Methods of collecting data: interviews and questionnaires in

practice

Francesca Alby francesca.alby@uniroma1.it

European Global Oral Health Indicators Development Project

Methods of collecting dataQualitative Data and Quantitative DataQualitative data is data that is mainly words, sounds or images. Quantitative data is data that is mainly numbers.

Structured and Unstructured DataStructured data is organised, unstructured data isrelatively disorganised. Structured data can be produced by closed questions, unstructured data can be produced by open questions.

Closed questions• Closed questions can make analysing the data

relatively easy, but they restrict the responses. – For example, on many courses students are given a standard list

of features (e.g. lectures, books, assessment, tutorial support) and asked to indicate on a five point scale how satisfied or dissatisfied they are with the feature. These are highly structured(precoded) closed questions.

“Please tick the boxes using the following scale Very Satisfied: +2 Satisfied +1 Average 0 Dissatisfied -1 Very Dissatisfied -2

Open questions

• The same form may have a space for the student to make any comments he or shewishes to make on the course. This is an open question which will produce almost completelyunstructured data.

• Although the open question produces data thatis difficult to organise and code, it allowssubjects to respond freely and express shadesof opinion rather than forcing them to haveprecoded opinions.

Questionnaires and Surveys

A questionnaire is a series of written questions a researcher supplies to subjects, requesting theirresponse. Usually the questionnaire is self-administered in that itis posted to the subjects, asking them to complete it and post it back.

The way you will be analysing the data may influence the layout of the questionnaire. For example, closedquestions provide boxes for the respondent to tick(giving easily coded information), whereas an open question provides or a box for the respondent to writeanswers in (giving more freedom of information, butmore difficulty coding)

InterviewsAn interview is a series of questions a researcher addresses personally torespondents.

An interview may be structured (where you askclearly defined questions) or unstructured, where you allow some of your questioning to beled by the responses of the interviewee. Especially when using unstructured interviews, using a tape recorder can be a good idea, if itdoes not affect the relationship with the personbeing interviewed.

Ethical principles

• If you are interviewing, be sure that yourinterviewees are happy to talk with you. Do not demand too much of their time.

With the people whom you are observingor interviewing be clear about what willhappen with the data you collect. Assurethem that what they tell you will be keptanonymous and confidential.

CONSENT FORM FOR USE WHEN TAPED MATERIALS, PHOTOGRAPHS OR ORIGINAL WORKS ARE TO BE RETAINEDProject TitleResearcher’s nameSupervisor’s nameI have read the Participant Information Sheet, and the nature and the purpose of the research project has been explained to me. I understand and agree to take part.I understand that I may not directly benefit from taking part in the project.I understand that I can withdraw from the study at any stage and that this will not affect my status now or in the future.I confirm that I am over 18 years of age.I understand that I will be audiotaped / videotaped during the studyI understand that the tape will be (insert details of how and where the tape will be stored, who will have access to it and what limits will be placed on that access)I grant the University the exclusive and royalty free right to reproduce and use in its ongoing activities photographs, video, or any other recording by any means of my voice or physical likeness which is produced in the course of the project. (delete if the taped material is not to be used by the university for any purpose beyond the current study)I understand that the University shall not be required to make any payment to me arising out of its exercise of this right. (delete if the taped material is not to be used by the university for any purpose beyond the current study)I understand that wherever practical, the University will acknowledge my participation in the project in exercising this right. (delete if the taped material is not to be used by the university for any purpose beyond the current study)Name of participantSignedDatedI have explained the study to subject and consider that he/she understands what is involved.Researcher’s signature and date

Interviews are not neutral • Dan Rather’s interviews:• January 25, 1988: In his infamous January 25, 1988

CBS Evening News interview an aggressive Dan Rather grilled VP George Bush about Iran-Contra, repeatedly cutting him off and arguing with him. Rather declared "You've made us hypocrites in the face of the world."

• March 31, 1999: But on March 31 of this year when Rather interviewed President Clinton for 60 Minutes II he avoided Chinese espionage and donations and gave Clinton plenty of time to portray himself as defender of the Constitution against partisan conservatives who tried to impeach him. Rather asked about Clinton's "feelings" on Kosovo and lightheartedly wondered what he'd do as the husband of a Senator.

CBS’s Harry Smith Relays Some Positive News from Iraq

• Smith to a group of kids: "Are Americans good or bad?" Iraqi child: "Good" Smith: "They are good." Iraqi child: "Yes" Iraqi child #2: "What's your name?" Smith: "Huh?" Iraqi child #2: "What's your name?" Smith, James Bond-like: "My name? Smith. Harry Smith." Iraqi child #2: "Sir, my name is Bush." Smith: "Your name is Bush?" Iraqi child #2 "Yes." Smith, pointing at the kid child and chuckling: "He says his name isBush." Smith, back in his narration: "The cost of these smiles has been steep. April was a particularly deadly month."

• -- Exchange among host Harry Smith and Iraqi boys, The Early Show, CBS, May 23, 2006.

Traps to avoid when you write yourquestions

The double question: 'Do you walk to school or carry your lunch?' The wording of such questions makes them difficult or impossible to answer accurately. Some may contain twoor more unrelated parts. Some may contain contradictoryparts, the answers to which may be different: 'Would youagree that it is not unlikely that our next mayor will not bea woman?'

The wrong choice question: 'Is your hair yellow, purple, green or blue?' needs to have an alternative. Commonsense is often notenough to ensure you give respondents enough choice, for what may appear bizarre or unthinkable behaviour toyou (and therefore ignored in your questionnaire) may bea way of life to some of your respondents.

• The 'fuzzy word'question:'Should middleaged people live it up?'

has two problems. 'Middleaged' does not mean the same age groupto everyone, and 'living it up'can mean anything from wearing red tokeeping a harem. Fuzzy words can creep into almost any question: 'Do you attend dances frequently?' (or 'rarely' or 'occasionally' or 'often') will give meaningless answers.

The ‘cover the world’ question: 'What do you think of the President?' could refer to the man or woman personally, or to how s/he iscarrying out the role of president of a company or a nation. 'What's the neighbourhood like?' is useful in some interviews, but if youknow what aspect of the neighbourhood interests you, askspecifically about that.

Traps to avoid when you write yourquestions

• Jargon questions: should be avoided. 'Do you feel that yourhusband has a self actualising autonomous personality structure?' isan affront to the respondent and also to the English language. Also, be careful about words that have one meaning to the professionalsin your field and another, or none, to the public. 'Culture,' 'personality,' 'role,' or 'institution,' cannot be treated as if allrespondents shared a common understanding of the professionalmeaning you intended. More generally, the language and style of the questionnaire must be comfortable'to the respondent. 'Writingdown'is insulting, and using dialect or 'in' words to reach a group of which you are obviously not a member is usually inappropriate.

The ‘kitchen sink’ question: 'Please list all the places you haveworked in the past five years, the type of work done and salaryreceived, and why you left.' To save confusion in replying, recordingand coding the answers, ask each part of the question separately.

Traps to avoid when you write yourquestions

• Leading questions: 'Why are you happy here in Newtown?' or 'Why do you thinkthe community looks up to doctors?' givesthe respondent little opening to say s/he ismiserable in Newtown and thinks thatmost of the people in the community feelthat doctors are charlatans.

Traps to avoid when you write yourquestions

Not only the questions…

* How many times do you brush your teeth in a day?

* 3* 4* 5

• How many times do you brush your teethin a day?

• 0• 1• 2

Interview responses as practicalproductions

• Interview data are unavoidably collaborative• Attempts to strip interviews of their interactional

ingredients will be futile• In an example of mothers with children under five, the

focus of inquiry might be their views about adult education opportunities for themselves, and their aspirations for their children. Not only the wording of these questions but also the setting itself can easily imply that adult education or certain kinds of educational aspirations are something the researcher values, and therefore the mother may feel she is expected to make particular choices.

• The emerging lesson is that interviewers are deeply and unavoidably implicated in creating meanings that reside within respondents.

• Project work on Oral Health Indicators