Metal Trades Handbook

Leseprobe

Dr.-Ing. Paul Christiani GmbH & Co. KGHermann-Hesse-Weg 278464 Konstanz

Telefon 07531 5801-100Telefax 07531 5801-900www.christiani.de M

etal

Tra

des

Han

db

oo

k

Metal TradesHandbook

The education professional for technology

Order-No. 97210ISBN: 978-3-95863-069-7

Metal Trades Handbook

Dr.-Ing. Paul Christiani GmbH & Co. KGwww.christiani.de

© by Dr.-Ing. Paul Christiani GmbH & Co. KG www.christiani.de

Alfred Kruft, Hans Lennert, Rolf Schiebel, Hermann Wellers | Metal Trades Handbook1. Auflage 2015Artikelnr.: 97210 | ISBN 978-3-95863-069-7

Basic principles 11

Technical documentation 117

Machine elements 213

Production technology 297

Measurement and testing technology 415

Fluid technology 459

Automation technology 497

Occupational and environmental protection, maintenance 581

Materials engineering 611

Interdisciplinary skills 711



Contents

Basic principles .................................................................................................................................................. 11

Physical quantities and units ............................................................................................................................... 11Formula symbols and units .................................................................................................................................. 13Mathematical characters/symbols ....................................................................................................................... 15Numbering systems ............................................................................................................................................. 16Converting numbers between numbering systems ............................................................................................. 17Codes ................................................................................................................................................................... 18Basic mathematical principles ............................................................................................................................. 22Rule of three, percentage calculations, power calculations ................................................................................ 22Pythagorean theorem .......................................................................................................................................... 24Trigonometric functions ....................................................................................................................................... 24Formula conversion ............................................................................................................................................. 25Area calculation ................................................................................................................................................... 26Right-angled triangle ............................................................................................................................................ 29Lengths ................................................................................................................................................................ 30Volume calculation, surface area calculation ...................................................................................................... 31Density of materials .............................................................................................................................................. 35Centre of gravity ................................................................................................................................................... 36Force, motion ....................................................................................................................................................... 37Friction .................................................................................................................................................................. 40Lever, torque ........................................................................................................................................................ 41Roller, pulley block, winch ................................................................................................................................... 42Work ..................................................................................................................................................................... 44Power ................................................................................................................................................................... 47Effi ciency .............................................................................................................................................................. 48Fluid technology ................................................................................................................................................... 48Heat ...................................................................................................................................................................... 54Types of stress ...................................................................................................................................................... 60Strength of materials ............................................................................................................................................ 61Basic drives .......................................................................................................................................................... 68Electrical engineering formulae ........................................................................................................................... 68DC technology ..................................................................................................................................................... 68Electrical fi eld ....................................................................................................................................................... 72Magnetic fi eld ....................................................................................................................................................... 74AC technology ...................................................................................................................................................... 763-phase AC technology ....................................................................................................................................... 82Electrical resistors ................................................................................................................................................ 83Non-linear resistors .............................................................................................................................................. 86Capacitors ............................................................................................................................................................ 88Semiconductor components ................................................................................................................................ 91Electrical engineering symbols ............................................................................................................................ 97Metal technology symbols ................................................................................................................................... 107

Technical Documentation ................................................................................................................................ 117

Technical drawing, fundamentals ........................................................................................................................ 117Projections ........................................................................................................................................................... 118Dimensioning ....................................................................................................................................................... 120Tolerances ............................................................................................................................................................ 130Fits ........................................................................................................................................................................ 139Standard hole system .......................................................................................................................................... 142Standard shaft system ......................................................................................................................................... 144Limit deviations for holes and shafts ................................................................................................................... 146Surface specifi cations .......................................................................................................................................... 148Welding and soldering ......................................................................................................................................... 155Representation of welding seams ....................................................................................................................... 155Joint and seam types ........................................................................................................................................... 157Identifi cation numbers for welding and soldering methods ................................................................................. 159Welding positions ................................................................................................................................................. 160General tolerances for welding construction ....................................................................................................... 160Thread .................................................................................................................................................................. 161Holes, screws, rivet .............................................................................................................................................. 163

3Contents



Counterbores ....................................................................................................................................................... 169Centre holes ......................................................................................................................................................... 169Knurl ..................................................................................................................................................................... 170Hatching ............................................................................................................................................................... 171Workpiece edges ................................................................................................................................................. 171Gear wheels ......................................................................................................................................................... 175Gearing diagrams ................................................................................................................................................ 175Sealing elements ................................................................................................................................................. 176Roller bearing ....................................................................................................................................................... 178Springs ................................................................................................................................................................. 180Thread run-outs, thread undercuts ...................................................................................................................... 181Undercuts, centre holes ....................................................................................................................................... 182Counterbores ....................................................................................................................................................... 184Identifi cation of circuit diagrams .......................................................................................................................... 188Conductors and conductor connections .............................................................................................................. 188Identifi cation of electrical equipment ................................................................................................................... 188Circuit diagrams ................................................................................................................................................... 191Equipment connections ....................................................................................................................................... 193Cable connections, clamp connections ............................................................................................................... 194Contact tables ...................................................................................................................................................... 196Connection chart (terminal diagram) ................................................................................................................... 200Location diagram ................................................................................................................................................. 200Program workfl ow ................................................................................................................................................ 201Elementary program structures ........................................................................................................................... 201Basic geometrical constructions .......................................................................................................................... 203Pre-printed forms for technical drawings ............................................................................................................. 207Paper formats ....................................................................................................................................................... 207Title block ............................................................................................................................................................. 208Scales .................................................................................................................................................................. 208Line types, line groups ......................................................................................................................................... 209Standard number ranges and preferred numbers ............................................................................................... 210Rounding radius .................................................................................................................................................... 210

Machine elements ............................................................................................................................................. 213

Thread .................................................................................................................................................................. 213Metric ISO thread ................................................................................................................................................. 216fi ne thread ............................................................................................................................................................ 216Pipe thread ........................................................................................................................................................... 217Metric ISO trapezoidal thread .............................................................................................................................. 218Thread run-outs and thread undercuts ................................................................................................................. 218Identifi cation of threads ........................................................................................................................................ 219Screws .................................................................................................................................................................. 219Designation of screws .......................................................................................................................................... 222Strength classes of steel screws ......................................................................................................................... 222Minimum depths of engagement ......................................................................................................................... 223Through-holes for screws .................................................................................................................................... 223Mechanical properties of rust-proof screws and nuts ......................................................................................... 223Identifi cation codes on steel screws and nuts ...................................................................................................... 224Screw head types ................................................................................................................................................ 224Thread types and bolt ends ................................................................................................................................. 224Screws ................................................................................................................................................................... 224Forces in a screw connection .............................................................................................................................. 230Pretensioning forces and tightening torques ....................................................................................................... 231Selection of shaft screws ..................................................................................................................................... 232Thread .................................................................................................................................................................. 232Metric ISO thread and tolerances ........................................................................................................................ 232Determining the lengths of thread engagement .................................................................................................. 233Limits for male and female thread ....................................................................................................................... 233Pins, lengths of thread engagement, screw-in groups ........................................................................................ 234Nuts ...................................................................................................................................................................... 234Designation of nuts .............................................................................................................................................. 234Strength classes of nuts with regular thread ....................................................................................................... 234Identifi cation for nuts with strength classes ........................................................................................................ 235Combination of nuts and screws ......................................................................................................................... 235Resistance of nuts to stripping out ...................................................................................................................... 235

4 Contents



Designs of nuts .................................................................................................................................................... 236Nuts ....................................................................................................................................................................... 237Lock washers for locknuts ................................................................................................................................... 240Locknuts for anti-friction bearing ......................................................................................................................... 240Lock washers for locknuts of anti-friction bearings ............................................................................................. 241Across-fl ats dimensions ....................................................................................................................................... 241Squares of parallel shanks .................................................................................................................................. 242Washer, circlips, serrated lock washers .............................................................................................................. 242Pins, grooved pins with round heads, blind rivets ............................................................................................... 246Bolts, cotter pins .................................................................................................................................................. 252Retaining elements, fi t washers and support disks ............................................................................................. 253Screw locking elements ....................................................................................................................................... 254Sealing elements ................................................................................................................................................. 255Featherkeys, spring washers, grooves ............................................................................................................... 257Saddle keys, gib-head saddle keys, grooves ...................................................................................................... 258Shaft ends, splined shaft connections ................................................................................................................ 259Tool taper ............................................................................................................................................................. 260Roller bearing ....................................................................................................................................................... 261Designation of anti-friction bearings .................................................................................................................... 261Dimension series of anti-friction bearings ........................................................................................................... 262Selection and use of anti-friction bearings .......................................................................................................... 263Tolerance classes of anti-friction bearings .......................................................................................................... 264Designation and identifi cation of anti-friction bearings ....................................................................................... 264Examples of designations for anti-friction bearings ............................................................................................ 267Roller bearing ....................................................................................................................................................... 268Slide bearing ......................................................................................................................................................... 271Lubricating nipples, grease cups ......................................................................................................................... 273Springs ................................................................................................................................................................. 275Flange couplings .................................................................................................................................................. 278Muff couplings ...................................................................................................................................................... 279Standard parts for jig-and-fi xture manufacturing ................................................................................................ 279Gear drive ............................................................................................................................................................. 289Worm drive ........................................................................................................................................................... 290Belt drive .............................................................................................................................................................. 291Roller chains ........................................................................................................................................................ 294

Production technology ..................................................................................................................................... 297

Manufacturing processes .................................................................................................................................... 297Main groups ......................................................................................................................................................... 297Machining terms ................................................................................................................................................... 297Tool applications groups ...................................................................................................................................... 299Cutting materials .................................................................................................................................................. 299Cooling lubricants ................................................................................................................................................ 301Speed diagram ..................................................................................................................................................... 302Application guidelines .......................................................................................................................................... 303Specifi c cutting force ........................................................................................................................................... 304Drilling .................................................................................................................................................................. 304Thread cutting ....................................................................................................................................................... 311Turning ................................................................................................................................................................. 312Taper turning ........................................................................................................................................................ 317Classifi cation and application of hard cutting materials ...................................................................................... 318Indexable inserts ................................................................................................................................................... 319Planing and slotting .............................................................................................................................................. 323Milling .................................................................................................................................................................... 324Indexing with the indexing head ........................................................................................................................... 329Grinding ................................................................................................................................................................. 330Bending ................................................................................................................................................................. 335Plastic cutting ....................................................................................................................................................... 337Production scheduling ......................................................................................................................................... 338Determination of the allowed time according to REFA ........................................................................................ 338Cost calculation .................................................................................................................................................... 340Main usage time .................................................................................................................................................... 341Drilling, reaming, counterboring, thread tapping ................................................................................................. 341Planing, slotting .................................................................................................................................................... 341Turning ................................................................................................................................................................. 342Thread cutting ...................................................................................................................................................... 342

5Contents



Milling .................................................................................................................................................................... 343Grinding ................................................................................................................................................................. 345Welding and soldering .......................................................................................................................................... 346Colour coding for gas cylinders ............................................................................................................................ 350Gas consumption when welding steel .................................................................................................................. 352Gas cylinders ........................................................................................................................................................ 353Welding rods ......................................................................................................................................................... 353Electric arc fusion welding ................................................................................................................................... 353Gas-shielded welding .......................................................................................................................................... 356TIG welding .......................................................................................................................................................... 358MAG welding ........................................................................................................................................................ 358MIG welding ......................................................................................................................................................... 359Flame cutting ........................................................................................................................................................ 359Autogenous gas cutting ....................................................................................................................................... 359Plasma arc cutting ............................................................................................................................................... 360Laser cutting ........................................................................................................................................................ 360Soldering ............................................................................................................................................................... 361Gluing .................................................................................................................................................................... 365Plastics welding ................................................................................................................................................... 367Lubricants.............................................................................................................................................................. 368CNC machine tools ............................................................................................................................................... 374Block diagram of a CNC control system ............................................................................................................. 374Coordinate axes and directions of motion ........................................................................................................... 374Reference point ..................................................................................................................................................... 374Structure of CNC programs .................................................................................................................................. 375Address letters, special characters ..................................................................................................................... 376Preparatory functions ............................................................................................................................................ 377Additional functions............................................................................................................................................... 378Command codes according to DIN....................................................................................................................... 380Tool path corrections ............................................................................................................................................ 380Command codes for PAL-CNC lathes ................................................................................................................. 381Command codes for PAL-CNC milling machines ................................................................................................. 390Programming process .......................................................................................................................................... 402Flexible manufacturing systems .......................................................................................................................... 404

Measurement and testing technology ............................................................................................................ 415

Dimensional metrology ........................................................................................................................................ 415Glossary ................................................................................................................................................................ 415Metrological terms ................................................................................................................................................ 418Basic principles of dimensional metrology and measuring instruments ............................................................. 421Vernier callipers ................................................................................................................................................... 423Micrometers ......................................................................................................................................................... 424Dial gauges ........................................................................................................................................................... 429Angular position encoders ................................................................................................................................... 431Parallel block gauges ............................................................................................................................................ 433Gauging ................................................................................................................................................................. 435Surface inspection technology ............................................................................................................................. 442Quality management ............................................................................................................................................ 444

Fluid technology ................................................................................................................................................ 459

Ideal gas equation ................................................................................................................................................ 459Normal state ......................................................................................................................................................... 459Generating compressed air ................................................................................................................................. 459Branching and maintenance unit ......................................................................................................................... 460Treating compressed air ...................................................................................................................................... 460Pipe routing .......................................................................................................................................................... 461Pneumatic cylinders ............................................................................................................................................. 462Air consumption ................................................................................................................................................... 462Piston force .......................................................................................................................................................... 463Piston speed ........................................................................................................................................................ 464Pneumatic valves ................................................................................................................................................. 465Directional valves ................................................................................................................................................. 465

6 Contents



Identifi cation and connection designation ........................................................................................................... 465Delay valves ......................................................................................................................................................... 465Pressure valves .................................................................................................................................................... 466Compressed air motors ....................................................................................................................................... 467Pumps .................................................................................................................................................................. 468Logical operations with pneumatic elements ...................................................................................................... 468Identifying circuit-diagram components in fl uid technology ................................................................................ 469Basic pneumatic controls ..................................................................................................................................... 470Path-dependent control systems ......................................................................................................................... 470Pressure-dependent control systems .................................................................................................................. 471Time-dependent control systems ........................................................................................................................ 471Speed controls ..................................................................................................................................................... 471Functional diagrams ............................................................................................................................................. 472Path-dependent sequence controls .................................................................................................................... 474Electro-pneumatic control systems ..................................................................................................................... 475Solenoid valves .................................................................................................................................................... 475Basic circuits for electro-pneumatics .................................................................................................................. 476Hydraulics ............................................................................................................................................................ 478Hydraulic oils ........................................................................................................................................................ 478Flame-resistant hydraulic fl uids ........................................................................................................................... 479Calculating hydraulic systems ............................................................................................................................. 480Components in a hydraulic system ...................................................................................................................... 482 Single-cylinder control ......................................................................................................................................... 482Hydraulic cylinder ................................................................................................................................................. 483Hydraulic valves ................................................................................................................................................... 484Hydraulic-valve circuits ........................................................................................................................................ 485Pressure valves .................................................................................................................................................... 486Flow-control valves, throttle valves ..................................................................................................................... 488Shut-off valves ..................................................................................................................................................... 488Hydraulic accumulator ......................................................................................................................................... 489Hoses and pipes .................................................................................................................................................. 489Hydraulic control systems .................................................................................................................................... 490Proportional valve ................................................................................................................................................ 495

Automation technology ................................................................................................................................... 497

Logic operations ................................................................................................................................................... 497NAND and NOR circuit technology ...................................................................................................................... 500Bistable multivibrators .......................................................................................................................................... 500Boolean algebra .................................................................................................................................................... 503Circuit families ...................................................................................................................................................... 504Work table ............................................................................................................................................................. 505Truth table ............................................................................................................................................................. 505Level ...................................................................................................................................................................... 505Basic terms used in measurement technology .................................................................................................... 506Displaying measurands ....................................................................................................................................... 507Accuracy classes ................................................................................................................................................. 507Graphical symbols for labelling measuring instruments ..................................................................................... 507Pointer instruments ............................................................................................................................................... 508Digital multimeter .................................................................................................................................................. 509Measuring circuits ................................................................................................................................................. 510Power measurement ............................................................................................................................................ 510Sensors ................................................................................................................................................................ 512Measuring chain ................................................................................................................................................... 512Temperature sensors ........................................................................................................................................... 514Resistance sensors .............................................................................................................................................. 514Thermocouples .................................................................................................................................................... 515Path and angular measurement .......................................................................................................................... 516Rotary speed measurement ................................................................................................................................ 518Strain gauge ......................................................................................................................................................... 520Pressure sensors ................................................................................................................................................. 523Inductive proximity switch .................................................................................................................................... 525Capacitative proximity switches ........................................................................................................................... 527Ultrasonic sensors ................................................................................................................................................ 527Optoelectronic sensors ......................................................................................................................................... 528Fluid level measurement ....................................................................................................................................... 530

7Contents



Flow measurement ............................................................................................................................................... 530Control technology ................................................................................................................................................ 531Contactors ............................................................................................................................................................. 533Relays ................................................................................................................................................................... 535Protective circuits .................................................................................................................................................. 537Command and signalling devices ........................................................................................................................ 538Programmable logic controllers ........................................................................................................................... 540Structure of a PLC ................................................................................................................................................ 540Binary logic operations ......................................................................................................................................... 540Control instructions ............................................................................................................................................... 541Programming languages IL, FBD, LAD ................................................................................................................ 542Marker, brackets ................................................................................................................................................... 544Querying NC contacts .......................................................................................................................................... 544Memory ................................................................................................................................................................ 545Time functions ....................................................................................................................................................... 546Counter .................................................................................................................................................................. 547Program jump ....................................................................................................................................................... 548Edge evaluation ................................................................................................................................................... 548Sequential control, step-by-step control .............................................................................................................. 549Commands, actions ............................................................................................................................................. 550Linear sequencer .................................................................................................................................................. 552Selection branch .................................................................................................................................................. 553Simultaneous branch ........................................................................................................................................... 553Program jump ........................................................................................................................................................ 553Program loop ......................................................................................................................................................... 553GRAFCET ............................................................................................................................................................. 553Structured programming ....................................................................................................................................... 555Arithmetic functions .............................................................................................................................................. 561Comparison functions ........................................................................................................................................... 561Analogue value processing ................................................................................................................................. 561Compact controller ................................................................................................................................................ 562Closed-loop control technology ............................................................................................................................ 564Control loop ........................................................................................................................................................... 564Elements of a controlled system ........................................................................................................................... 565Time response of setpoints .................................................................................................................................. 565Time response of control loop elements .............................................................................................................. 566Continuous controlling systems ............................................................................................................................ 566Control processes ................................................................................................................................................. 570Time response of control processes .................................................................................................................... 571Setting controllers ................................................................................................................................................. 572On-off control systems ......................................................................................................................................... 573Machine safety ..................................................................................................................................................... 574Safety categories .................................................................................................................................................. 575Risk assessment ................................................................................................................................................... 576Emergency control device ................................................................................................................................... 577PLC circuit ............................................................................................................................................................ 578

Protective measures – protection against electric shock ..................................................................................... 581Identifi cation of pipes ........................................................................................................................................... 591Protection against hazardous substances at the workplace ............................................................................... 592Noise protection .................................................................................................................................................... 592Waste disposal ..................................................................................................................................................... 593Packaging regulations ......................................................................................................................................... 594Information plates relevant to occupational safety .............................................................................................. 596Designation of special risks (R statements) ........................................................................................................ 601Safety advice (S statements) ............................................................................................................................... 602GHS/CLP .............................................................................................................................................................. 603Actions in emergencies ........................................................................................................................................ 605Maintenance.......................................................................................................................................................... 606Total Productive Maintenance ............................................................................................................................. 608

Periodic table of the elements, material values of chemical elements ................................................................ 611Material values of important materials and auxiliary materials ............................................................................ 614

8 Contents

Materials engineering ....................................................................................................................................... 611

Occupational and environmental protection, maintenance ........................................................................ 581



Chemical substances and formulae ..................................................................................................................... 615Designation for steels ........................................................................................................................................... 616Material numbers .................................................................................................................................................. 624Products of non-alloy structural steel ................................................................................................................... 627Key steel grades ................................................................................................................................................... 628Tool steels ............................................................................................................................................................. 635High-speed steels ................................................................................................................................................. 636Cast iron materials ............................................................................................................................................... 637Form and dimension standards of steel products ................................................................................................ 641Material symbols and material numbers ............................................................................................................... 652Changing material properties of steel ................................................................................................................... 653Heat treatment processes ..................................................................................................................................... 653Steels for quenching and tempering .................................................................................................................... 656Stainless steels ..................................................................................................................................................... 656Case-hardened steels .......................................................................................................................................... 657Steels for pressure purposes ................................................................................................................................ 658Nitriding steels ..................................................................................................................................................... 658Tool steels ............................................................................................................................................................. 659Freecutting steels.................................................................................................................................................. 662Spring steel ........................................................................................................................................................... 663Non-ferrous metals ............................................................................................................................................... 664European material numbering system for copper and copper alloys .................................................................. 665Designations for aluminium and wrought aluminium alloys ................................................................................ 666Profi les made of aluminium, wrought aluminium alloys ...................................................................................... 674Wrought magnesium alloys................................................................................................................................... 677Magnesium and titanium alloys ........................................................................................................................... 677Composite materials ............................................................................................................................................ 678Lead die-casting alloys ......................................................................................................................................... 678Lead alloys for general use .................................................................................................................................. 678Plain bearing materials ........................................................................................................................................ 679Sintered materials ................................................................................................................................................. 680Cutting materials ................................................................................................................................................... 681Cooling lubricants ................................................................................................................................................. 683Corrosion and corrosion protection ...................................................................................................................... 685Plastics .................................................................................................................................................................. 690Composite materials ............................................................................................................................................. 697Material testing ..................................................................................................................................................... 699

Production factors ................................................................................................................................................ 711 Enterprise and company ...................................................................................................................................... 711 Employment contract, working hours, certifi cate of employment, occupational health and safety .................... 713 Advanced training ................................................................................................................................................ 715 Resignation and protection against dismissal ..................................................................................................... 716Insurance types, insurance principles ................................................................................................................. 717 Statutory social security ...................................................................................................................................... 717 Salary and wage statement ................................................................................................................................. 719 Employment tribunal, social welfare court ........................................................................................................... 719 Collective bargaining law, collective bargaining, types of collective agreement ................................................ 720 Works council, youth and trainee representation ................................................................................................ 721 Legal transactions ................................................................................................................................................ 722 Possession and ownership .................................................................................................................................. 722 Legal capacity, contractual capability .................................................................................................................. 723 Financial fi gures ................................................................................................................................................... 723 Pricing .................................................................................................................................................................. 724 Sales contract ...................................................................................................................................................... 727 Depreciation ......................................................................................................................................................... 727 Legal forms of companies .................................................................................................................................... 728

Index ................................................................................................................................................................... 731Index of standards ............................................................................................................................................ 749shortregister ..................................................................................................................................................... 769

9Contents

Interdisciplinary skills....................................................................................................................................... 711



Metal technology symbols

Directional valves 5/3-way valve with blocking centre position

Roller

1

2

3

a b

Designation: Here 3/2-way valve3 connections (1-3)2 switching posi-tions (a, b)

SpringDirectional throttle valve with 2 outer limit positions

Pressurisation, hydraulic

2/2-way valve, normal position open

Directional throttle valve with neutral centre position

Pressurisation, pneumatic

2/2-way valve, normal position closed

Pressurisation, indirect Hydraulic

Operating states of valves

Normal position closed3/2-way valve,

normal position closed

Pressurisation, indirectPneumaticNormal position

open3/2-way valve,normal position open

Indirect actuation via pres-sure release

Actuation methods

Muscle power,general4/3-way valve,

normal position open

Electromagnet and pilot direc-tional valvePushbutton

4/2-way valve ElectromagnetLever

4/3-way valve with closed centre position

M Electric motorPedal

Other devices4/3-way valve with fl oating centre position

Plunger, pushbut-ton

t 2 sTiming element,adjustable

Roller, operates only in one direc-tion

5/2-way valve Light

Directional valves, short designation and connector labels Cylinder

Short designation

Example designation

Connector label

Connection Old stand-ard

for 2/2-way valve,manually operated

for 3/2-way valve,pneum. operated

for 5/2-way valvepneum. operated

Pressure supply. P 1 1 1

Working line A 1 2 2

Working line B – – 4

Venting R – 3 3

Venting S – – 5

Control con-nection

Y – 12 12

Control con-nection

Z – – 14

Single-acting cyl-inder, return stroke through force

Single-acting cyl-inder, return stroke through spring

Double-acting cylinder with single piston rod

Double-acting cylin-der with two-sided piston rod

Cylinder with adjust-able damping on the piston side

Cylinder with double, adjustable damping

109Symbols

Bas

icpr

inci

ples

Pipe connectionFlow direction

a, b switching positions

Blocking symbolSymbol for exhaust air

Pipe connection

2 switching positions3 connections

3/2-way valve



Technical Documentation

Standardisation

Technical drawing

Dimensioning of grooves and recesses

h=7+0,2

50+0,3

18P

9

3 4

50+0,3

16P9 7+0,2×

2,9

+0,1

20 +0,55

2,1

+0,

1

36+0,5

8+0,

1

6

42+

0,2

7 1,3H13

Ø21

h11

8 1,3H13×Ø21h11

A

A

A-A

8 With peripheral grooves or recesses, the groove width and base diameter are dimensioned.

9 Grooves or recesses for retaining rings, locking rings etc. are dimensioned in simplifi ed form by specifying width (fi t) x groove base diameter (fi t).

Special dimensions

Ø50 1±

16

12

Ø10H7Ø0,1

3000

%

22 0,1± Ø10H7

200Ø8

t=8

30 15

A

t=8

Ø10 Ø8 Ø0,1 A B

1530

1

1 Theoretically accurate dimensions are also indicated in tables and lists by a rec-tangular frame and without tolerances.

2 If a drawing of the unmachined part is not prepared, the rough dimensions are shown in the production drawing in square brackets. The meaning of these brackets must be explained in the draw-ing title block.

Test dimensions are shown in frames with two semicircles. An explanation of the mean-ing and the test scope must be provided near the title block, for example

3 Dimensions are specially checked by the orderer (recipient) during the acceptance test or

4 Dimensions are 100% checked by the orderer (recipient) during the acceptance test. They are not checked randomly!

5 Shaped elements that are not shown to scale are indicated by underlining their dimensions.

Note:Use of this marking is not permitted in CAD drawings.

4

2

3

1

5

30

[50 1]±

32±0,1

32±0,1 100%

200

Theoreticallyaccurate dimensions

Rough dimensions

Test dimensions

Shaped elements not shown to scale

36+0,5

8+0,

1

7

8 1,3H13

Ø21

h11

1,1H13×Ø22h11

9

16

12

Ø10H7Ø0,1

22 0,1± Ø10H7

30

3000

%

200Ø8

t=8

30 15

1

332±0,1

432±0,1 100%

127Dimensioning: grooves, recesses, special dimensions

Doc

umen

-ta

tion

22±0.1

Ø0.1

32±0.1

32±0.1

1.1

1.3H13

36+0.5

8+

0.1

42+

0.2



219Thread run-outs, thread undercuts, screws

Screw locking element → 254, Screw connection → 230

Machine elements

Thread run-outs and thread undercuts DIN 76-1

Male thread Female thread

d P x1 max dg h13 g r d P e1 min dg H13 g r

M1 0.25 0.6 0.6 0.9 0.12 M1 0.25 1.5 1.1 1.4 0.12

M2 0.4 1 1.3 1.4 0.2 M2 0.4 2.3 2.2 2.2 0.2

M3 0.5 1.25 2.2 1.75 0.2 M3 0.5 2.8 3.3 2.7 0.2

M4 0.7 1.75 2.9 2.45 0.4 M4 0.7 3.8 4.3 3.8 0.4

M5 0.8 2 3.7 2.8 0.4 M5 0.8 4.2 5.3 4.2 0.4

M6 1 2.5 4.4 3.5 0.6 M6 1 5.1 6.5 5.2 0.6

M8 1.25 3.2 6 4.4 0.6 M8 1.25 6.2 8.5 6.7 0.6

M10 1.5 3.8 7.7 5.2 0.8 M10 1.5 7.3 10.5 7.8 0.8

M12 1.75 4.3 9.4 6.1 1 M12 1.75 8.3 12.5 9.1 1

M16 2 5 13 7 1 M16 2 9.3 16.5 10.3 1

M20 2.5 6.3 16.4 8.7 1.2 M20 2.5 11.2 20.5 13 1.2

M24 3 7.5 19.6 10.5 1.6 M24 3 13.1 24.5 15.2 1.6

M30 3.5 9 25 12 1.6 M30 3.5 15.2 30.5 17.7 1.6

M36 4 10 30.3 14 2 M36 4 16.8 36.5 20 2

M42 4.5 11 35.6 16 2 M42 4.5 18.4 42.5 23 2

M48 5 12.5 41 17.5 2.5 M48 5 20.8 48.5 26 2.5

M56 5.5 14 48.3 19 3.2 M56 5.5 22.4 56.5 28 3.2

M64 6 15 55.7 21 3.2 M64 6 24 64.5 30 3.2

Identifi cation of threads (examples)

M30 Metric ISO thread, standard thread, nominal diameter 30 mm

M 30x1 Metric ISO thread, fi ne thread, nominal diameter 30 mm, pitch 1 mm

M 30 - LH Metric ISO thread, standard thread, nominal diameter 30 mm, left-hand thread

Tr 40x14 P7 Metric ISO trapezoidal thread, multiple starts, 40 mm nominal diameter, 14 mm pitch, 7 mm spacing,number of starts = pitch/spacing = 14/7 = 2 (two-start thread)

Screws

Screw types – overview

Hexagon head screws

DIN EN ISO 4014

d

l

Stem and regular thread

M1.6 – M64

Mechanical engineering,Tool building,Automobile construction

DIN EN ISO 4017

d

l

Regular thread up to head

M1.6 – M64

DIN EN ISO 8765

d

l

Stem and fi ne thread

M8×1 to M64×4

DIN EN ISO 8676

d

l

Fine thread up to head

M8×1 to M64×4

Mac

hine

elem

ents



425Dimensional metrology

Measurement and testing technology

Basic principles of dimensional metrology and measuring instruments

Micrometers DIN 863

Micrometer gauge

Messspindel

Bügel Feststell-einrichtung

Griffschalen0-25 mm 0,01 mm

SchnelltriebSkalentrommel

Skalenhülse Innenhülse EinstellmutterMessamboss

Mitutoyo

Integrated micrometer

16– 0,2+ 0,5

Einspannschaft Schnelltrieb

Messfläche

Messspindel

ø12

h6

Depth micrometer

Brücke

Schnelltrieb

Messfläche

Messspindel

Special designs of micrometers

Micrometer with small clamp Type D2

MessspindelMessamboss

Messflächen

Measuring of wire thicknesses and ball diameters

External screw type micrometer with narrow measuring surfacesType D4

bMessflächen

MessspindelMessamboss

l

r

Measurements at narrow recesses (e. g. for retaining rings)

Mea

sure

men

t an

d te

st. t

ech

Measuring anvil

Measuring surfaces

Measurement spindle

Measuring anvil

Measuring surfaces

Measurement spindle

Measuring surface

Measurement spindle

Jumper

Coarse adjustment

Measuring surface

Measurement spindle

Coarse adjustmentClamping shank

Coarse adjustment

Measurement spindle

Measuring anvil Scale sleeve Inner sleeve Adjusting nut

Scale drum

Moulded recesses

Bracket Locking device

0.01 mm

0.50.2



621Steels, short names

Materials engineering

Short names of steels DIN EN 10027-1

Structure of the short name based on chemical composition

A few minor changes have been made to the structure of the short name based on chemical composition in DIN EN 10027 in comparison with the old designation systems.

Designation example:

vergütet, Zusatz für BehandlungszustandVorgeschriebener max. S-Gehalt, 4 = 0,04 % Schwefelmittlerer C-Gehalt. 3 = 0,35 % Kohlenstoffunlegierter Stahl, mittlerer Mangangehalt < 1 %

C 35 E4 + QT

^

^

Steel groups Principal symbolsCode letter

Chemical composition Additional symbols 2)

DIN EN 10027-1

C contentIdentifi ca-tion number

Alloy content Chemical symbols,

identifi cation numbers

Non-alloy steels(with the exception of freecutting steels), aver-age manganese content < 1%

CGC 1)

Average % Ccontent × 100

–

E, RD, C, S, U, W

Non-alloy steelsaverage manganese content >1%

Non-alloy freecutting steels,low-alloy steels (with the exception of high-speed steels)

G 1)

Chemical symbols sorted by decreas-ing element content

Identifi cation numbers ̂ = % proportion of alloying elements × factor

Factor Alloying element

1000100

10

4

BP, S, N, Ce, CAl, Cu, Mo, Ta, Ti, V, Be, Pb, Nb, ZrSi, Co, Cr, W, Ni, Mn

–

High-alloy steels(with the exception of high-speed steels), content of one alloying element ≥ 5%

XGX 1)

Chemical symbols sorted by decreas-ing element content.Identifi cation numbers ̂ = % proportion of alloying elements without C content

= Identification number __________________ 100

%

–

1) For cast steels, the short name must begin with the letter G.2) The additional symbols can be added to the principal symbol as a suffi x if necessary.

Designation examples:

Structure based on purpose and mechanical properties

Anforderungsklasse Bnormalisiert gewalztStreckgrenze 360 N/mm²Stahl für Rohrleitungen

L 360 N B

Structure based on chemical composition,low-alloy steel

Anteile an Mo10/10 % Al5/4 % Cr0,3 % C

30 Cr Al Mo 5 - 10

Structure based on chemical composition,non-alloy steel

0,35 % Cunlegierter Stahl

C 35

Structure based on chemical composition,high-alloy steel

13 % Cr0,15 % ChochlegiertStahlformguss

G X 15 Cr 13

Mat

eria

ls

Quenched and tempered, additional symbol for conditionSpecifi ed max. S content, 4 = 0.04% sulphurAverage C content. 3 = 0.35% carbonNon-alloy steel, average manganese content < 1%

Requirement class BNormalised rolledYield strength 360 N/mm²Steel for pipelines

Unalloyed steel

High-alloy Steel casting

Mo content

0.35 % C

0.15 % C

0.3 % C



712 Enterprise and company, environment and enterprise

Interdisciplinary skills

Enterprise and company

Model: Industrial enterprise

Environment and enterprise

Every company must be interested in operating in an environmentally-aware manner for purely eco-nomic reasons. On the one hand, this provides competitive advantages and on the other, it reduces costs. Companies that do not do this are taking considerable risks.

Environmentally-oriented enterprise management

Increased competitiveness through, for example,

reducing costs through, for example,

minimising corporate risks through, for example,

• image enhancement

• cost transparency

• creating new services

• energy savingsheat/power

• water saving

• waste avoidancewaste reduction

• reducing the liability risk

• continuous improvement

• improved organisation

legal framework

Expenses Management Income

represent, decide, lead, plan, organise, monitor

Materials management

Production SalesSource of

supplySales market

Procurement and storage

Service creation

Processing of order

Personnel Financing AccountingWorkforceMachinesMaterial

Goods and services

Capital market

Skills

Skills



1/6 circle arc, centre of gravity 361/6 circle area, centre of gravity 36100% inspection 4583-Excess-Code 183-phase AC technology 823-phase power 83

AAbbe’s principle 421AC circuit 81AC voltage 76Acceleration force 38Accident insurance 718Accuracy classes 507Accuracy ratings 434Across-fl ats dimensions 241—, Dimensioning 122Action limits 447Actions 550Activation delay 502, 546Activation process, coil 76Active adhesives 365Active power 79Active sensors 512Actual condition 606Actual dimension 131, 134Actual value 457Actuator 565Actuators 533Addition, dual 17Additional functions 378, 388, 399Additional symbols, welding 158—, Steel 622Address letters, CNC 376—, G 377—, M 378Adhesive surfaces, pre-treatment 366Adhesive types 365Adhesives, bonding mechanisms 365Adjusting ring 438Adjusting washers 254Adjustment motion 299Adjustment 415

Administration cost extras 726Advanced training 715AFA 727AG 729Aiken code 19Air consumption 462—, specifi c 52, 462Al square rods 674Allowed time according to REFA 338Alloying elements 619Alphabet, Greek 12Alternating parameter 77Aluminium brazing solder 364Aluminium 666Analogue signal 533Analogue value processing 561Analogue value 562AND function 542AND 497Angle factor, belt drive 291Angle on tool, turning 315—, bisecting 204Angle unit 419Angle 647Angular contact ball bearing 264, 268Angular frequency 77Angular gauge blocks 433Angular lever 42Angular position encoders 431Angular velocity 40Annealing 653Anodising 685Anti-corrosion coatings 687API classifi cation 369Apparent power 79Application guidelines, machining 303Arc types 357Arced slot milling cycle 395Area calculation 26Area, compound 27—, compound, centre of gravity 37Area-based mass 34Arithmetic functions 561

Arithmetic mean 446Arrangement of dimensions 121ASCII code 20Assignment list 542Astable element 501Attachment point 375Audit expert 456Audit 456Auditor 456Austenitic cast iron 641Autogenous gas cutting 359Auxiliary contactor 533Auxiliary equipment 420Auxiliary materials, material values 614Availability factor 607Availability 607Average piston speed 464Average roughness 443Axial cylindrical roller bearing 266Axial deep-groove ball bearing 266, 268Axial recessing cycle 388Axial self-aligning roller bearing 266

BBainitic cast iron 641Ball heads 284Ball indentation hardness, synthetic material 708Bar codes 21Bar steel, hot-rolled 642Barcode types 21Barcodes 21Basic circuit 95Basic circuits, electro- pneumatic 476Basic constructions, geometrical 203Basic controls, pneumatic 470Basic geometrical constructions 203Basic insulation 582Basic pneumatic controls 470Basic protection 581Basic standard deviation 444Basic title block 208BCD code 18

731Index

A – B

Index



Bead plating 686Beam welding 346Bearing forces 41Bearings, examples of designations 267Belt drive 291—, Angle factor 291—, Linear factor 291—, Operating factor 291Belt profi le 292Belt pulley 292Belt, effective length 291Bending radii 335Bending spring-back 337Bending 335—, Compensation value 336—, Cut lengths 335—, Spring-back factor 336—, Stretched length 335Bending 60, 64Bends, dimensioning 124Bevel gear pair 175Bevel gear 175Bevel gears, with spur teeth 290Bevel-groove weld 158Binary signal 532Biological limit value 591—, Value 591Bistable multivibrators 500Bladder accumulator 489Blasting 686Blind bore 309Blind rivets 246, 251Body resistance 581Bolt ends 224Bolt 252Bond, grinding wheel 331Bonding mechanisms, adhesives 365Boolean algebra 503Bore types 309Borier cover 686Boron nitride 681Boyle-Mariotte law 50—, by De Morgan 504—, by Gay-Lussac 50Brackets 544Branch 202. 460Brazing solder 363Brazing 346, 361Breaks 714Bridge circuits 71, 72

Bright annealing 686Brinell hardness testing 702—, using Rockwell method 703—, using Vickers method 705Brinell hardness 702Brinell, hardness testing 702Brushing 686Buckling 60—, based on Euler’s theory 67Bushes, friction-type bearings 272, 273Butt joint 157Button-head lube nipple 274Buttress thread 213, 214—, metric 214

CC fi bre laminates 697Cabinet projection 119Calculation of maximum and minimum dimension 135Calculation 724Calibration 415, 434Calliper gauges 439Calmer gauge body 437Cancellation contract 713Cap nuts 238Capacitance diode 93Capacitance values, identifi cation 88Capacitative proximity switch 527Capacitive reactance 80Capacitor capacitance 72Capacitor connection 73—, coils 75Capacitor, charging and discharging process 73Capacitors 88—, Circuits 73Capital productivity 724Capital 728Capstan nut 240Carbide indexable inserts 316Carbide inserts 313, 316Carbide metal twist drill 307—, high-speed steel 306—, Designations and angles 304Carbide, uncoated 681Carbides, application 301Carbon, cutting material 681

Carbonitriding 654Case hardening 654Case-hardened steel 628, 657Cast iron materials 637, 652Cast iron, austenitic 641—, bainitic 641—, with lamellar graphite 637, 640—, with spheroidal graphite 640Cause of fault 608Cause-effect diagram 449Cavalier projection 119C-command 551CEN 117CENELEC 117Centre holes 183—, simplifi ed representation 169Centre of gravity 36Centrifugal force 38Centroidal distance 36Ceramic capacitors 89Ceramic cutting materials 681Ceramic materials 301Certifi cation 418Chamfer 304Change gear calculation 318Change gear, number of teeth 330Changing material characteristics 297Characteristic value 457Characters 118Characters/symbols, mathematical 15Charpy U-test piece 701Check valve 488Check 417, 419Chemical elements, material values 612—, Substances 615Chip cross section, drilling 305—, Milling 325—, turning 312Chisel edge 304Chord surface machining plane, CNC 384Chrome nickel steels 634Chrome steel, stainless 632Circle connection 205Circle quadrant arc, centre of

B – C

732 Index



gravity 36Circle quadrant area, centre of gravity 36Circle section 28—, centre of gravity 37Circle 28—, divide 205—, magnetic 74Circlips, curved 245Circuit diagrams 188, 191Circuit families 504Circular arc 28—, centre of gravity 36Circular interpolation, turning 382—, Milling 392Circular ring section 28Circular ring 28Circumferential speed 40—, Grinding wheel 332Clamping bearing 265Clamping pieces 284Clamping spigots 287Classifi cation of hard cutting materials 682Clear 545Clearance angle 298, 304—, Milling 324—, turning 312Clearance fi t 139Closed-loop control device 565Closed-loop controller 565CNC control system 374CNC coordinate axes 374CNC directions of motion 374CNC machine tools 374CNC program, structure 375CNC reference points 374CNC, address letters 376—, Command codes 380—, Special characters 376Coarse-grain annealing 654Coating 297Coatings, electrodeposited 687Coaxiality 137Code 128 21Code 2/5 21Code 39 21Code letters, equipment 189Code, single step 18Code, two step 18

Codes 18Coeffi cients of sliding friction, screws 232Coil, circuits 75Coil, deactivation process 76—, Activation process 76Cold-work steels 636Collective bargaining law 720Collective bargaining 720Collector circuit 95Colour coding of resistors 83Colour coding, grinding wheel 332Combination of nuts and screws 235Command effect 550Command feedback 552Command release 552Command symbol 550Command type 550Commands 550Compact controller 562Company 711Company, formation 728—, Liability 728Comparing element 565Comparison functions 561Compensation value, bending 336Composite materials 678, 697—, properties 698Compound area 27—, Area, centre of gravity 37—, Body, mass 34Comprehensive inspection 458Compressed air lines 461Compressed air motors 467Compressed air tank 459Compressed-air fi lter 461Compressed-air oiler 461Compressed-air reservoir 459Compression test 700Compressive stress 61Concentricity 137Conciliation hearing 719Condensate level 460Conductance, electrical 69Conductor connections 188Conductor resistance 69Conductor 188Confi dence limits 445

Conformity 416, 455Conical seats 243Conical spring washers 244Connecting voltage sources, in parallel 71—, Resistors 70Connecting voltage sources, in series 70—, Resistors 70Connection chart 200Consequence of fault 608Conservation of energy principle 45Constants, physical 12Constructing a mid-perpendicular 203Contact adhesives 365Contact bounce 536Contact corrosion 688Contact tables 196Contact travel 534Contactor contacts 534Contactor 533—, Identifi cation numbers 534Continuous lines, compound 36Continuous vibration load 701Continuous vibration testing 701Contours 399Contract of employment 713Contractual capacity 723Control circuit 199Control element 565Control instruction 541Control loop 564Control process 565, 570Control processes with compensation 570—, without compensation 570Control station 538Control system 531Control technology 531Controlled process 531Controlled variable 564Controller setting 572Converting between numbering systems 17Cooling lubricants 301, 683—, Ecological aspects 683—, Selection 683—, Treatment 684Cooperative 729

733Index

C



Coordinate axes, CNC 374Coordinate dimensioning 129Copper alloys 664Copper brazing solder 363Copper 664Core hole drill 311Core rod diameter 353Corner joint 157Corner 298Correct value 417Correction factors, drilling 305—, turning 313Correction 415Correlation diagram 453Corrosion behaviour, metals 689Corrosion protection 685Corrosion 685Cosine function 24Cost calculation 340Cotangent function 24Cotter pins 252Count 418Counter 547Counterbore depth 187Counterbore 309, 310Counterbores 184—, depiction and dimensioning 166—, for countersunk head screws 184—, for screw heads 185—, Representation 169Counterboring 309Counterboring 310—, Main usage time 341Countersink diameter for pan head screws 185Countersink 310Countersinking procedure 309Countersinking 309Countersunk grooved pins 250Countersunk head screws 220 —, with crossed slot 227—, with hexagon socket-head 227—, with slot 227Countersunk lens head screws 227Countersunk rivet 250

Couplings 278Crest factor 78Cross joint 157Crown nuts 237Cube 31Cultural tools 713Cup springs 277, 278Current density 68Current effect 581Current path 581Current rating, electrode 358Current strength, electrical 68Current suitability 353Customer satisfaction 452Customer 454, 457Cut lengths, bending 335Cutter heads, carbide-tipped 326Cutting depth, grinding 333Cutting depth, turning 314, 315Cutting dies 287Cutting edge corner 304Cutting edge plane 298Cutting external threads 311Cutting force, drilling 305—, turning 312Cutting force, milling 325—, specifi c 304Cutting internal threads 311Cutting material group 299Cutting materials 299—, application 300—, ceramic 301—, classifi cation 318, 682—, hard 319Cutting motion 299Cutting performance 48—, Drilling 305—, turning 312Cutting performance, drilling 305—, Milling 325—, turning 312Cutting radius compensation 380Cutting speed 299—, grinding 332—, Milling 325—, turning 314Cutting surfaces 298Cutting torque, drilling 305Cutting wedge 298

—, Angle 298—, Areas 298—, Cutting 298—, Geometry 297—, Tool angle 298Cutting 297, 298, 346—, fl ame 359Cycle call-up 385—, Milling 396Cycle thread 215Cycles 401—, CNC 390Cycloid 206Cylinder colours 351Cylinder roller bearing 265, 269Cylinder 31—, double-acting 52—, Piston forces 53––, single-acting 52Cylindrical internal thread 213––, Pipe thread 213Cylindrical pins 246Cylindrical plug gauge 441Cylindrical shape 136Cylindrical thread plug gauge 441

DD command 551D control system 567Danger symbols 599Data types 556—, elementary 556DB 555De Morgan 504Deactivation delay 503, 547Deactivation process, coil 76Dead time 571Dead-weight micrometers 429Decimal system 16Deep drilling cycle, milling 397Defect 456Degreasing 686Degrees of freedom 406Delay time 571Delay valves 465Delta connection 82Density of materials 35Deoxidation 687

C– D

734 Index



Depreciation costs 340Depreciation 727Depth micrometer 425Depth setting motion 299Derivative action coeffi cient 567Designation, steel 616Desired condition 606Determining the centre of a circle 204Development 455Deviation 457Device wiring diagram 196Diagnostics 607Dial gauges 429Diameter, dimensioning 121Diamond grinding material 331Diaphragm accumulator 489Differential circuit 492Differential indexing 329Differential indexing 329Differential pulley block 43Diffusion annealing 653Digital signal 533Digital value 562Dimension help lines 120Dimension lines 120Dimension tables 128Dimensional tolerance 134Dimensioning systems 122Dimensioning using tables 130Dimensioning, developments 126—, Across-fl ats dimensions 122—, Bends 124—, Chamfers 125—, Counterbores 125—, Diameter 121—, Divisions 124—, Inclines 125—, Grooves 126—, Radii 122—, Recesses 126—, Right angles 124—, Spheres 124—, Squares 121—, Tapers 125—, Text orientation 120—, Welding seams 156—, with dimension tables 128

Dimension-line arrows 120Dimensions 401—, CNC 390Dimensions, special 127Dimetric projection 118, 119DIN command coding, CNC 380DIN 117Diode colour coding 92Diode 93Diodes, colour coding 92Direct indexing 329Directional valves 465Directions of motion, CNC 374Dispersion adhesives 365Displacement transducer 516Display range 421Display types 424Disposal 593—, lubricants 373Disturbance reaction 570Disturbance variable 532, 564Division of a line 203Division scale 420, 424Division, dual 17Divisions 30—, Dimensioning 124DMS 520Document 456Double hardening 655Double T-joint 157Drill axis 304Drill bushings 279Drill types and use 305Drilling cycle 387—, milling 397Drilling methods 309Drilling out 309, 310Drilling screws 221Drilling 304—, Main usage time 341—, Permitted deviations 309—, Problems and remedies 307—, Synthetic material 337Drive-in type ball-valve oiler 274Drop on straight line 203Dual system numbers, calculating with 17Dual system 16

Duty of inquiry 592DVM test piece 701Dynamic load 60

EEAN code 21Economic effi ciency 724Eddy current testing 706Edge evaluation 548Edge joint 157Edison thread 214Effect of current 581Effect, magnetic 74Effective cutting motion 299Effective length, belt 291Effective value 77Effi ciency 48, 69—, turning 312Electric arc fusion welding 346, 353Electrical engineering formulae 68Electrical engineering symbols 97— metal engineering 107Electrical engineering symbols 97Electrical engineering, formulae 68—, electronic symbols 97—, symbols 97Electrical resistors 83Electrical separation 589Electrode requirement, welding 355Electrodeposited coatings 687Electrodynamic movement 509Electrolytic capacitors 90Electroplating 685Electro-pneumatics 475—, basic circuits 476Elementary program structures 201Ellipses 205Emergencies, actions 605Emergency call 605Emergency control device 577Emergency sign 599Emergency stop command 577Emergency stop 494Emitter circuit 95

735Index

D– E



Employee 456Employment tribunal 719EN 117Enamel coating 686End face machining plane 384Endurance strength 702Energy costs 340Energy, kinetic 46—, circular motion 46Energy, potential 46Engaged cutting edge number, milling 325Engineering steel 628Entering function-related dimensions 122Enterprise 711Environment 712Environmental protection 581Equipment connections 193Equipment, letter symbols 198—, Designation 188Equivalence 498Error 415, 456Error 564Euler convention 410Euler, buckling 67Evaluation of welds 348Evaporation 686Evenness 135EXAPT 403Expected value 415Extension of the measuring range 72External cylindrical longitudinal grinding 330External gauges 439Extra-low voltage 581Eyebolts 222Eye-bolts 222, 239, 281

FFace milling 324Face roughing cycle (plane) 386Face surface milling 324Fan-type lock washers 245Fatigue strength 702Fault catalogue 452Fault management 608Fault protection 581FB 555FC 555

Featherkey ways, Tolerances 257Featherkeys 257Feed motion 299Feed rate 299—, drilling 305—, grinding 332—, Milling 325Feed, turning 314, 315—, grinding 333Feedback variable 564Feeds, CNC 389, 400Feet with threaded stem 282Felt strip 255Felt washers 255FELV 582Female thread, depiction 161—, cylindrical 213—, depiction and dimensioning 164—, dimensions 218—, (Rp) 217—, Tolerance classes 215Fibre composite 697Fibre optic cables 529Field effect transistors 96Field strength, electrical 72Field strength, magnetic 74Figures, fi nancial 723—, Contactor 534Fillet weld 158Film resistors 83Final control element 565Final controlling equipment 565Final inspection 445Financial fi gures 723Fine thread 216Fine-grain structural steels 631Fire protection signs 598First aid 605Fits 139Fitting bore 309Fixed roller 42Fixed setpoint control 565Flame cleaning 686Flame cutting 359Flame hardening 654, 663Flame spraying 685Flange couplings 278Flanged drill bushings 280Flanged seam 157

Flank face 298, 304Flat head drilling screws 230Flat keys 259Flat position 347Flat steel bars, hot-rolled 644Flat steel, bright 642—, hot-rolled 644Flat washers 242Flexible manufacturing systems 404—, manufacturing cell 404Flow chart 201Flow measurement 530Flow rate 480Flow within pipes 51Flow-control valves 488Fluid level measurement 530Fluid press 49Fluid technology, identifi cation 469Flux density, magnetic 74Flux, brazing 364Flux, magnetic 74Flux, soldering 363FMS 404Follow-up control 565Force action in the magnetic fi eld 75, 76Force, length change diagram, plastics 707Force, resulting 37Forces in a screw connec-tion 230Form factor 78Formation, company 728Forming 297Formula conversion 25Formula symbol 13Free collective bargaining 720Free fall 39Free mobility 494Free-cutting steel 628, 662Freedom of association 720Free-wheeling diode 537Frequency 77Friction coeffi cients, screws 232Friction values 40, 44Friction 40Frictional force 40Functional diagrams, pneumatics 472Further education 715

E –F

736 Index



Fusion welding process 348

GG address characters 377Gamma-ray testing 706Gas consumption, welding 352Gas cutting, autogenous 359Gas cylinders 353—, colour coding 350Gas cylinders, identifi cation 600Gas equation, general 50, 459Gas equations 49, 50Gas nitriding 654Gas welding 346Gas-shielded welding 356Gauge rings 436Gauge 421, 422, 435GbR 728Gear drive 68, 289Gear pump 468Gear wheels 175Gearing diagrams, graphical symbols 176General tolerances 134—, Angular dimensions 138—, Length dimensions 138—, Perpendicularity 138—, Shape and position 138—, Symmetry and runout 139—, Welding construction 160, 347Generating compressed air 459Geometric mean theorem 29German entrepreneurial company with limited liability 729German general partnership [OHG] 728German limited liability company (GmbH) 729German unincorporated civil law association [BGB- Gesellschaft] 728G-functions 389, 399GHS, identifi cation of hazards 604GHS/CLP 603Gib-head keys 259Gib-head saddle keys 258Global variables 557

Gluing 365Go gauge body 437Go gauge ring 438Go gauge 424Go snap gauge 439Gradation 210Grade number 624GRAFCET 553Graphic symbols, measuring instruments 507Gravity 38Gray code 19Grease cups 274Greek alphabet 12Grey cast iron 637Grinding material 331, 334Grinding wheel 331— Bond 331—, Circumferential speed 332—, Colour coding 332Grinding wheel 333Grinding, main usage time 345—, Cutting depth 333—, Cutting speed 332—, Feed 333—, Feed rate 332Grooved ball bearing 264, 268Grooved pins with round head 250Grooved pins 246, 250Grooves 259Gross salary 719Guide value 457Guideline 454

HHalf-hollow rivet 251Half-round rivet 250Handling technology 405Handling units 405Hard milling 328Hard turning (CBN) 316Hardening 654Hardness penetration depths 154Hardness scales 704Hardness specifi cations 152—, test methods 153Hatching 171Hazardous substances at the workplace 592—, holder 592

Hazards, special 601Head types, screws 224Health insurance 717Heat generated during combustion 59Heat quantity 56Heat treatment, information 152Heat 54Heated tool welding 368Heating value 614Heating 653Heat-treatable steel 628, 656Heat-treated workpieces 152Helical compression springs, cylindrical 275, 276, 277Helical grooves 330Helical tension springs, cylindrical 275Hexadecimal system 16Hexagon cap nuts 238Hexagon fi tting screws 225Hexagon head screws 219, 224Hexagon nuts 237, 239—, with clamping part 238Hexagon steel 641High-speed steels 635High-temperature brazing 361Histogram 452Hold 653Hole punching 67Holes, depiction and dimensioning 164, 168—, symbolic representation 163Holes, limit deviations 146Hollow cylinder 32Hollow sections 650Horizontal overhead position 347horizontal position 347Horizontal-vertical position 347Hoses, Hydraulics 489Hot gas welding 368Hot-melt adhesives 365Hot-work steels 636HSS milling cutter 325Hydraulic accumulator 489Hydraulic control systems 490Hydraulic cylinder 483Hydraulic fl uids 368, 478

737Index

F– H



—, minimum requirements 372Hydraulic hoses 489Hydraulic oils 478Hydraulic pipes 489Hydraulic system 482Hydraulic systems, calculation 480—, power 54—, press 51—, valves 484Hydraulic valves, switching 485Hydraulics 478Hydrostatic pressure 49, 480Hysteresis 574HY-weld 158

II beam 647I control system 567I/O 560Ideal gas equation 50Identifi cation key, Fluid technology 470Identifi cation numbers, welding and soldering methods 159, 346Identifi cation of groove direction 149—, Fluid technology 469—, Pipes 591—, Equipment 188—, Semiconductors 91Identifi cation of hazards to GHS 604IEC 117I-groove weld 157Impulse response 566Inclination 30, 136Inclined joint 157Incorporated company 729Indentation testing, plastics 708Indexable inserts 313—, Carbide 315—, designation 319—, Milling 327—, Tolerance classes 319—, Tool holders 320Indexing head 329Indexing 329—, direct 329—, indirect 329

Indicating calliper micrometer 426Indicating calliper 430Indicating measuring instrument 420Indicator lamps 539Individual costs 725Individual effi ciency 48Individual roughness 441Induction hardening 654, 663Inductive proximity switches 525Inductive reactance 80Inductivity 75Industrial enterprise 712Industrial robot 406—, coordinate system 409—, operating modes 411—, orientation 410—, programming 411—, protective devices 412—, safety measures 412Inertia torque 66Infl uencing factors 415Information plates 596Initial query 541Initial step 549Inside micrometers 430Inspection characteristic 455Inspection instructions 458Inspection marks 601Inspection schedule 458Inspection 417, 456—, non-destructive 706Inspection 606Inspection-related dimensioning 122Instructions 558Insurance principles 717Insurance types 717Integral action coeffi cient 567Integrated micrometer 425Interconnection diagram 196Interest charges 340Interference fi t 140Intergranular corrosion 688Intermediate annealing 654intermediate pricing 724Internal micrometer 424, 427Internal thread milling cycle 398Interpolation types 389, 399Involute 206

Iron-carbon diagram 655ISO male thread, metric 182ISO thread, metric 181, 213, 216ISO trapezoidal thread, metric 214ISO viscosity class 370ISO 117Isometric projection 118, 119IT system 588

JJig and fi xture manufacturing, standard parts 279JK fl ip-fl op 501Joining 297Joining 323—, Main usage time 341—, guide values 323Joint types 157

KKey qualifi cations 713Key switch button 538KG (German limited commercial partnership) 728Kinematic structure, Robots 407Kinetic energy 46Kirchhoff’s law 70Knuckle thread 213, 214Knurl, depiction and dimensioning 170Knurled nuts 284Knurled-head screws 222, 283

LL command 551Labour productivity 724Lamellar engines 468Lamellar pump 468Laminates 697Language elements 556Laser cutting 360Latching switch-on delay 546Lateral thrust force 49Lathe tool 313—, Nomenclatures and angles 312—, HSS 314—, Designation 313Law of induction 75

H– L

738 Index



Layer composite 697Lead alloys 678Lead die-casting alloys 678Left-hand thread 215Legal capacity 723Legal entities 723Legal forms of companies 728Legal transactions 722Length ratios 418Length unit 419Length, stretched 30Length-based mass 34Lengths of thread engagement, metric ISO thread 233—, pins 234Lengths 30, 418Letter symbols of objects 190Level 505Levelling wedge 44Lever, single-sided 41—, multiple 41—, two-sided 41Lever-type handles 286Liability 728Lift 49Lifting capacity 47Limit deviations for holes 146—, for angular dimensions 160—, for length dimensions 160—, for shafts 146—, thread 233Limit deviations 132Limit hardnesses 154Limit snap gauge with rollers 442Limit snap gauge with rollers 442Limit switches 539Limit value 457Limiting deviation 457Limits 132Line chart 79Line connections 194Line groups 209Line shape 136Line types 209Linear code 21Linear expansion coeffi cient 55Linear expansion fi gures 615Linear expansion 54

Linear factor, belt drive 291Linear interpolation, turning 381—, Milling 391Linear movement 137Linear sequencer 552Linear weld 158Linearity 416Lines 118Load scenario 60Load, dynamic 60Load, static 60Loading 560Loading, electrical 68Local variables 557Localised corrosion 688Locating pin 282Location diagram 200Lock washers 253, 254—, for anti-friction bearing—, for locknuts 240locknuts 241Locking rings 253Locknuts 240—, Roller bearing 240Logic control 532Logic operations 497Logic operations, binary 540Logic operations, pneumatic elements 468Longitudinal roughing cycle 386Longitudinal-slider principle 485Loop 202, 330, 686Loose roller 42L-profi le, Al 676L-steel 645Lubricants 368—, Additional code letters 369—, Disposal 373Lubricating greases 371Lubricating oils 368

MM address letters 378MAC value 600Machine hourly rate 340Machine programming 403Machine reamers 307Machine running time 340Machine safety 574

Machine taps 311Machine zero 374Machining centres 404Machining direction 149Machining planes, CNC 390Machining 297MAG welding 358Magnesium alloys 677Magnet fi eld, force action 75, 76Magnetic circuit 74Magnetic diode 94Magnetic particle testing 706Magnetic pulse valve 475Main block 375Main contactor 533Main groups, manufacturing process 297Main material group 624Main usage time, drilling 341—, counterboring 341—, grinding 345—, Milling 343—, planing 341—, reaming 341—, tapping 341—, turning 342Maintenance costs 340Maintenance documentation 607Maintenance unit 460Maintenance 606Maintenance 606Major cutting edges 298, 304Major fl ank faces 298Male thread (R) 217—, Representation 161—, Tolerance classes 215Malleable cast iron 639Management system 454Management 454Mandatory sign 598Manipulated variable 531, 564Manipulation reaction 570Manual programming 402Manufacturing cell 404Manufacturing cost extras 726Manufacturing island 404Manufacturing processes 150, 297—, main groups 297

739Index

L – M



Manufacturing systems 404Marker 544Martens hardness 706Mass of compound body 34Mass, area-based 34—, length-based 34Master forming 297Material measure 416, 420, 433Material numbers 624, 652—, Non-ferrous metals 665Material overhead extras 726Material symbols 652Material testing 699Material values of chemical elements 612Materials, material values 614Mathematical characters/ symbols 15Maximum allowable concentration 591Maximum dimension 134Measurands, displaying 507Measure 419Measured value 417, 421Measured variable 416, 420Measurement accuracy 416Measurement chain links 513Measurement deviation 416, 434Measurement method 416Measurement object 416Measurement process 456Measurement range 416Measurement result 416, 421Measurement signal 417Measurement stability 416Measurement technology 415Measurement uncertainty 417Measurement 417, 456—, dynamic 417Measuring chain 416, 512Measuring circuits 510Measuring device 416, 456Measuring instrument drift 416Measuring instrument 416Measuring instruments, graphic symbols 507Measuring principle 416Measuring procedure 417Measuring span 421Measuring surface quality 434

Median 446Melting heat 58—, specifi c 59Memory byte 560Memory word 560Memory 500, 545Metal bonding 366Metal technology, symbols 107Metals, fi bre-reinforced 697Method 455Metric ISO male thread 182—, ISO thread 181—, Taper 260Metric ISO thread 213, 216—, Buttress thread 214—, ISO thread, lengths of thread engagement 233—, ISO thread, tolerances 232—, ISO trapezodial thread 214—, MJ thread 213—, tapered male thread 213—, Trapezoidal thread 214M-functions 399Micrometer gauge 425Micrometers 424Middle Third 448Mid-range 446MIG welding 359Milling cutter, designations and angles 324—, HSS 325—, number of teeth 344Milling 324—, Main usage time 343—, Problems 328—, Synthetic material 338—, tool starting cut 344—, tools with indexable inserts 327Mini GmbH 729Minimum depths of engagement 223Minimum dimension 134Minimum surface hardnesses 154Minor cutting edges 298Minor fl ank faces 298Mixed voltage 78Mixing temperature 58MJ thread, metric 213Module, Screw gears 290

—, Spur and bevel gears 289Modulus of elasticity 64Monostable multivibrator 502Morse taper 260, 261Motion 38, 39Motor capacitors 90Moving coil mechanism 508Moving-iron instrument 509Muff couplings 279Multi-cycle call-up 385—, Milling 396Multimeter 509Multiple butt joint 157Multiplication, dual 17

NN command 550NAND engineering 500NAND 497Narrow V-belt 293—, Performance values 293Natural Entities 723NC contact 194—, querying 544Needle-roller bearing 267, 271Negation 543Negative edge 549Net salary 719Nickel brazing solder 364Nitride coating 686Nitriding steels 659Nitriding 654NO contact 194No go gauge body 435No go gauge ring 436No go gauge 422No go snap gauge 437Noise area 592Noise protection 592Noise reduction programme 593Noise 592Nominal size 131Nominal value 457Non-alloyed construction steel 627Non-destructive testing procedures 706Non-equivalence 498Non-ferrous metals 664NOR engineering 500NOR 498

M – N

740 Index



Normal state 459Normal V-belts 293Normalising 653NOT 497Notch effect (stress concentration) 65Notch factor 66Notched impact testing 700Notched-bar impact value 700NPN transistor 94NTC resistors 86Number of holes, dividing plate 330Number of teeth, change gear 330Number scale 420Numbering systems 16—, conversion 17Numerals, Roman 11Numerical value 11Nursing insurance 718Nut tap: 311Nuts and screws, combination 235Nuts 234—, Resistance to stripping out 235Nuts, designs 236—, designation 234—, for T-slots 281—, ID 224—, Strength classes 234

OOB 555Object views 119Objects, code letters 190Obligation to label 592Obligation to provide information 592Occupational safety 581, 715Occupied time 339Ohm’s law 69On-off control system 573Open circuit voltage, Voltage sources 71Open-loop control 531Operand component 541Operand state 540Operands 542, 560Operating costs 340Operating devices 538

Operating distance 525Operating expenditure 727Operating factor, belt drive 291Operating instructions 592Operating modes, robot 411Operation component 541Operations 560Operative connection 549Operators 558Optoelectronic sensors 528OR function 543OR 497Organisation 454, 455Orientation, robot 410O-rings 255, 256Output variable 415, 531, 564Output 415Outputs 560Overall effi ciency 48Overhead position 347Overheads 725Overlapping joint 157Overpressure 48Owner 722Oxidic coating 686

PP control system 566P0 control process 571Packaging regulations 594PAL-CNC lathes 381Pan head screws 220—, with hexagon socket-head 226—, with slot 226Paper formats 117, 207Pappus-Guldinus Theorem 33, 34Parallel block gauges 433Parallel dimensioning 128Parallel to straight line 203Parallelism 136Parallelogram of forces 38Parallelogram 26—, centre of gravity 37Pareto chart 451Particle composite 697Parts list 208Passive sensors 512Path-dependent control systems 470Pay scale area 721

PD control system 568PE converter 467PELV 582Pendulum ball bearing 265, 268Pendulum impact testing machine 700Penetrant testing 706Pension insurance 718Percentage calculation 23Period time 77Periodic table of the elements 611Periods 450Peripheral surface grinding 330Peripheral surface milling 324Permeability 75Permitted surface pressure 63—, Tension 62Perpendicularity 136ph value 613Phaser diagram 79Photoelectric proximity sensors 528Phototransistor 95Physical variable 11—, Constants 12PI control system 568Pickling 687PID control system 568Pillar mounts 288Pin cutting cycle 394Pins 246—, Screw-in groups 234—, Screw-in lengths 234Pipe connections, hydraulics 490Pipe routing 461Pipe thread 217—, cylindrical 213Pipes, identifi cation 591Piston accumulator 489Piston engine 467Piston force 463, 481—, Determining 53, 464Piston forces, cylinder 53Piston pressure 50Piston speed 51, 52, 481Piston speed, average 464Pitting corrosion 688Plain bearing materials 678, 679

741Index

N – P



Plain milling 324Plane selection 401—, Milling 393Planing tools 323Planing 323—, guide values 323—, Main usage time 341Plasma arc cutting 360Plasma nitriding 654Plastic bonding 366Plastic coating 685Plastic cutting 337Plastic cutting 337Plastic turning 316Plastics welding 367Plastics 690—, Code 690—, Code letters 690—, Division 690—, fi breglass-reinforced 697— for side bearings 693—, Indentation testing 708—, Processing 695—, properties 695—, Temperature infl uences 694—, Tensile test 707—, Use 695PLC circuit 578PLC 540—, Programming languages 542Plug gauges 435Plug-in drill bushings 280Pneumatic cylinders 462Pneumatic motor 54Pneumatic valves 465Pneumatics 459PNP transistor 94Point angle 304Pointed thread 213Pointer instruments 508Pole coordinates 129Polyaddition adhesives 365Polygon of forces 38Polygon, regular 27—, irregular 27Polymerisation adhesives 365Position 137Positional tolerances 136Positioning 299Positive edge 548

Positive opening operation 538Positively driven operation 538Possessor 722Post-pricing 724Potable water pipes 591Potential energy 46Potential, electrical 69Potentiometer 85Power calculation 23Power measurement 510Power transmission, hydraulic 480Power 47—, AC circuit 79—, Cylinder 481—, electrical 69––, hydraulic 54—, Pumps 481Precautionary label 351Precision 415Preferred numbers 210Preliminary batch 448Preparatory functions 377, 390Pre-pricing 724Preset 545Press, hydraulic 51Pressure angle, milling 325Pressure connection 493Pressure reducing valve 487Pressure regulating valve 461, 467Pressure relief valve 467, 486Pressure resistance welding 346Pressure sensors 523Pressure sensors 523Pressure transducer 51, 480Pressure valves 466, 486Pressure vessel steel 632, 658Pressure vessel 46Pressure welding 346Pressure 48, 60—, hydrostatic 49Pressure-dependent control systems 471Pressureless circulation 494Pretensioning forces, screws 231Pricing factor 725Pricing supplement 725

Primary control system 493Primary electrical circuit 198Principle of equivalence 717Principle of solidarity 717Principle of subsidiarity 717Prism 31Problems during turning 322Process control chart 448Process courses 450Process 453, 531Procurement costs 340Product 455Production factors 711Production overheads 340Production scheduling 338Production time 339Production-specifi c dimensioning 122Productivity 724Profi le drilling 309Profi le, Al 676Program blocks 555Program jump 548, 553Program loop 553Program methods 400—, CNC 389Program part repetition 384Program structures, elementary 201Program workfl ow 201Program zero 375Programming languages, SPS 542Programming process 402Programming, industrial robots 411—, machine 403—, manual 402—, structured 555Prohibitive signs 596Project 455Projections 118, 119Proof 456Property 416, 455, 457Proportional action coeffi cient 566Proportional valve 495Protection against dismissal 716Protection by RCD 590Protection class l 586—, ll 585—, lll 582

P

742 Index



Protection classes 586Protection potential equalisation 583Protective circuits 537Protective devices, industrial robots 412Protective insulation 585Protective measures 581Protractor, simple 431—, optical 433—, universal 432Proximity switch, inductive 525—, capacitative 527Proximity-sensing system 528PT1 control process 571PT2 control process 571PTC resistors 87PTC thermistor 87PTt control process 571Pulling power 47Pulse valve 465, 475, 494Pump power 47Pushbutton 538Pyramid 31Pythagoras 24Pythagorean theorem 24

QQuality assurance 444, 445, 454Quality audit 417Quality characteristic 444, 455Quality control chart 447Quality control loop 444Quality control 445Quality elements 444Quality improvement 454Quality inspection 445, 457Quality management system 454Quality objective 454Quality planning 445Quality policy 454Quality requirements 417, 454Quality requirements 445Quality 454Quench hardening 654Quenching and tempering 654Query operation 541Query result 541

Quick-action venting valve 466Quick-release taper shafts 261

RR command 550R statements 601Radial recessing cycle 387Radial shaft seal 256Radii, dimensioning 122Rake angle 298, 304—, Milling 324—, turning 312Rake face 298, 304Ramp response 566Random measurement deviation 418Random sample inspection 458Random sample 458Range 444Rapid traverse 494Rate time 568Rated value 455RC element 537RCD types 590RCD 583, 590Reactance, inductive 80—, Capacitive 80Reaction, measuring instrument 418Reactive power 79Reaming cycle 398Reaming 307—, Main usage time 341Recessing cycle, axial 388—, radial 387Re-chuck 384—, CNC 390Recrystallisation annealing 653Rectangle 26Rectangular pocket cycle, milling 393Rectangular pocket milling cycle 394Rectangular rods, Al 674Recycling code 594Reference conditions 417Reference letter 714Reference point 375Reference points, CNC 374Reference sample 442

Reference sign 155Reference variable 531, 564Refl ection 400Regular polygon in circle 205Regulatory authorities 454Reject rate 443Relay contacts 536Relay types 536Relays 535Release criteria 415Reliability 606Repair costs 340Repair 456Repeatability 418Reproducibility 415, 418Requirement 454Reset time 568Resignation 713, 716Resistance sensors 514Resistance to alternating stress 702Resistance to stripping out, nuts 235Resisting torques 66Resistors, electrical 83—, colour coding 83—, Parallel connection 70—, Series connection 70Resolution 415, 561Response characteristic, measuring instrument 418Response threshold 415Response time 415Rest periods 714Result of the logic operation 541Resulting force 37Re-threading dies 311Retro-refl ective system 528Return on sales 724Reworking rate 445Rhombus 26Right angles, dimensioning 124Right-hand rule 75Right-hand thread 215Ring nuts 239, 281Rising dimensioning 128Risk assessment 576Robot coordinate system 409Robot technology 405Robot, operating modes 411—, Coordinate system 409

743Index

P – R



—, Kinematic structure 407—, Orientation 410Rockwell hardness 704Rockwell test procedure 704Rockwell, hardness testing 703Rod electrodes 353, 354Roller bearing 261—, Structure of basic symbols 262—, Selection 263, 264—, designation 261, 262, 264—, Description of elements 178—, Key fi gures and hole diameters 262—, ID 264—, Dimension series 262—, Use 263, 264Roller chains 294Roller pulley system 42Roller, fi xed 42—, loose 42Rolling friction 40Roman numerals 12Rope winches 43Rotary encoder 519Rotary speed measurement 518Rotation plane selection 384Rotation, milling 393Rotational speeds 400—, CNC 389Rotational-slider principle 485Roughness characteristics 443Roughness classes 443Roughness measured variables, grading 151Roughness profi le 443Roughness 443—, turning 314Round rods, Al 674Round scale 426Round steel 641—, hot-rolled 643Round tubes, Al 675Rounding radius 210Roundness 136RRR kinematics 408RS fl ip-fl op 500RTT kinematics 408Rule of three 22RUN 448

SS command 550S statements 602Saddle keys 258SAE viscosity classes 370Safety advice 602Safety categories 575Safety factors, engineering sector 61Safety markings 596Safety measures, industrial robots 412Sales contract 727Sales costs extras 726Sawing, synthetic materials 337Scale division 420Scales 118, 208Scaling 400Scanning range 529Schematic circuit diagram 192Scraping 686Screw and washer assemblies 221Screw connection, forces 230Screw gears, module 290Screw locking elements 254Screw plate stock. 311Screw plugs 228Screw pump 468Screw types 219Screw, work 45Screw-in groups, pins 234Screws 219—, and nuts, mechanical properties 223—, designation 222—, Head types 224—, Strength classes 222—, Types of thread 224—, with lug 221Sealing elements 255—, Representation 176Seals, elements 177Seam types, Welding 157Seating principle 486Secondary control system 493Selection branch 553Selection of fi t 140—, recommended 147Selector button 538

Self-aligning roller bearing 266, 270Self-tapping screw thread 214Self-tapping screws 221, 229SELV 581Semicircular arc, centre of gravity 36Semicircular area, centre of gravity 36Semiconductor components 91Semiconductor, identifi cation 91Sensitivity 415Sensors 512—, active 512—, passive 512Sensors 533Sequence controls, path-dependent 474Sequencer fl ow 549Sequencer principle 549Sequencer, linear 552Sequential control 532, 549Series resistor 71Serrated lock washers 245Service 455Servicing 606—, condition-based 607—, failure-based 606—, preventative 607Set of gauge blocks 434Set screws 220, 229Setscrew with thrust point 283Setting controllers 572Shaft ends 259Shaft seal, radial 256Shafts, limit deviations 146Shank screws 222—, Selection 232Shape tolerances 135Shear cutting 67Shear modulus 64Shear testing 701Shearing 60, 61—, multi-shear 63—, single-shear 63Sheet folding 208Shell surface area 33Shell surface areas, turning 384Shewhart control chart 447

R – S

744 Index



Shielding gases 356—, Division 357Shock-hazard protection 583Shop-fl oor-oriented programming 402Short names, steel 620Shrinkage 56Shut-off valves 488Shuttle valve 466SI units 11Side milling cutter 326Signal 532Signalling devices 538Silicon coating 686Simple indexing 329Simultaneous branch 553Sine function 24Single-cylinder control 482Sintered materials 680Sintered metals 680Size factor 65Skills 713Slide bearing 271—, bushes 272—, cylindrical 40—, plastics 693Slide reference point 375Slide-on capability 433Slider principle 485Sliding friction 40Slot milling cycle 394Snap lock 284Social security 717Social welfare court 720Soft annealing 653Soft solder 346, 361, 362Solder containing silver 364Soldering gap width 361Soldering methods 361, 362Soldering 346, 361Sole trader enterprise 728Solenoid valves 475Solid lubricants 373Solvent adhesives 365SOP 402SPC 446Special characters, CNC 376Special dimensions 127Special oils 368Special waste 593Specifi c air consumption 52, 462

Specifi c melting heat 59—, Cutting force 304—, Thermal capacity 57Specifi cation 454Speed control 471, 492Speed diagram 302Speed ratio value 332Sphere layer 33Sphere sector 33Sphere segment 33Sphere zone 33Sphere 32Spheres, dimensioning 124Spherical washers 243Spherical-roller bearing 266, 270Spheroidal graphite 640Spirals 206Splined shaft connections 260—, tolerance classes 260Spot facing 309Spot weld 158Spring force 38, 275Spring lengths 275Spring lock washers, corrugated 244Spring pins 248Spring steel wire 632Spring steels 631Spring washer grooves, tolerances 258Spring washers 258Spring-back factor, bending 336Springs 275—, correction coeffi cient 276—, Representation 180Spur and bevel gears, module 289Spur gear 175Spur gears 289Spur gears, external teeth 289—, internal teeth 289—, helical teeth 290—, spur teeth 289Square head screw 222Square shoulder screws 221Square steel 641Square steel, hot-rolled 643Square wave voltage 78Square 26Squares 242

Squares, dimensioning 121Stainless steel 632, 656Standard deviation 444Standard heads 185Standard hole system 142Standard hole 142Standard number ranges 210Standard parts, jig-and-fi xture manufacturing 279Standard shaft system 144Standard 417Standards for numerical value data 84Star confi guration 82Star handles 285Star knobs 286Star-delta conversion 72Static friction 40Static load 60—, measurement 418Statistical inspection 456— Quality control 444Steel castings for pressure purposes 638Steel grades 628Steel group number 624Steel products 641Steel screws, identifi cation codes 224Steel tubes 649Steel, designation 616—, additional symbols 622—, for steel construction 628—, labelling system 618—, short names 620—, stainless 632Steiner, transformation 67Step response 566Step 549Step-by-step control 549Stop position damping 462Stored energy 46Straightness 135Strain gauge 520Strain-gauge transducer 522Strength classes, nuts 234, 235—, screws 222Stress type 60Stress-elongation diagram 699Stress-relief annealing 654Stretched length 30, 336

745Index

S



Structural steel, non-alloy 627Structural steels, special 630Structured chart 201Structured programming 555Stud bolts 221, 222, 228Sub-program call-up 384Subtraction, dual 17Sum of angles in a triangle 29Sunk keys 259Supplier 454, 455Support bolts 282Support disks 254Surface characteristics 150Surface coeffi cient 65Surface corrosion 688Surface inspection methods 442Surface pressure 63—, permissible 63Surface reference sample 442Surface shape 136Surface specifi cations 148Surfaces, coated 155Switching cycle, cylinder 462Switching frequency 574Switching overlap 486Symmetry 137Synchronisation circuit 491Synchronous belt drives 293Synthetic fl uids 368Synthetic material, drilling 337—, Milling 338—, Sawing 337—, Turning 338System of fi ts standard hole 140—, Standard shaft 140Systematic measurement deviation 418

TT profi le, Al 676T slot screws 281T slots, nuts 281T steel 646Tactile comparison 440Tangent function 24Tangent to the circle 204Taper gauges 440Taper keys 259Taper roller bearing 266, 269

Taper turning 317Taper 32—, metric 260Tapered bore 309Tapered lubrication nipple 273Tapered pins 247Tapping cycle, milling 397Tapping 307—, Main usage time 341—, mechanical 308Target value 455Taylor’s principle 422TAZ suppression diode 94Temperature dependence, resistor 70Temperature sensors 514Temperature 54Tensile stress 61Tensile test pieces 699Tensile test, plastics 707Tension 60Tension, permissible 62Tensioner 43Terminal connections 194Terminal diagram 200Terminal voltage, Voltage sources 71Terminals 194—, Transfer resistor 195Test batch 456Test equipment 417, 420, 422Test piece dimensions 701Test 456Testing technology 415Text orientation, dimensioning 120T-head bolts 222, 228Theorem of intersecting lines 29, 30Thermal capacity, specifi c 57Thermistor 86Thermocouples 515Thread cutting 311Thread cutting 318—, Main usage time 342Thread cycle 385Thread dimensions 123Thread pitch 30Thread representation 161Thread ring gauges 441Thread run-outs 218, 219Thread testing 441

Thread tolerance 215Thread undercuts 218, 219Thread 232—, application 213—, axial directions 213—, designation 219—, properties 215—, Representation 161Thread, single-start 218—, code letter 213—, limit deviations 233—, multiple-start 215, 218—, nominal size 213Threaded bore 309Threaded pipes 649Threading die 311Throttle check valve 466Throttle valves 488Through bore 223, 309Through-beam system 528Thrust pieces 283Thumb screws 222, 282TIG welding 358—, technical data 358Tightening torques, Screws 232Time constant 73, 76Time-dependent control systems 471Time-scheduled control 565Titanium alloys 667T-joint 157TN system 586Tolerance classes, male thread 215—, Female thread 215—, Splined shaft connections 260—, Indexable inserts 319Tolerance zone 133, 135Tolerance 130, 457Toleranced dimension 132, 134Tolerances, featherkey ways 257—, Spring washer grooves 258Tolerances, metric ISO thread 232Tool angle on the cutting edge 298Tool application groups 299Tool change point 375—, turning 384

S – T

746 Index



Tool corrections 389, 400Tool cutting edge angle 298—, turning 312Tool cutting edge inclination 298—, turning 312Tool cutting point 375Tool holder reference point 375Tool holders, Indexable inserts 320Tool included angle 298Tool life 317Tool number 388, 399Tool path corrections 380Tool reference plane 298Tool reference point 375Tool reference system 298Tool setting point 375Tool starting cut, milling 344Tool steel 635, 659, 681Tool taper 260Tooth gap profi le, synchronised pulleys 294Toothed belt 175Toothed gearing 42Torsion 60, 65Total Productive Maintenance 608TPM measures 608TPM 608Traceability 418, 455Trading margin 725Trainee representation 722Transcrystalline corrosion 688Transducer 416Transfer line 405Transfer resistance, terminals 195Transferring 560Transformation as per Steiner’s principle 67Transistors 94Transition fi t 139Transition of circular elements 205Transition 549Transmission capacity 47Trapezium 26—, centre of gravity 37Trapezoidal thread 213, 214—, metric 214Travel-step diagram 475

Trend 450Triangle 26—, acute 27—, centre of gravity 37—, obtuse 27Trigonometric functions 24, 29Trimmer 85Troubleshooting 456, 608True value 418Trueness 417Truncated cone 32Truncated pyramid 31Truth table 505TT system 587TTT kinematics 408Tube steels 633Tubes, hydraulics 489Turning centres 404Turning 312, 400—, Angle at tool 315—, Correction factors 313—, Main usage time 342—, Problems 322—, Synthetic material 316, 338Twist drill 304Two-hand locking 578Two-pressure valve 466Type of fault 608Types of collective bargaining 721Types of corrosion 688Types of load 60Types of thread 213—, screws 224Types of waste 684

UU profi le, Al 676U-groove weld 157Ultrasonic sensors 527Ultrasonic testing 706Uncorrected measurement result 418Undercut cycle 387Undercuts 182—, depiction and dimensioning 171Unemployment insurance 718Unit costs 340Unit of measurement 11Units 13

—, decimal multiple and scaler 11Universal protractor 432Usability 415Users 452U-steel 645Utilisation category 535

VValidation 418Valve thread 215Vaporisation heat 58Variable declaration 557Variable, physical 11Variables 557—, global 557—, local 557Varistor 537V-belt drive 68V-belt pulleys 292VDR resistors 87Vectors 37Verifi cation 418, 456Vernier callipers 423Vertical down position 347Vertical up position 347V-groove weld 157Vickers hardness 705Vickers, hardness testing 705Viscosity class 370Voltage divider, loaded 71—, no load 71Voltage sources, terminal voltage 71—, Open-circuit voltage 71—, Parallel connection 71—, Series connection 70Voltage, electrical 69Voltage-dependent resistors 87Volume calculation 31Volume expansion coeffi cient 55Volume expansion 55Volume 34Volumetric fl ow 480

WWage statement 719Warning limits 445Warning signs 597Washers 242—, fl at 242

747Index

T – W



—, square 243Waste avoidance 593Waste disposal 593Waste utilisation 593Waste 593Wear margin 607Wear 606, 607Wedge angle 298, 304—, milling 324—, turning 312Wedge measuring plane 298Weld cross-section 155, 356Weld metal 359Weld seam preparation 350Weld seam volumes 355Welding and soldering methods, Identifi cation numbers 159, 346Welding construction, general tolerances 160, 347Welding nuts 238Welding positions 160, 347Welding rods 353Welding seams, dimensioning 156—, Collective indication 156—, Evaluation 348—, Representation 155Welding 155, 346—, Gas consumption 352—, Seam types 157

Welding, additional symbols 158Wet adhesives 365Whitworth pipe thread 213,217—, cylindrical 213Whitworth thread, tapered 213—, cylindrical 213Winch 43Wing nuts 282Wire break protection 578Wire electrodes 359Wire resistors 85Wiring diagram 196Wöhler process 702Wood screw thread 214Wood screws 221Work table 505Work time 714Work 44—, electrical 69—, Inclined plane with friction 44—, Inclined plane without friction 44—, plane 44—, Screw 45Working expenses 727Workpiece clamping device, turning 314

Workpiece edges 172Workpiece zero point 375Workplace costs 340Works council 719Workshop gauges 435Worm drive 68, 290Worm gear 175Worm 175Wound capacitors 89Wrought aluminium alloys 666Wrought magnesium alloys 677

Xx/R chart 447X-ray testing 706

YY-groove weld 158Yield strength 699Youth representation 722

ZZ diode 93Zero line 133Zero overlap 486Zero points 400—, CNC 389

748 Index

W – Z

Metal Trades Handbook

Documents

Transcript of Metal Trades Handbook