by experiment. 

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/The-Noisy-Reef/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/Scientific-modelling

UNSUR-UNSUR METODE ILMIAH

The essential elements of a scientific method are iterations, recursions,

interleavings, and orderings of the following:

1. Characterizations (Quantifications, observations, and measurements)

2. Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements)

3. Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from hypothesis and theory)

4. Experiments (tests of all of the above)

SIKLUS PENELITIAN ILMIAH

Diunduh dari: http://www.ukdrn.org/lrn/nec/public.aspx

OBSERVASI EMPIRIK

Imre Lakatos and Thomas Kuhn had done extensive work on the "theory

laden" character of observation.

Kuhn (1961) maintained that the scientist generally has a theory in mind

before designing and undertaking experiments so as to make empirical

observations, and that the "route from theory to measurement can

almost never be traveled backward".

This perspective implies that the way in which theory is tested is dictated by the nature of the theory itself, which

led Kuhn (1961) to argue that "once it has been adopted by a profession ...

no theory is recognized to be testable by any quantitative tests that it has

not already passed".

Empirical : Relying on or derived from observation or experiment.

The American Heritage® Science Dictionary Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company

.

Empirical :1. Derived from or relating to experiment and observation

rather than theory2. (Medicine) (of medical treatment) based on practical

experience rather than scientific proof3. (Philosophy) Philosophy:

a.  (of knowledge) derived from experience rather than by logic from first principles Compare a priori, a posteriori

b.  (of a proposition) subject, at least theoretically, to verification Compare analytic – synthetic

4. (Medicine) of or relating to medical quackery

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003

PEER-REVIEW

Each element of the scientific method is

subject to peer review for possible mistakes.

These activities do not describe all that

scientists do but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics,

chemistry).

The elements above are often taught in the educational system.

Peer review is the evaluation of creative work or performance by other people in the same field in order to maintain or enhance the quality of the

work or performance in that field1. It is based on the concept that a larger and more diverse group of people will usually find more weaknesses and errors in a work or performance

and will be able to make a more impartial evaluation of it than will just the person or group responsible for creating the work or performance.

Peer review utilizes the independence, and in some cases the anonymity, of the reviewers in order to discourage cronyism (i.e., favoritism shown to relatives and friends) and obtain an unbiased evaluation. Typically, the reviewers are not selected from among the close colleagues, relatives or

friends of the creator or performer of the work, and potential reviewers are required to disclose of any conflicts of interest.

Peer review helps maintain and enhance quality both directly by detecting weaknesses and errors in specific works and performance and indirectly by providing a basis for making decisions about rewards and punishment that can provide a powerful incentive to achieve excellence. These rewards and

punishments are related to prestige, publication, research grants, employment, compensation, promotion, tenure and disciplinary action.

Peer review is used extensively in a variety of professional fields, including academic and scientific research, medicine, law, accounting and computer

software development.

Diunduh dari: http://www.linfo.org/peer_review.html

The scientific method is not a recipe: it requires intelligence,

imagination, and creativity.

Further, it is an ongoing cycle, constantly developing more useful, accurate and comprehensive models and methods.

For example, when Einstein developed the Special and General Theories of Relativity,

he did not in any way refute or discount Newton's Principia.

On the contrary, if one reduces out the astronomically large, the vanishingly small,

and the extremely fast from Einstein's theories — all phenomena that Newton

could not have observed — one is left with Newton's equations.

Einstein's theories are expansions and refinements of Newton's theories, and the

observations that increase our confidence in them also increase our confidence in Newton's approximations to them.

Flow diagram describing the scientific method.

Diunduh dari: http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node6.html

The Keystones of Science project, sponsored by the journal Science, has selected a number of scientific articles from

that journal and annotated them, illustrating how different parts of each article embody the scientific

method.

Here is an annotated example of the scientific method example titled Microbial Genes in the Human Genome:

Lateral Transfer or Gene Loss?.

PROSES PENELITIAN

A linearized, pragmatic scheme of the four points above is sometimes offered as a guideline for proceeding:1. Define the question 2. Gather information and resources 3. Form hypothesis 4. Perform experiment and collect data 5. Analyze data 6. Interpret data and draw conclusions

that serve as a starting point for new hypotheses

7. Publish results

The iterative cycle inherent in this step-by-step methodology goes from point 3 to 6 back to 3 again.

The scientific method is a method for conducting an objective investigation.

The scientific method involves making observations and conducting an experiment to test a hypothesis.

The number of steps of the scientific method isn't standard. Some texts and instructors break up the

scientific method into more or fewer steps.

Some people start listing steps with the hypothesis, but since a hypothesis is based on observations

(even if they aren't formal), the hypothesis usually is considered to be the second step.

Here are the usual steps of the scientific method.

Diunduh dari: http://chemistry.about.com/od/sciencefairprojects/a/Scientific-

Method-Steps.htm

KARAKTERISASI

METODE ILMIAH depends upon increasingly more sophisticated

characterizations of subjects of the investigation. (The subjects can also be called unsolved problems or the

unknowns, MASALAH PENELITIAN).

For example, Benjamin Franklin correctly characterized St. Elmo's fire

as electrical in nature, but it has taken a long series of experiments

and theory to establish this.

While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, this careful

thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the

observations often demand careful measurements and/or counting.

Scientific Method StepsAs more proof that there is no one way to "do" science,

different sources describe the steps of the scientific method in different ways. Some list three steps, some four and some five. Fundamentally, however, they incorporate the same concepts

and principles.

Diunduh dari: http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/scientific-method6.htm

SISTEMATISThe systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant

quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and a science, such as chemistry or biology.

Scientific measurements taken are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and

statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on

them.

The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or

made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or

human populations.

The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as

thermometers, spectroscopes, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific

field is usually intimately tied to their invention and development.

Measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects or events.

All measurements consist of three parts: magnitude, dimensions (units) and uncertainty.

They are used to make definitive comparisons between observations and reduce confusion. Even in cases of clear

qualitative similarity or difference, increased precision through quantitative measurement is often preferred in order

to aid in replication. For example, different colours may be reported based on wavelengths of light, instead of vague

(qualitative) terms such as "green" and "blue" which are often interpreted differently by different people. The science

of measurement is called metrology.

Measurements are most commonly made in the SI system, which contains seven fundamental units: kilogram, metre,

candela, second, ampere, kelvin, and mole. Six of these units are artifact-free (defined without reference to a particular

physical object which serves as a standard); the definition of one remaining unit, the kilogram is still embodied in an

artifact which rests at the BIPM outside Paris.

Eventually, it is hoped that new SI definitions will be uniformly artifact-free.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement

KETIDAK-PASTIAN = Uncertainty

Measurements in scientific work are also usually accompanied by estimates of

their uncertainty.

The uncertainty is often estimated by making repeated measurements of the

desired quantity.

Uncertainties may also be calculated by consideration of the uncertainties of the individual underlying quantities that are

used. Counts of things, such as the number of

people in a nation at a particular time, may also have an uncertainty due to

limitations of the method used.

Counts may only represent a sample of desired quantities, with an uncertainty

that depends upon the sampling method used and the number of samples taken.

Uncertainty is a term used in subtly different ways in a number of fields, including physics, philosophy, statistics,

economics, finance, insurance, psychology, sociology, engineering, and information science. It applies to

predictions of future events, to physical measurements already made, or to the unknown.

1. Uncertainty: The lack of certainty, A state of having limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome.

2. Measurement of Uncertainty: A set of possible states or outcomes where probabilities are assigned to each possible state or outcome – this also includes the application of a probability density function to continuous variables

3. Risk: A state of uncertainty where some possible outcomes have an undesired effect or significant loss.

4. Measurement of Risk: A set of measured uncertainties where some possible outcomes are losses, and the magnitudes of those losses – this also includes loss functions over continuous variables.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncertainty

DEFINISI

Measurements demand the use of operational definitions of

relevant quantities; DEFINISI OPERASIONAL.

That is, a scientific quantity is described or defined by how it

is measured, as opposed to some more vague, inexact or "idealized" definition.

For example, electrical current, measured in amperes, may be operationally defined in terms of the mass of silver deposited

in a certain time on an electrode in an electrochemical device that is described in some

detail.

A definition is a statement that explains the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols).

The term to be defined is the definiendum. The term may have many different senses and multiple meanings. For

each meaning, a definiens is a cluster of words that defines that term (and clarifies the speaker's intention).

As an example: To successfully define the word "Vegan", the definiendum (the word "Vegan" itself) must be given a definiens (actually vegan has at least two definiens: One is "someone who avoids using animal products", and another definiens is "someone from a place called Vega, Norway").

A definition will vary in aspects like precision or popularity (e.g. globally, the word "Vegan" rarely refers to

the definiens "someone from Vega, Norway").

There are also different types of definitions with different purposes and focuses (e.g. intensional, extensional,

descriptive, stipulative, and so on).

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definition

The operational definition of a thing often relies on comparisons with standards:

The operational definition of "mass" ultimately relies on the use of an artifact, such as a certain

kilogram of platinum-iridium kept in a laboratory in France.

DEFINISI OPERASIONAL

The scientific definition of a term sometimes differs substantially

from their natural language usage.

For example, mass and weight overlap in meaning in common

discourse, but have distinct meanings in mechanics.

Scientific quantities are often characterized by their units of

measure which can later be described in terms of

conventional physical units when communicating the work.

AN OPERATIONAL DEFINITION, also called functional definition, defines something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of the specific process or set of validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity. That is, one

defines something in terms of the operations that count as measuring it.

The term was coined in philosophy of science book The Logic of Modern Physics (1927), by Percy Williams Bridgman, and is a part of the process of operationalization. One might use

definitions that rely on operations in order to avoid the troubles associated with attempting to define things in terms

of some intrinsic essence.

An example of an operational definition might be defining the weight of an object in terms of the numbers that appear when that object is placed on a weighing scale. The weight then, is whatever results from following the (weight) measurement

procedure, which should be repeatable by anyone. This is in contrast to operationalization that uses theoretical definitions.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_definition

New theories sometimes arise upon realizing that certain terms had not previously been sufficiently clearly

defined.

For example, Albert Einstein's first paper on relativity begins by defining simultaneity and the means for

determining length.

These ideas were skipped over by Isaac Newton with, "I do not define time, space, place and motion, as being well

known to all."

Einstein's paper then demonstrates that they (viz., absolute time and length independent of motion) were

approximations.

PEMBUATAN HIPOTESIS

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation

between or among a set of phenomena.

Normally hypotheses have the form of a mathematical model.

Sometimes, but not always, they can also be formulated as existential

statements, stating that some particular instance of the

phenomenon being studied has some characteristic and causal

explanations, which have the general form of universal statements, stating

that every instance of the phenomenon has a particular

characteristic.

Scientific Theory Construction and Testing

1. Theories, proposed explanations for the causes of behavior, vary in their scope and their level of explanation.

2. A scientific theory is a logically organized set of propositions that defines events, describes relationships among events, and explains the occurrence of events.

3. Successful scientific theories organize empirical knowledge, guide research by offering testable hypotheses, and survive rigorous testing.

4. Theories frequently posit intervening variables to explain observed behavior.

5. Researchers evaluate theories by judging the theory's internal consistency, observing whether hypothesized outcomes occur when the theory is tested, and noting whether the theory makes precise predictions based on parsimonious explanations.

Diunduh dari: http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/psychology/shaugh/ch01_concepts.html

KREATIVITAS PENELITI

Scientists are free to use whatever resources they have — their own creativity, ideas from other fields, induction, Bayesian inference, and so on — to imagine possible

explanations for a phenomenon under study.

Charles Sanders Peirce, borrowing a page from Aristotle (Prior Analytics, 2.25)

described the incipient stages of inquiry, instigated by the "irritation of doubt" to

venture a plausible guess, as abductive reasoning.

The history of science is filled with stories of scientists claiming a "flash of

inspiration", or a hunch, which then motivated them to look for evidence to

support or refute their idea. Michael Polanyi made such creativity the

centrepiece of his discussion of methodology.

Why scientists use models

Models have a variety of uses – from providing a way of explaining complex data to presenting

as a hypothesis.

There may be more than one model proposed by scientists to explain or predict what might

happen in particular circumstances. Often scientists will argue about the ‘rightness’ of

their model, and in the process, the model will evolve or be rejected. 

Consequently, models are central to the process of knowledge-building in science and

demonstrate how science knowledge is tentative.

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/The-Noisy-Reef/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/Scientific-modelling

Karl Popper, following others, developing and inverting the views of the Austrian logical positivists, has argued that a hypothesis must be

falsifiable, and that a proposition or theory cannot be called scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false.

It must at least in principle be possible to make an observation that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation had

not yet been made.

LANDASAN TEORITIS – EMPIRIS

William Glen observes that the success of a hypothesis, or its

service to science, lies not simply in its perceived "truth", or power to

displace, subsume or reduce a predecessor idea, but perhaps more

in its ability to stimulate the research that will illuminate … bald

suppositions and areas of vagueness.

In general scientists tend to look for theories that are "elegant" or

"beautiful".

In contrast to the usual English use of these terms, they here refer to a

theory in accordance with the known facts, which is nevertheless

relatively simple and easy to handle.

Occam's Razor serves as a rule of thumb for making these

determinations.

WHAT'S A THEORY? WHAT'S A HYPOTHESIS?The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in everyday use. However, the difference between them in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental

design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories

arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted

[e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to

look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better

study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what

you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:A theory predicts events in a broad, general context; a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.

A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to

be tested.

Diunduh dari: http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=618409

PREDIKSI BERDASARKAN

HIPOTESIS

Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including

deductive reasoning.

It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a laboratory setting or

the observation of a phenomenon in nature.

The prediction can also be statistical and only talk

about probabilities.

Building a model

Scientists start with a small amount of data and build up a better and better representation of the

phenomena they are explaining or using for prediction as time goes on. These days, many models are likely to

be mathematical and are run on computers, rather than being a visual representation, but the principle is

the same.

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/The-Noisy-Reef/Science-Ideas-

and-Concepts/Scientific-modelling

FORMULASI HIPOTESIS

It is essential that the outcome be currently unknown.

Only in this case does the eventuation increase the probability

that the hypothesis be true.

If the outcome is already known, it's called a consequence and should

have already been considered while formulating the hypothesis.

If the predictions are not accessible by observation or experience, the

hypothesis is not yet useful for the method, and must wait for others who might come afterward, and

perhaps rekindle its line of reasoning.

For example, a new technology or theory might make the necessary

experiments feasible.

A SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS is the initial building block in the scientific method. Many describe it as an “educated guess,” based on prior knowledge and observation, as to the cause of a particular phenomenon. It is a suggested solution for an unexplained occurrence that does not fit into

current accepted scientific theory. A hypothesis is the inkling of an idea that can become a theory, which is the next step in the scientific method.

The basic idea of a hypothesis is that there is no pre-determined outcome. For a hypothesis to be termed a scientific hypothesis, it has to be something that can be supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation

or observation.A key function in this step in the scientific method is deriving predictions

from the hypotheses about the results of future experiments, then performing those experiments to see whether they support the predictions.The primary trait of a hypothesis is that something can be tested and that those tests can be replicated. A hypothesis, which is often in the form of an

if/then statement, is often examined by multiple scientists to ensure the integrity and veracity of the experiment. This process can take years, and in many cases hypotheses do not become theories as it is difficult to gather

sufficient supporting evidence.Upon analysis of the results, a hypothesis can be rejected or modified, but it

can never be proven to be correct 100 percent of the time. For example, relativity has been tested many times so it is generally accepted as true, but there could be an instance, which has not been encountered, where it is not

true.Most formal hypotheses consist of concepts that can be connected and their

relationships tested. A group of hypotheses comes together to form a conceptual framework. As sufficient data and evidence are gathered to

support a hypothesis, it becomes a working hypothesis, which is a milestone on the way to becoming a theory.

Diunduh dari: http://www.livescience.com/21490-what-is-a-scientific-hypothesis-definition-of-hypothesis.html

RELATIVITAS UMUM

Einstein's prediction (1907): Light bends in a gravitational

field

Einstein's theory of General Relativity makes several specific predictions about the observable structure of space-time, such as a prediction that light bends in a

gravitational field and that the amount of bending depends in a precise way on the strength of

that gravitational field.

Arthur Eddington's observations made during a 1919 solar eclipse

supported General Relativity rather than Newtonian

gravitation.

A scientific theory summarizes a hypothesis or group of hypotheses that have been supported with repeated testing. If

enough evidence accumulates to support a hypothesis, it moves to the next step—known as a theory—in the scientific method and

becomes accepted as a valid explanation of a phenomenon.

When used in non-scientific context, the word “theory” implies that something is unproven or speculative. As used in science,

however, a theory is an explanation or model based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning, especially one that has been tested and confirmed as a general principle helping to

explain and predict natural phenomena.

Any scientific theory must be based on a careful and rational examination of the facts. In the scientific method, there is a clear

distinction between facts, which can be observed and/or measured, and theories, which are scientists’ explanations and

interpretations of the facts. Scientists can have various interpretations of the outcomes of experiments and observations, but the facts, which are the cornerstone of the scientific method,

do not change.

Diunduh dari: http://www.livescience.com/21491-what-is-a-scientific-theory-definition-of-theory.html

PERCOBAAN = Experiments

Once predictions are made, they can be tested by experiments.

If test results contradict predictions, then the hypotheses are called into question

and explanations may be sought. Sometimes experiments are conducted

incorrectly and are at fault. If the results confirm the predictions, then the

hypotheses are considered likely to be correct but might still be wrong and are

subject to further testing.

Depending on the predictions, the experiments can have different shapes. It

could be a classical experiment in a laboratory setting, a double-blind study or

an archaeological excavation. Even taking a plane from New York to Paris is an experiment which tests the

aerodynamical hypotheses used for constructing the plane.

The Experimental Method

What is an experiment? How is it different from other methods?

Purpose: to demonstrate causation, that A ---> B

– What are the requirements to demonstratecausality?

– Correlation– Order. A must precede B.– Control over other variables

– Extraneous variables and alternative explanations

– Definitions– Examples

Diunduh dari: www.ssc.wisc.edu/.../expt.whi... - Amerika Serikat

METODE PERCOBAAN

Scientists assume an attitude of openness and accountability on the

part of those conducting an experiment.

Detailed record keeping is essential, to aid in recording and reporting on

the experimental results, and providing evidence of the

effectiveness and integrity of the procedure.

They will also assist in reproducing the experimental results.

This tradition can be seen in the work of Hipparchus (190 BCE - 120

BCE), when determining a value for the precession of the Earth over

2100 years ago, and 1000 years before Al-Batani.

Percobaan mulsa plastik pada budidaya tanaman tomat

EVALUASI & ITERASI

PENGUJIAN & PERBAIKAN

The scientific process is iterative. At any stage it is possible that some

consideration will lead the scientist to repeat an earlier part of the process.

Failure to develop an interesting hypothesis may lead a scientist to re-

define the subject they are considering. Failure of a hypothesis to produce

interesting and testable predictions may lead to reconsideration of the

hypothesis or of the definition of the subject.

Failure of the experiment to produce interesting results may lead the scientist

to reconsidering the experimental method, the hypothesis or the definition

of the subject.

Using models for predicting

In some situations, models are developed by scientists to try and predict things. The best

example is climate change. Humans don’t know what effect they are having on the planet, but we do know a lot about carbon cycles, water cycles

and weather. Using this information and an understanding of how these cycles interact,

scientists are trying to figure out what might happen.

For example, they can use data to predict what the climate might be like in 20 years if we keep

producing carbon dioxide at current rates – what might happen if we produce more carbon dioxide and what would happen if we produce less. The results are used to inform politicians about what

could happen to the climate and what can be changed.

Diunduh dari: http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/The-Noisy-Reef/Science-Ideas-and-Concepts/Scientific-modelling

MEMULAI PENELITIAN

Other scientists may start their own research and enter the

process at any stage. They might adopt the

characterization and formulate their own hypothesis, or they

might adopt the hypothesis and deduce their own predictions.

Often the experiment is not done by the person who made the

prediction and the characterization is based on

experiments done by someone else.

Published results of experiments can also serve as a hypothesis

predicting their own reproducibility.

The scientific methodThe essence of all good science lies in a process called "the scientific method." The scientific method uses objective experimentation to predict, verify, or refute, an assertion made by a theory. Based on

the results of the experiment(s), the theory is modified. The processes involved with prediction, observation, verification (or

refuting) are repeated, continually testing and modifying the theory until the theory fits all possible experimental observations. Then

the theory is considered a scientific law.

Diunduh dari: http://www.tomatosphere.org/teacher-resources/teachers-guide/principal-investigation/scientific-method.cfm

KONFIRMASI

Science is a social enterprise, and scientific work tends to be accepted by the community

when it has been confirmed.

Crucially, experimental and theoretical results must be reproduced by others within the

science community.

Researchers have given their lives for this vision; Georg Wilhelm Richmann was killed by lightning (1753) when attempting to replicate the 1752 kite-flying experiment of Benjamin

Franklin.

To protect against bad science and fraudulent data, government research granting agencies like NSF and science journals like Nature and Science have a policy that researchers must

archive their data and methods so other researchers can access it, test the data and methods and build on the research that has

gone before.

A theory must include statements that have observational consequences. A good theory, like

Newton’s theory of gravity, has unity, which means it consists of a limited number of problem-solving strategies that can be applied to a wide range of

scientific circumstances. Another feature of a good theory is that it formed from a number of hypotheses

that can be tested independently.A scientific theory is not the end result of the

scientific method; theories can be proven or rejected, just like hypotheses. Theories can be improved or

modified as more information is gathered so that the accuracy of the prediction becomes greater over

time.Theories are foundations for furthering scientific

knowledge and for putting the information gathered to practical use. Scientists use theories to develop

inventions or find a cure for a disease.

A few theories do become laws, but theories and laws have separate and distinct roles in the scientific

method. A theory is an explanation of an observed phenomenon, while a law is a description of an

observed phenomenon.

Diunduh dari: http://www.livescience.com/21491-what-is-a-scientific-theory-definition-of-theory.html

Model PenelitiAn

Classical model

The classical model of scientific inquiry

derives from Aristotle , who distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning, set out the threefold scheme of abductive,

deductive, and inductive inference, and

also treated the compound forms such

as reasoning by analogy.

MODEL KLASIK

MODEL PRAGMATIS : Pragmatic theory of truth

Charles Peirce considered scientific inquiry to be a species of the genus

inquiry, which he defined as any means of fixing belief, that is, any means of

arriving at a settled opinion on a matter in question.

He observed that inquiry in general begins with a state of uncertainty and

moves toward a state of certainty, sufficient at least to terminate the

inquiry for the time being.

He graded the prevalent forms of inquiry according to their evident success in achieving their common

objective, scoring scientific inquiry at the high end of this scale.

PRAGMATIC THEORY OF TRUTH refers to those accounts, definitions, and theories of the concept truth that distinguish the philosophies of pragmatism

and pragmaticism. The conception of truth in question varies along lines that reflect the influence of several thinkers, initially and notably, Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and John Dewey, but a number of common features

can be identified. The most characteristic features are (1) a reliance on

the pragmatic maxim as a means of clarifying the meanings of difficult concepts, truth in particular, and (2) an emphasis on the fact that the product variously branded as belief, certainty, knowledge, or truth is the

result of a process, namely, inquiry.

Diunduh dari: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth

LANDASAN TEORI

At the low end he placed what he called the method of

tenacity, a die-hard attempt to deny uncertainty and fixate

on a favored belief.

Next in line he placed the method of authority, a determined attempt to

conform to a chosen source of ready-made beliefs.

After that he placed what might be called the method of

congruity, also called the a priori, the dilettante, or the what is agreeable to reason

method.

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing

knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or

support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the

research problem under study exists.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework

must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your  research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are

taking.

The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You must review course readings and

pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The

selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

Diunduh dari: http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=618409

Peirce observed the fact of human nature that almost everybody uses almost all of these methods at one time or another, and that

even scientists, being human, use the method of authority far more than they like to admit.

But what recommends the specifically scientific method of inquiry above all others is the fact that it is deliberately designed to arrive at

the ultimately most secure beliefs, upon which the most successful actions can be based.

PENDEKATAN KOMPUTASIONAL

Many subspecialties of applied logic and computer science, to name a few, artificial

intelligence, machine learning, computational learning theory, inferential statistics, and knowledge representation,

are concerned with setting out computational, logical, and statistical frameworks for the various types of

inference involved in scientific inquiry, in particular, hypothesis formation, logical

deduction, and empirical testing.

Some of these applications draw on measures of complexity from algorithmic information theory to guide the making of

predictions from prior distributions of experience, for example, see the complexity measure called the speed prior from which a computable strategy for optimal inductive

reasoning can be derived.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways.

An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.

The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you

are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.

Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and

how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed to generalizing about various

aspects of that phenomenon.Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to

those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a

phenomenon of interest. It alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what

circumstances.

Diunduh dari: http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=618409

FILOSOFI & SOSIOLOGI SAINS

While the philosophy of science has limited direct impact on day-to-day

scientific practice, it plays a vital role in justifying and defending the

scientific approach. Philosophy of science looks at the underpinning logic

of the scientific method, at what separates science from non-

science,and the ethic that is implicit in science.

We find ourselves in a world that is not directly understandable. We find

that we sometimes disagree with others as to the facts of the things we see in the world around us, and we

find that there are things in the world that are at odds with our present

understanding.

Developing the FrameworkHere are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical

framework:1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research

problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.

2. Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your research. Answer the question, what factors contribute to the presumed effect?

3. Review related literature to find answers to your research question.

4. List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.

5. Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].

6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint (framework) that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered,

understanding concepts and variables according to the given definitions, and building knowledge by validating or

challenging theoretical assumptions.

Diunduh dari: http://libguides.usc.edu/content.php?pid=83009&sid=618409

LOGIKA ILMIAH

The scientific method attempts to provide a way in which we can reach agreement

and understanding.

A "perfect" scientific method might work in such a way that rational application of

the method would always result in agreement and understanding; a perfect method would arguably be algorithmic, and so not leave any room for rational

agents to disagree. As with all philosophical topics, the search

has been neither straightforward nor simple.

Logical Positivist, empiricist, falsificationist, and other theories have

claimed to give a definitive account of the logic of science, but each has in turn been

criticized.

Metode Penelitian

Diunduh dari: http://gulnazahmad.hubpages.com/hub/types-of-research-studies

.

SOSIOLOGI SAINS

Criticisms such as his led to the strong programme, a radical approach to the

sociology of science.

In his 1958 book, Personal Knowledge, chemist and philosopher Michael Polanyi

(1891-1976) criticized the common view that the scientific method is purely objective and generates objective knowledge. Polanyi cast

this view as a misunderstanding of the scientific method and of the nature of

scientific inquiry, generally. He argued that scientists do and must follow personal passions in appraising facts and in

determining which scientific questions to investigate.

He concluded that a structure of liberty is essential for the advancement of science - that the freedom to pursue science for its

own sake is a prerequisite for the production of knowledge through peer review and the

scientific method.

The sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) is the study of science as a social activity, especially

dealing with "the social conditions and effects of science, and with the social structures and processes

of scientific activity.“The sociology of scientific ignorance (SSI) is complementary to the sociology of scientific

knowledge. The sociology of knowledge, by contrast, focuses on

the production of non-scientific ideas and social constructions.

Sociologists of scientific knowledge study the development of a scientific field and attempt to identify points of contingency or interpretative flexibility where ambiguities are present. Such

variations may be linked to a variety of political, historical, cultural or economic factors. Crucially,

the field does not set out to promote relativism or to attack the scientific project; the aim of the

researcher is to explain why one interpretation rather than another succeeds due to external social

and historical circumstances.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge

POST-MODERNISME

The postmodernist critiques of science have themselves been the subject of intense

controversy and heated dialogue.

This ongoing debate, known as the science wars, is the result of the conflicting values

and assumptions held by the postmodernist and realist camps.

Whereas postmodernists assert that scientific knowledge is simply another

discourse and not representative of any form of fundamental truth, realists in the

scientific community maintain that scientific knowledge does reveal real and

fundamental truths about reality.

Many books have been written by scientists which take on this problem and

challenge the assertions of the postmodernists while defending science as

a legitimate method of deriving truth

Postmodernism is in general the era that follows Modernism.

It frequently serves as an ambiguous overarching term for skeptical interpretations of culture, literature, art,

philosophy, economics, architecture, fiction, and literary criticism. Because postmodernism is a reactionary

stereotype, it is often used pejoratively to describe writers, artists, or critics who give the impression they believe in no

absolute truth or objective reality.

For example, it may derogatorily refer to "any of various movements in reaction to modernism that are typically

characterized by... ironic self-reference and absurdity (as in literature)" or to "a theory that involves a radical

reappraisal of modern assumptions about culture, identity, history, or language".

It is also confused with deconstruction and post-structuralism because its usage as a term gained significant

popularity at the same time as twentieth-century post-structural thinkers. It has been suggested that the term

"postmodernism" is a mere buzzword that means nothing.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism

KOMUNIKASI ILMIAH

Communication, community, culture

Frequently the scientific method is not employed by a single person, but by several people cooperating directly

or indirectly.

Such cooperation can be regarded as one of the defining elements of a scientific community.

Various techniques have been developed to ensure the integrity of the scientific method within such an

environment.

EVALUASI Peer-review

Scientific journals use a process of peer review, in which scientists' manuscripts are submitted by editors of scientific journals to

(usually one to three) fellow (usually anonymous) scientists

familiar with the field for evaluation.

The referees may or may not recommend publication,

publication with suggested modifications, or, sometimes,

publication in another journal.

This serves to keep the scientific literature free of unscientific or

crackpot work, helps to cut down on obvious errors, and generally otherwise improve the quality of

the scientific literature.

PEER REVIEW means that an action of an individual person may be looked at again (reviewed) by someone of similar

competence in that activity - a peer.More formally it is a process of self-regulation by a profession or a

process of evaluation involving qualified individuals within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards, improve performance and provide credibility. In

academia peer review is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication.

Peer review can be categorized by the type of activity and by the field or profession in which the activity occurs. In general, those involved in a given profession or particular organization identify their particular process by the generic term "peer review". So,

even when qualifiers are applied the elements of peer review may appear to be inconsistent.

For example, medical peer review can refer to clinical peer review, or the peer evaluation of clinical teaching skills for both physicians

and nurses, or scientific peer review of journal articles, or to a secondary round of peer review for the clinical value of articles

concurrently published in medical journals. Moreover, "medical peer review" has been used by the American Medical Association to refer not only to the process of improving quality and safety in health care organizations, but also to the process of rating clinical

behavior or compliance with professional society membership standards

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review

EVALUASI SEJAWAT = PEER REVIEW

Work announced in the popular press before going through this

process is generally frowned upon.

Sometimes peer review inhibits the circulation of unorthodox

work, and at other times may be too permissive.

The peer review process is not always successful, but has been

very widely adopted by the scientific community.

Anonymous peer review

Anonymous peer review, also called blind review, is a system of prepublication peer review of scientific articles

or papers for journals or academic conferences by reviewers who are known to the journal editor or

conference organizer but whose names are not given to the article's author.

The reviewers do not know the author's identity, as any identifying information is stripped from the document

before review. The system is intended to reduce or eliminate bias, although this has been challenged – for example Eugene Koonin, a senior investigator at the

National Center for Biotechnology Information, asserts that the system has "well-known ills“ and advocates "open peer review". Others support blind reviewing

because no research has suggested that the methodology may be harmful and the cost of facilitating such reviews is minimal. Some experts proposed blind review procedures

for reviewing controversial research topics.

DOKUMENTASI & REPLIKASI

Sometimes experimenters may make systematic errors during

their experiments, unconsciously veer from the

scientific method (Pathological science) for various reasons, or

(in rare cases) deliberately falsify their results.

Consequently, it is a common practice for other scientists to

attempt to repeat the experiments in order to

duplicate the results, thus further validating the

hypothesis.

Processes involved in understanding natural phenomena using scientific method. (Source: PhysicalGeography.net)

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Hypothetico-Deductive_Method

PENG-ARSIP-AN = DATABASE

As a result, researchers are expected to practice scientific data archiving in compliance with the policies of government funding agencies and scientific

journals.

Detailed records of their experimental procedures, raw data, statistical analyses and source code are preserved in order to provide evidence of the

effectiveness and integrity of the procedure and assist in reproduction.

These procedural records may also assist in the conception of new experiments to test the hypothesis, and may prove useful to engineers who

might examine the potential practical applications of a discovery.

DearchivingWhen additional information is needed before

a study can be reproduced, the author of the study is expected to provide it promptly -

although a small charge may apply.

If the author refuses to provide information, it is called data withholding and appeals can be

made to the journal editors who published the study or to the institution who funded the

research.

KETERBATASAN = Limitations

Note that it is not possible for a scientist to record everything that took place in an

experiment. He must select the facts he believes to be

relevant to the experiment and report them.

This may lead, unavoidably, to problems later if some supposedly irrelevant

feature is questioned.

For example, Heinrich Hertz did not report the size of the room used to test

Maxwell's equations, which later turned out to account for a small deviation in the

results.

The problem is that parts of the theory itself need to be assumed in order to select and report the experimental

conditions. The observations are hence sometimes described as being 'theory-

laden'.

Definition of “limitation”

1. (often limitations) a limiting rule or circumstance; a restriction: severe limitations on water use

a condition of limited ability; a defect or failing: she knew her limitations better than she knew her worth[mass noun] the action of limiting something: the

limitation of local authorities' powers

2. (also limitation period) Law a legally specified period beyond which an action may be defeated or a property

right does not continue

Diunduh dari: http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/limitation

DIMENSI PRAKTIKAL

The primary constraints on contemporary western science are:

1. Publication, i.e. Peer review 2. Resources (mostly funding)

It has not always been like this: in the old days of the "gentleman

scientist" funding (and to a lesser extent publication) were far weaker

constraints.

Both of these constraints indirectly bring in a scientific method — work

that too obviously violates the constraints will be difficult to

publish and difficult to get funded.

Publikasi Ilmiah

Diunduh dari: http://katatrepsis.wordpress.com/2012/01/28/scientific-publishing-what-a-con/

PRAKTEK-ILMIAH YANG BAIK

Journals do not require submitted papers to conform to anything more specific than "good scientific practice" and this is mostly enforced

by peer review. Originality, importance and interest are more important - for example the author guidelines

for Nature.Criticisms (Critical theory) of these restraints

are that they are so nebulous in definition (e.g. "good scientific practice") and open to ideological, or even political, manipulation

apart from a rigorous practice of a scientific method, that they often serve to censor rather

than promote scientific discovery. Apparent censorship through refusal to

publish ideas unpopular with mainstream scientists (unpopular because of ideological

reasons and/or because they seem to contradict long held scientific theories) has

soured the popular perception of scientists as being neutral or seekers of truth and often

denigrated popular perception of science as a whole.

Importance of originality.

Originality is a "must" in PhD research. It is a high-profile requirement. You should develop the necessary skills to recognize "what is original?" and implement it into your work. It may need a considerable incubation period for the creative skills to function effectively in

development of originality in your research. You need to appreciate the scope and potential of originality.

One or more of the following requirements must be fulfilled in your research in order to claim for originality.

Originality in tools, technics and procedures.Your research methodology may include fairly standard tools, technics and procedures in the field of study. But if you use them in new untested ways, this would justify a

claim of originality.Or if you develop new procedures, tools and technics for

a specific purpose, this too will also justify a claim for originality. For example, development of a new

"controlled release" system  of an existing drug is original.

Diunduh dari: http://courses.emu.edu.tr/grad601/Lecture%20Notes/Originality%20in%20research.htm

SEJARAHNYA METODE ILMIAH

The development of the scientific method is inseparable from the history

of science itself.

Ancient Egyptian documents, such as early papyri, describe methods of

medical diagnosis. In ancient Greek culture, the method of empiricism was

described.

The experimental scientific method was developed by Muslim scientists,

who introduced the use of experiments to distinguish between competing

scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which emerged with Alhazen's optical experiments in

his Book of Optics .

A model of nested epistemologies. The circles represent groupings of epistemologies, not divisions of facts or layers

of reality.

Diunduh dari: http://spectrummagazine.org/node/1722

NOVUM ORGANUM

The fundamental tenets of the modern scientific method crystallized no later than the rise of the modern physical sciences, in

the 17th and 18th centuries. In his work Novum Organum (1620) — a

reference to Aristotle's Organon — Francis Bacon outlined a new system of logic to

improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism.

Then, in 1637, René Descartes established the framework for a scientific method's

guiding principles in his treatise, Discourse on Method.

These writings are considered critical in the historical development of the scientific

method.

The scientific process: 

http://stiebsd.blogspot.com/2011/01/scientific-method.html

DEDUKSI - INDUKSI

In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the development of current scientific method

generally. Peirce accelerated the progress on several

fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How

to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878) , Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to

test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational

alternatives, focusing upon both deduction and induction.

He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the

primary trend at least since David Hume, who wrote in the mid-to-late 18th century).

The scientific method, an alternating cycle of induction and deduction.

Diunduh dari: http://spectrummagazine.org/node/1722

UJI HIPOTESIS

Secondly, and of more direct importance to modern method,

Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis/testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in

classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development

of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific

reasoning.

Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of

reasoning that, as discussed above in this article, play a role in inquiry

today, the processes that are currently known as abductive,

deductive, and inductive inference.

Hipotesis diuji dengan melakukan penelitian

PEER REVIEWThirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself

— indeed this was his primary specialty.

Karl Popper (1902–1994), beginning in the 1930s and with increased vigor

after World War II, argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable and, following Peirce and others, that science would best progress using deductive reasoning as its primary

emphasis, known as critical rationalism.

His astute formulations of logical procedure helped to rein in excessive

use of inductive speculation upon inductive speculation, and also

strengthened the conceptual foundation for today's peer review

procedures.

Review rencana penelitian tesis program magister

References

Isaac Newton (1687, 1713, 1726). "[4] Rules for the study of natural philosophy", Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Third edition. The General Scholium containing the 4 rules follows Book 3, The System of the World. Reprinted on pages 794-796 of I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman's 1999 translation, University of California Press ISBN 0-520-08817-4, 974 pages.

scientific method, Merriam-Webster Dictionary. In the inquiry-based education paradigm, the stage of "characterization, observation, definition, …" is more

briefly summed up under the rubric of a Question. "To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires creative

imagination and marks real advance in science." p.92, Albert Einstein and Leopold Infeld (1938), The Evolution of Physics: from early concepts to relativity and quanta ISBN0-671-20156-5

Gauch, Hugh G., Jr., Scientific Method in Practice (2003), esp. chapters 5-8

Crick, Francis (1994), The Astonishing Hypothesis ISBN 0-684-19431-7 p.20

Glen,William (ed.), The Mass-Extinction Debates: How Science Works in a Crisis, Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 1994. ISBN 0-8047-2285-4. pp. 37-38.

"The instant I saw the picture my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race." -- James D. Watson (1968), The Double Helix, page 167. New York: Atheneum, Library of Congress card number 68-16217. Page 168 shows the X-shaped pattern of the B-form of DNA, clearly indicating crucial details of its helical structure to Watson and Crick.

Aristotle, "Prior Analytics", Hugh Tredennick (trans.), pp. 181-531 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.

Peirce, C.S., "Lectures on Pragmatism", Cambridge, MA, March 26 – May 17, 1903. Reprinted in part, Collected Papers, CP 5.14–212. Reprinted with Introduction and Commentary, Patricia Ann Turisi (ed.), Pragmatism as a Principle and a Method of Right Thinking: The 1903 Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism", State University of New York Press, Albany, NY, 1997. Reprinted, pp. 133–241, Peirce Edition Project (eds.), The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913), Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1998.

Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997

Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science, Picador; 1st Picador USA Pbk. Ed edition, 1999

The Sokal Hoax: The Sham That Shook the Academy, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 ISBN 0803279957

A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science, Oxford University Press, 2000

Intellectual Impostures, Economist Books, 2003 Rosanna Gorini (2003), "Al-Haytham the Man of Experience, First Steps in the Science of Vision",

International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine, Institute of Neurosciences, Laboratory of Psychobiology and Psychopharmacology, Rome, Italy: