Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching
Transcript of Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching
Prepared for
Texas Science Initiative of the Texas Education Agency Shirley Neeley, Ed.D., Commissioner of Education
September, 2005
Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching
Texas A&M University Center for Mathematics and Science Education Project Staff: Timothy P. Scott, Ph.D. Homer Tolson, Ph.D. Carolyn Schroeder Yi-Hsuan Lee, Ph.D. Tse-Yang Huang, Ph.D. Xue Hu Adrienne Bentz Advisory Board: Carol L. Fletcher, Ph.D., Texas Regional Collaboratives, UT Austin Ginny Heilman, Region VI ESC Anna McClane, Region IV ESC Sandra S. West, Ph.D., Texas State University Jo Ann Wheeler, Region IV ESC Review Team: Katherine (Kit) Price Blount, Ph.D., Texas Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher
Preparation Patricia Castellano, North East ISD, San Antonio Diane Jurica, George West ISD Judy Kelley, Texas Rural Systemic Initiative & South Texas Rural Systemic Initiative Mayra Martinez, TAMU-Corpus Christi Sharon Kyles Ross, Dallas ISD Fernando Ruiz, TAMU-Corpus Christi
Texas Education Agency Project Staff: Robert Scott, Chief Deputy Commissioner Christi Martin, Senior Advisor Susan Barnes, Ph.D., Associate Commissioner Chris Castillo Comer, Director of Science Gina S. Day, Texas Science Initiative Manager Sharon Jackson, Ph.D., Deputy Associate Commissioner Irene Pickhardt, Assistant Director of Science George Rislov, Managing Director of Curriculum
An Introduction to the Texas Science Initiative
In 2003, the 78th Texas Legislature enacted HB 411 to improve science education at all levels and prepare Texas students for postsecondary success. Led by Governor Rick Perry, a community of education leaders and policy makers established a plan for the initiative, conducted a needs analysis of the current state of science education in Texas, and recommended action steps for responding to those needs with scientific research-based professional development, instructional strategies, and classroom materials. The resulting group of programs, known as the Texas Science Initiative, strives to address these challenges through a number of ventures, including the creation of professional development modules emphasizing effective strategies for teaching Science; online diagnostic instruments to aid teachers in student needs assessment; after-school and summer programs for struggling students; and the Master Science Teacher Certification Program. In order to aid the Agency and the Commissioner in the creation of training materials and other resources to assist science teachers in developing expertise in effective instructional approaches, the Texas Education Agency commissioned Texas A&M University at College Station to conduct a meta-analysis of national science education research to identify the most effective science instructional tools and methods. The purpose of this meta-analysis is to define what has been shown to improve student achievement and to develop a publication designed to share that information with educators across the state. This research provides the basis for production of a rubric for evaluating state-invested and other science education professional development and instructional materials to ensure the integrity and reliability of those products. The identification and implementation of proven methods of science instruction is a key step in ensuring the success of Texas students in science achievement and will inform future policy decisions and resource investments of science education stakeholders and policy makers.
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CONTENTS
Introduction to the Meta-Analysis...………………………………………………... 1
Methodology………………………………………………………………………….. 3
Acquisition of Studies………………………………………………………...... 3
Coding of Studies……………………………………………………………..... 4
Intercoder Objectivity………………………………………………………....... 5
Criteria for Selection of Studies……………………………………………..... 6
Computation of Effect Size…………………………………………………..... 7
Statistical Methods and Analysis……………………………………………… 9
Results………………………………………………………………………………… 10
Section 1: Description of Studies…………………………………………....... 10
Section 2: Meta-Analysis Validity Issues…………………………………...... 16
Section 3: Meta-Analysis for All Studies…………………………………....... 19
Section 4: Meta-Analysis for Studies Classified by Treatment Categories. 22
Section 5: Analysis of Moderator Variables………………………………….. 27
Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………... 28
References………………………………………………………………………….... 30
Studies Included in Meta-Analysis…………………………………………………. 31
Appendix A. Web Sites and Search Terms……………………………………….. 35
Appendix B. Bibliography of Studies and Articles………………………………... 38
Appendix C. Literature Coding Document………………………………………… 63
Appendix D. Treatment Description Categories Classification Form….……….. 65
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Appendix E. Treatment Description Summaries………………….…………….... 67
Appendix F. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Output …………………………….. 78
Appendix G. Regression Output……………………..…………………………….. 92
Appendix H. Formulas………….………………………………………………….... 96
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Introduction to the Meta-Analysis The Center for Mathematics and Science Education at Texas A&M
University has undertaken a research project commissioned by the Texas
Education Agency in order to improve the learning and academic performance of
students in K-12 science so that they are prepared for post-secondary success.
This portion of the research project, a meta-analysis of national research
regarding science instruction, was initiated to establish a knowledge base of what
methodologies have been shown to be effective and which ones have not been
effective. The meta-analysis addressed the question: What teaching
methodologies have been shown to improve student achievement in science?
While this question may appear too broad for a meta-analysis, the broadness was
intentional to encompass the breadth of science methodologies employed and the
multitude of instruments used to assess student achievement. The findings of this
study will be used to develop a publication to share this vital information with
educators across the state and to provide the criteria for evaluation of instructional
materials and professional development programs.
The methodology involved in this project consisted of six major phases:
acquisition of studies, coding of studies, determining intercoder objectivity,
establishing criteria for selection of studies, computation of effect size and
establishing statistical methods and conducting analyses. The study acquisition
phase involved searching for research reports as well as position papers,
bibliographies, and other relevant references and collecting as many pertinent
reports as possible for the meta-analysis. The first step of the study coding phase
consisted of developing a coding instrument to identify all of the necessary types
of information to be collected from each report in order to describe the
interventions used in the studies. Each report was then screened to determine if it
met the preliminary criteria for inclusion in the meta-analysis. Those studies
meeting the preliminary criteria were then carefully coded using the coding
instrument. The third phase, intercoder objectivity, involved the simultaneous
coding of three studies by three members of the research team. A listing of the
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stringent criteria for final selection of studies was the fourth phase of the project.
The fifth phase of the methodology was the computation of effect sizes. The final
phase involved the use of Comprehensive Meta-Analysis® (CMA) software and
SPSS® statistical analysis software, to obtain results for display and interpretation.
This initial report is limited in scope due to the rigorous inclusion criteria
necessitated by the time limits for completion. It is highly recommended that the
following types of studies be included in future meta-analyses:
o International studies
o Correlational studies (data on two variables collected and
summarized, showing the relationship between the variables)
o Studies dealing with attitudinal and motivational changes in students
and teachers
o Studies dealing with special populations (English-language learners,
special education, under-represented populations, etc.)
o Studies dealing with teacher professional development
o Studies dealing with learning in general (not just limited to science
education)
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Methodology Acquisition of Studies A broad search for reports of studies to be included in the meta-analysis
resulted in the collection of over 390 studies including journal articles, conference
papers, books, dissertations, government reports and unpublished papers. The
majority of the reports were identified through searches of electronic databases,
including ISI Web of Science, ERIC, ERIC EBSCO, ERIC FirstSearch, ERIC CSA
(Cambridge Scientific Abstracts), Academic Search Premier, PsycINFO, and
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. Government web sites such as Berkeley
National Laboratory, the Department of Education, and other science education
sites such as the National Academies, National Science Resources, American
Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Education Development
Center, and National Science Teachers Association provided reports, links to
sources, and names of science programs. In addition, general Web searches
using standard search engines such as Google and Google Scholar were
conducted. Initial search terms included “science education” and “student
achievement.” Subsequent searches were expanded by using various
combinations of alternatives for achievement, such as “performance,” “success,”
and “outcomes,” and by combining them with individual science disciplines such
as “biology,” “chemistry,” “physics,” “physical science,” “earth science,” “ecology”
and “environmental science.” Other terms such as “science teaching,” “hands-on
science,” and “professional development” were also used in search strings. (See
Appendix A for a listing of web sites and search terms employed.)
A request was sent by email to the National Association for Research in
Science Teaching (NARST) listserve soliciting suggestions of published articles or
reports that might contain useful research or for copies of unpublished research.
Experts in the field of science education research were asked to review the
bibliography and make suggestions. In addition, direct requests for information
were sent individually to project directors of “exemplary and promising science
programs” identified by the Department of Education Expert Panel on
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Mathematics and Science Education. The programs contacted included the
Biological Sciences Curriculum Studies (BSCS), Project ARIES, Project InSIGHT,
Event-Based Science, Foundational Approaches in Science Teaching (FAST),
Full Option Science System (FOSS), Great Explorations in Math and Science
(GEMS), Modeling Instruction in High School Physics, Phenomena and
Representations for the Instruction of Science in Middle Schools (PRISMS), and
Science 2000+. Finally, reference lists from books, dissertations, studies and
other meta-analyses were examined for potential studies to be included.
Coding of Studies Characteristics of the studies (moderator variables) were coded in order to
investigate the possible influence of some of these variables on effect size. Coded
attributes included:
• study number and citation,
• publication type (refereed journal article, dissertation, unpublished report),
• study type (experimental – complete randomization, quasi-experimental –
randomization used, quasi-experimental – no randomization, correlational),
• dependent variable [type of test, test name, number of items, content
area(s)],
• independent variable (treatment name and description, control and/or
alternate treatment),
• length of treatment/study,
• setting and characteristics,
o schools (number of schools, if selected at random, if unit of analysis,
public/private, urban/rural/suburban, size, % free lunch),
o students (number of students, if selected at random, if assigned at
random, if unit of analysis, gender, grade, ethnicity, socioeconomic
status), and
o teacher(s) (number of teachers, if volunteer or selected,
age/experience, gender, certification,
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• study results [effect size(s), p(s), t(s), F(s), eta square(s), omega
square(s)],
• study design classification,
o true random assignment of schools/students to treatment and
control groups,
o quasi-experimental with match of schools/students to achievement
and demographics of comparison school/group,
o quasi-experimental with covariate adjustment for prior achievement
differences,
o quasi-experimental comparison of schools/subjects based a claim of
“similarity,”
o quasi-experimental comparison of schools/subjects to regional,
state, or national data,
o quasi-experimental single-group pre-post comparison,
o quasi-experimental treatment vs. control pre-post test, or
o quasi-experimental multiple group ANOVA (Analysis of Variance).
Intercoder Objectivity
In order to establish intercoder reliability, three journal articles were
selected at random and coded independently by the senior analyst and two
members of the research team. For two of the articles, the degree of objectivity
was 90%. Due to the non-inclusion of correlational studies in this meta-analysis,
only two items were coded for the third article as the coders stopped after
identifying the study as a correlational study. The remainder of the articles for this
project was divided between the two members of the research team who coded
their respective articles and then submitted them to the senior analyst. The senior
analyst then read and coded all of the articles and any differences in coding
values were resolved at the discretion of the senior analyst. All of the dissertation
material was evaluated and coded by the senior analyst and two recent Ph.D.
recipients who possess strong statistical backgrounds.
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Criteria for Selection of Studies
In the initial search for studies, liberal criteria were employed and many
reports, studies and articles were collected which proved to be unusable for this
meta-analysis. For final inclusion in the meta-analysis, rigorous criteria which
conformed to the charge from TEA were employed. Studies had to have:
• been published between January 1, 1980, and December 31, 2004,*
• been concerned with K-12 science education in the U.S.,
• used student achievement (or success, performance, etc.) as the
dependent variable,
• used science education teaching strategies as independent variables,
• been experimental or quasi-experimental,
• reported effect size (ES) or the statistics necessary to calculate ES (means
and standard deviations, p values, ANOVA tables, etc.),
• not been totally correlational,
• been for general education students/classes (not deal exclusively with a
special population), and
• not been included more than once (e.g., the same study reported in a
conference paper and a journal article).
An indication of the number of studies that were not included and the
reasons for non-inclusion are presented in Table 1.
*This time span encompasses the studies conducted since the major science education meta-analyses published in the early 1980s.
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Table 1. Frequencies and Reasons for Non-Inclusion Reasons Frequencies
Did not fit time frame * Did not concern K-12 science education in the US 58 Did not use student achievement as DV and/or science education methodologies as IV 97
Was not experimental or quasi-experimental (cannot be correlational) 41 Did not have ES or necessary data to calculate ES 62 Was not for general education students (concerned with special populations) 25
Duplicated another study 6 Other (a meta-analysis report, bibliography, descriptive case study, position paper, literature review, etc.) 48
Total 337 *A large number of studies were not collected because it was immediately obvious that they did not fit within the time frame. Computation of Effect Size
For each achievement measure reported in the included studies, an effect
size (ES) was calculated comparing the performance of a treatment group with
that of a group that received a control treatment. Basic effect size calculations
were based on Cohen’s d (Cohen 1988) using the formula:
ScXXES CT −=
where d is replaced with ES and TX is the mean for the experimental or treatment
group, CX is the mean for the control group, and SC is the standard deviation of
the control group.
For studies which employed single group pre-post test designs, the effect
size was calculated as
pre
prepost
SXXES −
=
Where postX is the mean for the posttest, preX is the mean for the pretest, and
preS is the standard deviation for the pretest data. The above formulas were used
in hand calculations of effect size for many of the articles in this meta-analysis.
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These previously cited indicators of effect size are presented as Hedges’ g
in the CMA® and involve the following formula:
P
CT
SXX
ES−
=
where ( ) ( )
211 2222
2
−+−+−
=CT
CCTTP nn
SnSnS which is the pooled variance.
In cases in which effect sizes had to be calculated indirectly, that is from t,
procedures recommended by Hedges and Becker (1986) were employed:
n
tES 2= (for equal ns) and
CT nn
tES 11+= (for unequal ns).
For the multiple groups ANOVA research designs, the transformation
formula used to convert F to ES was:
CT
CT
nnnn
FES+
=
where F is the obtained ANOVA test statistic and nT and nC represent respective
sample sizes.
If a sample size was less than 30, the standardized mean difference effect
size was adjusted by the following formula:
⎥⎦⎤
⎢⎣⎡
−−=
9431'N
ESES
Calculation of the standard error of each estimate of effect size was
accomplished using the following approximation formula:
( )( )21
2
21
21
2 nnES
nnnnse
++
+=
with 2
1se
w = as the weighting factor for ES.
In order to meet the meta-analytical assumption of independence of effect
sizes, only one effect size indicator per study should be represented in an
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analysis. If a study used several different outcome measures (for example, some
of the dissertations), then there would be more than one effect size for that study.
In the present meta-analysis, multiple effect sizes per study were averaged in two
ways. If a study used the same subjects with more than one dependent variable
(student achievement tests):
• a weighted mean effect size was calculated whenever the sample sizes
were very divergent (e.g., ni=15~80), and
• an unweighted mean effect size was calculated whenever the sample sizes
were equal or approximately equal.
These averaging procedures resulted in one effect size for each study. Statistical Methods and Analyses
In this study, the software used for calculating the meta-analysis for
standard research design studies was Comprehensive Meta-Analysis® from
BioStat. This software can produce Cohen’s d, Hedges’s g, Q values, confidence
intervals, fixed effects, random effects, and heterogeneity testing results. An
examination of the internal and external validity issues associated with this meta-
analysis was accomplished using multiple linear regression of the moderator
variables. This latter analysis was performed using SPSS® statistical analysis
software.
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Results
The results obtained in this investigation are presented in the following
sections: (1) Description of Studies, (2) Meta-Analysis Validity Issues, (3) Meta-
Analysis for All Studies, (4) Meta-Analysis for Studies Classified by Treatment
Categories, and (5) Analysis of Moderator Variables.
Section 1: Description of Studies Characteristics and Frequencies of the Selected Studies
A breakdown of the characteristics of the studies selected for the meta-
analysis is presented in Tables 2 and 3. These characteristics have the potential
to influence the effect sizes obtained from the studies.
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Table 2. Frequencies of Variable Characteristics for Included Studies Independent Variable Number of Cases Percent (%)
Publication Year 1980 – 1984 6 9.7 1985 – 1989 7 11.3 1990 – 1994 4 6.5 1995 – 1999 15 24.2 2000 – 2004 30 48.4
Publication Type Refereed Journal Article 40 64.5 Dissertation 18 29.0 Unpublished Report 4 6.5 Type of Study
Experimental (Complete Randomization) 3 4.8
Quasi-Experimental (Randomization Used) 33 53.2
Quasi-Experimental (No Randomization) 26 41.9
Correlational 0 0.0 Test Content Area Biology 17 27.4 Chemistry 12 19.4 Physics 5 8.1 Earth Science 7 11.3 Science 21 33.9 Study Rating Experimental, trt* vs. control 2 3.2 Quasi-, match 1 1.6 Quasi-, similar 1 1.6 Quasi-, single-group pre-post 14 22.6 Quasi-, trt* vs. control pre-post 27 43.5 Quasi-, ANOVA 17 27.4
Totals (for each variable) 62 100.0 *trt = treatment group
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The study characteristic Length of Treatment is displayed in Table 3. This
variable was presented separately because the many levels of this attribute result
in numbers of cases that are too small to make any definitive conclusion.
Table 3. Length of Treatment
Length (Months) Number of Cases Percent (%) .10 1 1.6 .25 4 6.5 .50 5 8.1 .75 2 3.2
1.00 8 12.9 2.00 12 19.4 3.00 2 3.2 4.00 3 4.8 5.00 3 4.8 7.50 2 3.2 8.00 1 1.6 9.00 6 9.7
12.00 3 4.8 Missing 10 16.1 Totals 62 100.0
Dependent Variable
The dependent variable (DV) of this meta-analysis, student achievement,
can be referred to by many names (student performance, success, outcomes) and
may be evaluated with a multitude of assessment tools. The types of
assessments used in the studies and their frequencies are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Dependent Variable (Test Type)
Test Type Number of Cases Percent (%) National Standardized-Multiple Science Content 3 4.8
National Standardized- Single Science Content 6 9.7
Local Standardized- Multiple Science Content 2 3.2
Local Standardized- Single Science Content 4 6.5
Other type test 47 75.8 Totals 62 100.0
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In any attempt to synthesize results from different studies, consideration
must be given to the validity and reliability of the different forms of the dependent
variable (DV) that will be used. In this meta-analysis of studies of science
education, 5 different forms of achievement assessment were subjected to
scrutiny.
The most often-encountered form of achievement assessment was local
teacher- or researcher-developed tests. It is assumed that the instruments
constructed by these individuals would possess acceptable levels of logical
relevancy since tests were formulated to match the instructional units that were
being investigated. The degree of reliability of the teacher-made instruments is
unknown as most of the authors did not provide information regarding this
characteristic. Therefore, it was necessary to assume that this form of
assessment (local type test) was conducted with adequate levels of reliability.
For the 15 studies that used standardized national or local assessments of
either multiple or single content areas, an indication of validity was usually not
reported but the authors referred to the original developers of the instruments
when discussing validity. Most authors gave indications of strong content and
construct validity for these forms of assessment. In terms of reliability for these
tests, the range of values reported was .70 to .94. Since these assessment tools
have been widely used and evaluated, the validities and reliabilities are well within
recommended tests and measurement guidelines.
Independent Variables
In order to explore some of the heterogeneity of effect sizes among the
studies, the various treatment conditions were cast into treatment categories.
Rather than operationally define treatment description categories based on the
studies used in this meta-analysis, an established set of teaching strategy
categories (Wise, 1996) was modified and employed. The modified list of
treatment description categories includes the following:
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• Questioning strategies. Teachers vary timing, positioning, or cognitive
levels of questions (e.g., increasing wait time, adding pauses at key
student-response points, including more high-cognitive-level questions,
stopping visual media at key points and asking questions, posing
comprehension questions to students at the start of a lesson or
assignment).
• Focusing strategies. Teachers alert students to the intent of the lesson or
capture their attention (e.g., providing objectives or reinforcing objectives at
the middle or closing of lesson, using advance organizers).
• Manipulation strategies. Teachers provide students with opportunities to
work or practice with physical objects (e.g., operating apparatus,
developing skills using manipulatives, drawing or constructing something).
• Enhanced materials strategies. Teachers modify instructional materials
(e.g., rewriting or annotating text materials, tape recording directions,
simplifying laboratory apparatus).
• Testing strategies. Teachers change the frequency, purpose, or cognitive
levels of testing/evaluation (e.g., providing immediate or explanatory
feedback, using diagnostic testing, formative testing, retesting, testing to
mastery).
• Inquiry strategies. Teachers use student-centered, inductive instruction
that is less step-by-step and teacher-directed than traditional instruction
(e.g., using guided or facilitated inquiry activities, guided discoveries,
inductive laboratory exercises, indirect instruction).
• Enhanced context strategies. Teachers relate learning to students’
previous experiences or knowledge or engage students’ interest through
relating learning to the students’/school’s environment or setting (e.g.,
using problem based learning, taking field trips, using the schoolyard for
lessons, encouraging reflection).
• Instructional technology strategies. Teachers use technology to enhance
instruction (e.g., using computers, etc. for simulations, modeling abstract
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concepts, and collecting data, showing videos to emphasize a concept,
using pictures, photographs, or diagrams).
• Direct instruction for teaching process skills. Teachers explicitly guide
students through a sequence of tasks (e.g., designing experiments, using
microscope, making measurements).
• Collaborative learning strategies. Teachers arrange students in flexible
groups to work on various tasks (e.g., conducting lab exercises, inquiry
projects, discussions)
A rating sheet (Appendix D) consisting of the treatment categories and a 5-point
Likert-type rating scale was developed to sort each study into an appropriate
category. Three science educators*, each possessing 20-30 years of public
school science instruction experience, read a description of the treatment
condition of each study. They then ranked each of the treatment strategies from 1-
5 for the study. The strategy category receiving the highest ranking response for a
given study was chosen as the treatment category for that study. It should be
noted that while ten strategies are listed, only eight were included in the analysis
because no studies meeting the criteria were found for Focusing strategies or
Direct instruction for teaching process skills. The analysis of the effect sizes for
the different treatment categories is presented in the section concerning
Comprehensive Meta-Analysis® (CMA) outcomes. (Table 8) *These educators were a convenience sample, selected for their expertise in science education and their availability.
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Section 2: Meta-Analysis Validity Issues In this meta-analysis, internal validity is concerned with study quality issues
that might influence the effect size obtained for science instruction strategies.
Four variables related to internal validity were examined in this study: (a)
publication type, (b) type of study, (c) study rating, and (d) dependent variable or
achievement test categories.
A reflection of the average effect size, variability and number of studies for
each category of these potential threats to internal validity is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Internal Validity Influences on the Effect Size of Science Instruction Methodologies Mean SD N Publication Type Refereed Journal Article .91343 .684264 40 Dissertation .28439 .607646 18 Unpublished Report 1.03267 1.194027 3 Type of Study Experimental
(complete randomization) .83467 .375075 3
Quasi-experimental (randomization used) .52571 .677656 33
Quasi-experimental (no randomization) .99608 .775332 25
Study Rating Experimental, trt vs. control .82450 .618718 2 Quasi-, match 1.55100 . 1 Quasi-, similar .51000 . 1 Quasi-, single-group pre-post 1.39831 .827382 13 Quasi-, trt vs. control pre-post .43407 .574647 27 Quasi-, ANOVA .65566 .632238 17 Dependent Variable National Standardized-
Multiple Science Content 1.12367 .722053 3
National Standardized- Single Science Content .58083 .155080 6
Local Standardized- Multiple Science Content .18150 .000707 2
Local Standardized- Single Science Content .92350 .504390 4
Other type test .73568 .807000 46* Totals (for each influence) .73368 .736919 61* *These numbers are 1 less than previously presented due to exclusion of an outlier study.
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Because of the diversity in number of studies when these internal validity
concerns are fractionated, it is not prudent to address each level separately
because the number of studies for each will be few. The influences of these
characteristics as a whole are addressed in the section on multiple regression.
External validity deals with generalization issues, such as whether the
effect of science instruction strategies could be generalized to other populations
or situations. In this study, four variables that might influence external validity
were examined: (a) publication year, (b) test content, (c) grade level, and (d)
treatment categories.
A reflection of the average effect size, variability and number of studies for
each category of these potential threats to internal validity is presented in Table 6.
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Table 6. External Validity Influences on the Effect Size of Science Instruction Methodology Mean ES Mean SD N Publication Year 1980-1984 .61422 .466598 6 1985-1989 .33086 .163185 7 1990-1994 1.14650 .543101 4 1995-1999 .70471 .884399 14 2000-2004 .81003 .792026 30 Test Content Biology .48466 .755617 17 Chemistry 1.01078 .847695 11 Physics .53680 .258843 5 Earth Science .36643 .504522 7 Science .95940 .719718 21 Grade Level Elementary (K-8)* .65888 .680486 16 High School (9-12) .76027 .761513 45 Treatment Categories Questioning strategies .73913 .529271 3 Manipulation strategies .86213 .825688 8 Enhanced materials
strategies .41336 .480139 12
Testing strategies .49250 .099702 2 Inquiry strategies .62533 .706671 12 Enhanced context
strategies 1.42517 1.050396 6
Instructional media strategies .79160 .774321 15
Collaborative learning strategies .58853 .590639 3
Totals (for each influence) .73368 .736919 61 *When classifying by traditional grade levels, i.e., K-5 as elementary, 6-8 as middle school, the numbers of studies were quite small, therefore these groups were collapsed to the levels presented.
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Section 3: Meta-Analysis for All Studies In order to explore the 62 effect sizes obtained in this study, box plots
obtained from SPSS® were constructed. Box plots are used to graphically portray
observations that would be judged to deviate substantially from typical values.
The first box plot is exhibited in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Box Plot of ES for Total Data (N=62)
Effect Size
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
91
Based on this analysis, study #91 was identified as an extreme outlier,
meaning that its value is substantially different from the median value. The data
for achievement means that were presented in the article were judged to be
suspect by the senior analyst. Therefore, this particular report was excluded from
the analysis and a new box plot was constructed.
Figure 2 illustrates that after removal of the extreme outlier study, two
studies are identified as mild outliers. These studies were not excluded from the
meta-analysis since they were within the ±3 ES range.
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Figure 2. Box Plot for Data with Extreme Outlier Removed (N=61)
Effect Size
3
2
1
0
-1
601
38
A pictorial representation of the distribution of effect sizes for this meta-
analysis is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Histogram for the Obtained Effect Sizes (N=61)
3.0002.0001.0000.000-1.000-2.000
Effect Size
25
20
15
10
5
0
Freq
uenc
y
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Figure 3 reveals that the largest number of effect sizes occurs in the range
of .00 to .50. With the exception of the indicated most frequent range, the
distribution of effect sizes is relatively normally distributed.
Based on the box plots and histogram, the data after removal of the
extreme outlier was judged to be acceptable for further analysis. A summary of
the analysis of effect sizes for the total data set is presented in Table 7. The
complete output associated with this analysis is given in Appendix F.
Table 7. Meta-Analysis Result for All Studies
N Total Effect Size Lower Limit Upper Limit t p Total
61 Studies 159695 .6696 .6594 .6797 128.9552 .0000
Based on the results across approximately 160,000 observations of
students, there is an effect of science instruction methodology on student
achievement. The effect size of .6696 translates to a treatment performance level
that would be located at the 75 percentile of the control group. This effect size
was judged to be statistically different from .00 as indicated by the probability
value associated with the t statistic.
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Section 4: Meta-Analysis for Studies Classified by Treatment Categories
The analyses of the effect sizes for the treatment categories were
effectuated using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis®. A summary of the results of
these analyses is presented in Table 8. For comparison purposes, the results for
the total group are also exhibited in the table. The complete output for the
analyses is exhibited in Appendix F.
Table 8. CMA Results for Total Data and Treatment Categories
N Total Effect Size Lower Limit Upper Limit t-Value Q-Value Total
61 Studies 159695 .6696 .6594 .6797 128.9552 1582.088
Treatment Categories Questioning Strategies 279 .7395 .4927 .9863 5.8992 11.8593
Manipulation Strategies 1240 .5729 .4565 .6893 9.6546 104.8797
Enhanced Material Strategies 2450 .2908 .2100 .3716 7.0540 61.5499
Testing Strategies 166 .5052 .1935 .8169 3.2005 .1906
Inquiry Strategies 145722 .6546 .6440 .6651 121.6432 364.4912
Enhanced Context Strategies 7235 1.4783 1.4167 1.5399 47.0629 147.5931
Instructional Technology Strategies
1962 .4840 .3916 .5764 10.2746 80.1969
Collaborative Learning Strategies 641 .9580 .7773 1.1388 10.4083 26.8652
Several interesting and informative results are presented in Table 8. First,
the effect sizes for all of the treatment categories exceed the lower effect size
benchmark value of .20. Second, two treatment categories, Enhanced Context
Strategies and Collaborative Learning Strategies, exceed the upper effect size
benchmark value of .80. Third, all of these effect sizes would be judged to be
significantly different from zero. The treatment category of Enhanced Material
Strategies exhibited an effect size that would be classified as small.
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The 95% confidence intervals for the treatment categories are displayed
graphically in Figure 4 on the following page.
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Figure 4 clearly shows that the treatment category of Enhanced Context
Strategies is more efficacious than the other strategies. Many of the confidence
intervals for the other treatment strategies contain overlapping ranges.
The central tendency values for the 8 treatment strategies are displayed in bar
chart form in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Mean Effect Sizes for Treatment Categories and Total Data
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
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1.6
C1* C2* C3* C4* C5* C6* C7* C8* TotalMean ES
*Note: C1=Questioning Strategies
C2=Manipulation Strategies C3=Enhanced Material Strategies C4=Testing Strategies C5=Inquiry Strategies C6=Enhanced Context Strategies C7=Instructional Technology Strategies C8=Collaborative Learning Strategies
When making decisions based on the results of meta-analysis, one is always
concerned with what is known as the “file drawer problem.” This problem refers to the
idea that only studies that result in an effect are included in a meta-analysis. Studies
that did not uncover an effect are usually filed away by the researchers and are not
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Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching 26
available for inclusion. A calculation that attempts to address this concern is the
Failsafe N (Nfs). The obtained numerical value from this statistic is an estimate of the
number of non-significant “file drawer” studies that would need to be obtained and
included in a meta-analysis before a statement of no effect would be given to the
completed meta-analysis. Failsafe Ns for the total data set and the studies in the
treatment categories are exhibited in Table 9.
Table 9. Failsafe N for Total Data and Treatment Description Categories
Data ES N Nfs Overall .6696 61 756 Questioning Strategies .7395 3 42 Manipulation Strategies .5729 8 84 Enhanced Material Strategies .2908 12 58 Testing Strategies .5052 2 19 Inquiry Strategies .6546 12 145 Enhanced Context Strategies 1.4783 6 172 Instructional Technology Strategies .4840 15 130 Collaborative Learning Strategies .9580 3 55
Based on the estimates presented in Table 9, the only questionable treatment
category effect size in terms of a file drawer problem is for Testing Strategies. If 19 non-
significant results were found in file drawers, a decision of no effect for this strategy
would be stated. The resultant Nfs for the overall data would lead one to conclude that a
decision to deny an effect is not probable given that approximately 756 non-significant
studies would be needed to reverse the decision about the overall effect.
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Section 5: Analysis of Moderator Variables The moderator variables were placed in a multiple regression analysis to
determine the influence of all the coding components on the effect size data. A
summary of the SPSS® results is presented in Tables 10 and 11 and the complete
printout is exhibited in Appendix G.
Table 10. Regression Analysis for Moderator Variables Source Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Regression 4.243 9 .471 1.102 .383 Residual 17.536 41 .428 Total 21.778 50
Table 11. Regression Analysis: Dependent Variable: Effect Size (N=61) Moderator Variable Beta t Sig. Type of study .151 1.052 .297 Grade Level .067 .474 .638 Treatment Categories .036 .254 .801 Publish Type -.233 -1.591 .118 Study Rating -.181 -1.279 .207 Test Content .064 .438 .663 Dependent Variable .066 .488 .628 Publication Year .117 .696 .489 Length of Treatment .342 1.532 .133 Note. R2 = .167. The effect size outlier had been excluded in this analysis.
From the results of the regression analysis, it can be seen that the F ratio
associated with this data indicates that there is not a relationship between the
moderator variables and the dependent variable of effect size. The beta weights for the
regression were all judged to be non-significant. This means that the effect sizes
obtained in this meta-analysis are not influenced by the fact that the studies have
different levels of these potentially contaminating attributes.
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Conclusions
What teaching methodologies have been shown to improve student achievement in science? Conclusions from this meta-analysis can be framed based
on the rankings of the effect sizes associated with the respective teaching strategies. A
ranking of the strategies is presented in Table 12.
Table 12. Ranking of Teaching Strategies Strategies Effect Size Rank
Enhanced Context Strategies 1.4783 1
Collaborative Learning Strategies .9580 2
Questioning Strategies .7395 3
Inquiry Strategies .6546 4
Manipulation Strategies .5729 5
Testing Strategies .5052 6
Instructional Technology Strategies .4840 7
Enhanced Material Strategies .2908 8
All of the innovative teaching strategies presented in the 61 studies exhibited a
positive influence on student achievement. As indicated by Wise (1996), innovative
science instruction is a mixture of teaching strategies and no one strategy is as powerful
as utilizing a combined strategies approach. Students exposed to a traditional approach
of science instruction can and will exhibit achievement; however, meta-analysis results
indicate that incorporation of other avenues of learning via innovative strategies
significantly augments the degree of achievement.
Within the family of instructional strategies, Enhanced Context Strategies such as
relating to previous learning, field trips, group discussion, games, simulations, and
reflective learning seem to have the greatest impact. Collaborative Learning Strategies
such as flexible heterogeneous groupings and interdisciplinary teaming also displayed a
strong effect. The results are not influenced by the variety of study characteristics and
settings including grade level of students and subject area within science.
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Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching 29
The teaching strategy category that exhibited the largest effect size was
Enhanced Context Strategies. Teachers make learning relevant to students by
presenting material in the context of real-world examples and problems. The real world
can be brought to students through technology and students may be taken out of the
classroom into the real world through field experiences. This type of augmented
instruction is aligned with the implications for teaching outlined in How People Learn:
Brain Mind, Experience and School (Bransford et al. 2000):
1. Teachers must draw out and work with the preexisting understandings that their
students bring with them. (p. 19)
2. Teachers must teach some subject matter in depth, providing many examples in
which the same concept is at work and providing a firm foundation of factual
knowledge. (p. 20)
3. The teaching of metacognitive skills should be integrated into the curriculum in a
variety of subject areas. (p. 21) Students should be encouraged to reflect on their
learning through journaling and self-assessment activities.
When considering the meta-analysis of the 61 studies as a whole, one is forced to
conclude that when science instruction is altered from the traditional or control
approach, student achievement is enhanced. While this result is very important, it is not
unexpected. If students are placed in an environment in which they can (1) actively
connect the instruction to their interests and present understandings, (2) experience
success early in the learning process, and (3) have an opportunity to experience
scientific inquiry, achievement will be accelerated.
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Berube, C. T. (2001). A study of the effects of constructivist-based vs. traditional direct instruction on 8th grade science comprehension. Unpublished Ph.D., Old Dominion University, United States – Virginia. (21)
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Frederick, L. R., & Shaw, E. L., Jr. (1998, November 4-6). Examining the effects of science manipulatives
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Romance, N. R., & Vitale, M. R. (1992). A curriculum strategy that expands time for in-depth elementary science instruction by using science-based reading strategies: Effects of a year-long study in grade four. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(6), 545-554. (439)
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Saunders, W. L., & Shepardson, D. (1987). A comparison of concrete and formal science instruction upon science achievement and reasoning ability of 6th grade students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 24(1), 39-51. (90)
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* Number in parentheses at end of citation is study number.
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Appendix A Web Sites and Search Terms
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Web Sites
Berkeley National Laboratory (http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/) Department of Education (http://www.ed.gov/index.jhtml) National Academies (http://www.nas.edu/) National Science Resources (http://www.nsrconline.org/) American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
(http://www.aaas.org/programs/education/) Education Development Center (http://main.edc.org/) National Science Teachers Association (http://www.nsta.org/resources) Department of Education Expert Panel on Mathematics and Science Education
(http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/ORAD/KAD/expert_panel/newscience_progs.html)
Search Terms
authentic science & achievement authentic science & student achievement authentic science & student outcomes authentic science & student performance biology & achievement biology & student achievement biology & student outcomes biology & student performance chemistry & achievement chemistry & student achievement chemistry & student outcomes chemistry & student performance constructivis* & science & student outcomes constructivis* & science & teaching constructivis* & science & teaching & achievement constructivist & science constructivist & science & student achievement constructivist science & achievement constructivist science & student achievement constructivist science & student outcomes constructivist science & student progress discovery learning & achievement discovery learning & student achievement earth & student achievement earth & student achievement & science earth & student outcomes earth & student outcomes & science earth & student performance earth & student performance & science earth science & achievement ecology & student achievement ecology & student outcomes ecology & student outcomes & science ecology & student performance elementary school science & achievement environmental education and student*
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environmental science and student performance environmental science and student performance hands-on science & achievement hands-on science & outcome* hands-on science & performance hands-on science & student achievement hands-on science & student outcome* hands-on science & student performance middle school science & achievement physic* & student achievement physic* & student achievement & science physic* & student outcomes physic* & student outcomes & science physic* & student performance physic* & student performance & science physic* science & achievement physics & achievement professional development & achievement & science professional development & science professional development & science teaching professional development & student achievement & science science & achievement science & class* performance science & curriculum assessment science & education & treatment & control & (achievement or outcome* or success) science & student achievement science & student outcome science & student performance science & student progress science & student success science education & achievement science education & curriculum assessment science education & progress science education & student achievement science education & student outcome science education & student performance science education & student progress science education & student success science learning & achievement science learning & student achievement science learning & student outcome teaching methods & science & achievement teaching methods & science achievement
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Appendix B Bibliography of Studies and Articles
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Abraham, M. R., & Renner, J. W. (1986). The sequence of learning cycle activities in high school
chemistry. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 23(2), 121-143.
Adamson, S. L., Banks, D., Burtch, M., Cox, F., Judson, E., Turley, J. B., et al. (2003). Reformed undergraduate instruction and its subsequent impact on secondary school teaching practice and student achievement. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 40(10), 939-957.
Akpan, J. P., & Andre, T. (1999). The effect of a prior dissection simulation on middle school students' dissection performance and understanding of the anatomy and morphology of the frog. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 8(2), 107-121.
Akpan, J. P., & Andre, T. (2000). Using a computer simulation before dissection to help students learn anatomy. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 19(3), 297-313.
Aleven, V. A. W. M. M., & Koedinger, K. R. (2002). An effective metacognitive strategy: Learning by doing and explaining with a computer-based Cognitive Tutor. Cognitive Science, 26(2), 147-179.
Alparslan, C., Tekkaya, C., & Geban, O. (2003). Using the conceptual change instruction to improve learning. Journal of Biological Education, 37(3), 133-137.
Amaral, O. M., Garrison, L., & Klentschy, M. (2002). Helping English learners increase achievement through inquiry-based science instruction. Bilingual Research Journal, 26(2), 213-239.
Anderson, R. D. (1983). A consolidation and appraisal of science meta-analyses. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 20(5), 497-509.
Anderson, R. D., Kahl, S. R., Glass, G. V., & Smith, M. L. (1983). Science education: A meta-analysis of major questions. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 20(5), 379-385.
Andre, T., & Ding, P. (1991). Student misconceptions, declarative knowledge, stimulus conditions, and problem solving in basic electricity. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 16(4), 303-313.
Baker, D. R. (1991a). Process skills acquisition, cognitive growth, and attitude change of ninth grade students in a scientific literacy course. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 28(5), 423-436.
Baker, D. R. (1991b). A summary of research in science-education - 1989. Science Education, 75(3), R5-402.
Baker, T. R. (2002). The effects of geographic information system (GIS) technologies on students' attitudes, self-efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. Unpublished Ph.D., University of Kansas, United States -- Kansas.
Baker, T. R., & White, S. H. (2003). The effects of GIS on students' attitudes, self-efficacy, and achievement in middle school science classrooms. Journal of Geography, 102(6), 243-254.
Bandlow, R. J. (2001). The misdirection of middle school reform. Clearing House, 75(2), 69-73.
Banilower, E. R. (2002). Results of the 2001-2002 study of the impact of the Local Systemic Change Initiative on student achievement in science. Retrieved May 19, 2005, from http://www.horizon-research.com/reports/2002/sps0102.php
Barnett, M. (2005). Engaging inner city students in learning through designing remote operated vehicles. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 14(1), 87.
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Barron, B. J. S., Schwartz, D., Vye, N. J., Moore, A., Petrosino, A. J., Zech, L., et al. (1998). Doing with understanding: Lessons from research on problem- and project-based learning. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 7(3&4), 271-311.
Bay, M. (1992). Science instruction for the mildly handicapped: Direct instruction versus discovery teaching. Journal of Research In Science Teaching, 29(6), 555-570.
Bayraktar, S. (2000). A meta-analysis on the effectiveness of computer-assisted instruction in science education. Unpublished Ph.D., Ohio University, United States -- Ohio.
Beasley, W. (1985). Improving student laboratory performance: How much practice makes perfect. Science Education, 69(4), 567-576.
Beeth, M. E. (1998). Teaching science in fifth grade: Instructional goals that support conceptual change. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 35(10), 1091-1101.
Bell, R., & Bell, L. (2003). A bibliography of articles on technology in science education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 2(4), 427-447.
Benson, J. S., & Yeany, R. H. (1980, April). Generalizability of diagnostic-prescriptive teaching strategies across student locus of control and multiple instructional units. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED187534).
Berube, C. T. (2001). A study of the effects of constructivist-based vs. traditional direct instruction on 8th
grade science comprehension. Unpublished Ph.D., Old Dominion University, United States -- Virginia.
Bianchini, J. A. (1999). From here to equity: The influence of status on student access to and understanding of science. Science Education, 83(5), 577-601.
Blough, R. (1996). The effects of using student response keypads on student motivation and achievement in high school biology classes: A time series design. Unpublished Ed.D., The University of Tennessee, United States -- Tennessee.
Bluette, C. L., Jr. (1999). An evaluation of the effects of staff development for teachers who utilize multiple strategies with middle school students in mathematics and science. Unpublished Ed.D., Saint Louis University, United States -- Missouri.
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Appendix C
Literature Coding Document
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CODING OF LITERATURE FOR SCIENCE INITIATIVE META-ANALYSIS 1-3 Study number & citation
4. Pub type: 1 Refereed Jour. Art. 2 Dissertation 3 Unpub. Report 4 Conference paper 5. Type of study: 1 Experimental (complete randomization) 2 Quasi –experimental (randomization used) 3 Quasi-experimental (no randomization) 4 Correlational Test Name #of
items Content Area(s)
6.Dep. Var.: 1 National Standardized Multiple Science content __________ ____ ______ 2 National Standardized Single Science content __________ ____ ______ 3 Local Standardized Multiple Science Content __________ ____ ______ 4 Local Standardized Single Science Content __________ ____ ______ 5Other type test __________ ____ ______
7. Ind. Var.: TRT. Name ___________________________________________________________
TRT. Description_______________________________________________________ TRT vs ______________________________________________________________ Course __________________
8. Length of TRT: Months Years
9. Setting & Characteristics: A. School (s): # of schools___, Selected at random? 1 Yes 2 No, Unit of analysis? 1 Yes 2 No
1 Public 2 Private, 1 Urban 2 Rural 1 Small (n=______), 2 Med (n=____), 3 Lrg (n=____) % Free Lunch
B. Students: # of students ___, Selected at random? 1 Yes 2 No Assigned at random? 1 Yes 2 No, Unit of analysis? 1 Yes 2 No 1 Mixed Gender 2 all Female 3 all Male 1 Same Grade 2 Multiple Grades Grade ____ n=___, Grade ___ n=__, Grade ___ n=___, Grade___ n=__ 1 Mixed Ethnicity 2 Single ethnic grp 1 Mixed Socio 2 Single Socio, Primary Socio Status_____________________
C. Teacher(s): # of teachers _________, 1 volunteer 2 selected
Teacher(s) description: Age/Exp Gender Certification
10. Study results: Effect size (s) ____, p(s) __, t(s) __ , F(s) ___, Eta Square(s) ___ Omega Square(s) ___ 11. Study rating: 1 True random assignment of schools/students to TRT and Control
2 Quasi-experimental with match of schools/students to achievement and demographics of comparison school
3 Quasi-experimental with covariate adjustment for prior achievement 4 Quasi-experimental comparison of schools/subjects based on a claim of similar 5 Quasi-experimental comparison of schools/subjects to region, state, or national
data 6 Quasi-experimental single-group pre-post comparison 7 Quasi-experimental treatment vs. control pre-posttest 8 Quasi-experimental multiple group ANOVA
12. Notes/comments:
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Appendix D Treatment Description Category Classification Form
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Study Treatment Category Rating
Study Number: __________ Judge: 1, 2, 3 1: unknown or not mentioned 2: mentioned 3: a small portion of the treatment 4: moderate portion of the treatment 5: largest portion of the treatment
Criteria 1 2 3 4 5 1. Questioning strategies
2. Focusing strategies
3. Manipulation strategies
4. Enhanced materials strategies
5. Testing strategies
6. Inquiry strategies
7. Enhanced context strategies
8. Instructional technology strategies
9. Direct instruction for teaching process skills
10. Collaborative learning strategies
Notes/comments:
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Appendix E Treatment Description Summaries
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Summary of Treatment Description
#1 Treatment Name web-based, constructivist-oriented homework assignment. Treatment description web-enhanced assignments covering DNA structure and function, Genetics and Microbiology Members of the experimental group participated in online homework activities for approximately eight weeks. The activities included participation in (a) online simulations, (b) asynchronous discussions, (c) Webquests, (d) cooperative concept map construction activities using synchronous chat technology, (e) online quizzes, and (f) personal, biweekly journaling activities. #4 Treatment Name Studio Model (both synchronously & asynchronously) Treatment description Studio Model and the use of supplemental on line materials/Tech & cooperative groups There are two characteristics surrounding the usage of the Studio Model. The first is the use of the technology (both synchronously and asynchronously) to give students the ability or means to see concepts or materials in multiple perspectives. The second is the integration of cooperative group activities. The cooperative group structure used for this study was the Student Team-Achievement Division (STAD). #6 Treatment Name The University of Alabama's Integrated Science (IS) Program enhanced with PowerPoint technology Treatment description The University of Alabama's Integrated Science Program enhanced with PowerPoint technology. Resources provided by the IS program include telecasts, teacher manuals, student books, science kits, and teacher professional development. #609 Treatment Name The University of Alabama's Integrated Science Program (IS) Treatment description The University of Alabama's Integrated Science Program (IS) Resources provided by the IS program include telecasts, teacher manuals, student books, science kits, and teacher professional development. #7 Treatment Name Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Treatment description Computer software for animal and plants adaptation in desert. The Digital Field Trip to the Desert (2000) simulation software, designed by Digital Frog International Inc., on fourth-grade students’ achievement and attitudes toward desert issues. The software is designed as a tool that may be used by students individually or in small groups at their own pace with minimum amount of supervision. #21 Treatment Name Constructivist Based Instruction Treatment description Constructivist based instruction--application of students’ prior knowledge; human experiences and values, both culturally and socially determined, were incorporated into the classroom; student empowerment; critical thinking; opportunities were given students to exercise a degree of control over their learning environment; enable students to evaluate their own conceptual development.
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#25 Treatment Name Web-Based Physics Software Program Treatment description Web-Based Physics Software Program "The Physics Classroom". This program consists three modules or sections: study topics, multimedia section, and quiz room. The multimedia section contains many animations. These animations visualize many ideas and misconceptions in order to make learning easy and dispel many preconceptions. The quiz room contains many quizzes related to study topics and gives deep understanding of each lesson. Each question in the quiz has a link to the related lesson if there is problem with understanding or solving this question. The web-based physics program was incorporated with the normal lecture. 30% of class time was allocated to using this tutorial program, and 70% of class time was used for normal lecture. #29 Treatment Name Integrated Science (IS) Curriculum Program Treatment description integrated, activity-based science curriculum. Resources provided by the IS program include telecasts, teacher manuals, student books, science kits, and teacher professional development. #30 Treatment Name Dynamic particle models--both static & dynamic Treatment description Computer assisted instruction Cooperative learning group analysis and teacher-directed class discussion. Dynamic class used both static and dynamic particle models and explanations in dynamic classes. Dynamic classes acted out particle motion. Dynamic classes watched particle movement and collisions illustrated with computer animations. #300 Treatment Name Dynamic particle models--both static & dynamic Treatment description Computer assisted instruction Cooperative learning group analysis and teacher-directed class discussion. Dynamic class used both static and dynamic particle models and explanations in dynamic classes. Dynamic classes acted out particle motion. Dynamic classes watched particle movement and collisions illustrated with computer animations. #32 Treatment Name Multiple teaching strategies Treatment description Multiple teaching strategies (teachers modify their teaching style to fit the many different types of students) The teachers were trained in the use of learning activities that require the utilization of four or more teaching strategies in class on a regular basis. Those strategies include activities such as simulations, role-playing, use of manipulative, computer, or other learning activities. #33 Treatment Name Multisensory instruction
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Treatment description instructional strategy and student's perceptual preferences The multisensory unit included five instructional stations established in different sections of the classroom to allow students to learn by: (a) manipulating Flip Chutes, (b) using Electroboards, (c) assembling Task Cards, (d) playing a kinesthetic Floor Game, (e) reading an individual Programmed Learning Sequence. Audio tapes and scripts were provided at each section. Students circulated in groups of four from station to station. Students reviewed with the multisensory resources for 15 minutes prior to the posttest. #36 Treatment Name Laboratory experiences Treatment description the use of laboratory experiences to introduce classroom discussion and included lab-based performance activities to assess achievement The laboratory activities presented a question and required that the student provide an answer to that question based on the collection and analysis of data. Emphasis was placed on the need to record accurate descriptions and measurements and to analyze data mathematically and graphically. #38 Treatment Name Constructivist informed pedagogy Treatment description Constructivist informed pedagogy manipulative The constructivist teacher employed a lesson plan that was less didactic and used cooperative learning groups. Open-ended laboratory investigations, a high amount of technology, and a higher amount of student-initiated dialog among themselves as well as with the instructor. The constructivist teacher was also concerned with the identification of misconceptions, the use of probing questioning, and the learning cycle. Constructivist learning can be equated with the student’s gaining a higher level of inquiry regarding the work of science, connecting science with their own lives, and grasping main science concepts. #39 Treatment Name Computer-enhanced instruction (CEI) Treatment description Computer-enhanced instruction (CEI) using A.D.A.M. The Inside Story (1997) anatomy software. Students in the CEI class used A.D.A.M. The Inside Story (1997) software and worked in groups of three at the computers during normal class time. Students in both treatment and control classes received the same lectures, textbook reading assignments, study guides, prepared notes, and written assignments. In contrast to the control group class where the teacher functioned primarily as a disseminator of knowledge, the teacher functioned more as a facilitator in the CEI class. #41 Treatment Name Inquiry-based instruction Treatment description Predominately inquiry-based instruction Inquiry is a multifaceted activity that involves making observations; posing questions; examining books and other sources of information to see what is already known; planning investigations; reviewing what is already known in light of experimental evidence; using tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data; proposing answers, explanations, and predictions; and communicating the results. Teachers in non-block scheduled schools assigned more extended projects and student research; discuss their ideas and opinions. Teacher used cooperative learning and small group work more frequently in block scheduled classes.
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#47 Treatment Name Interactive CD tutorial Treatment description CD tutorial for frog dissection Digital Frog is an interactive CD-ROM that incorporates full-motion video, animations, sounds, narration, in-depth text, full color photographs and a comprehensive workbook in three modules – Dissection; Anatomy, and Ecology. The dissection module uses a tutorial approach with the dissection proceeding in a step by step presentation manner. User can access multimedia files to view a frog dissection being performed, but does not actually “perform” a dissection themselves. #470 Treatment Name Desktop Microworld Treatment description CD tutorial for frog dissection The Desktop Microworld environment was built around Operation Frog on CD with other programs serving as auxiliary forms of instructional delivery. Operating Frog contains a tutorial simulation of the dissection of a frog, male or female. Operation Frog allows students to actually perform the dissection, not just view it. #48 Treatment Name Technology (GIS)-supported mapping Project Based Learning (PBL) unit Treatment description PBL, used GIS mapping technology for data analysis. The control group used a PBL science unit with paper mapping to support data analysis activities, while the experimental group used a PBL-GIS model. Experimental classrooms used ESRI’s ArcExplorer II as a desktop GIS application, with base data (roads, rails, hydrography, and airports) identical to the control group. All experimental classrooms had equal access to technology and related materials in a single, communal lab. #50 Treatment Name Scientific Writing Heuristic (SWH) Treatment description Students used the SWH student templates to guide their written work for laboratory activities. (writing format for 3 lab activities; meaning-making pedagogy) #500 Treatment Name Scientific Writing Heuristic and Textbook group (STG) Treatment description Students in these sections used the SWH for their laboratory activities; however, their written project to summarize the practical activities was different. They were asked to write their summary in the form of a textbook explanation for their peers. (writing format for 3 lab activities; meaning-making pedagogy) #57 Treatment Name Integrated Video Media Treatment description Integrated video media-World of Chemistry. These micro-units include teacher lesson guides associated with each 30-min World of Chemistry videotape designed to enable the teacher to stop the videotape approximately every 5-7 min for a teacher-student question-answer interaction time. #60 Treatment Name Design-Based Science (DBS)
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DBS has much in common with other inquiry-based programs. Treatment description Students engaging in design projects to learn science: Extreme structures #600 Treatment Name Design-Based Science (DBS) DBS has much common with other inquiry-based programs. Treatment description Students engaging in design projects to learn science: Environmentally safe batteries #601 Treatment Name Design-Based Science (DBS) DBS has much common with other inquiry-based programs. Treatment description Students engaging in design projects to learn science: Safer celluar phones #64 Treatment Name HPD-LC (hypothetico-prediction-discussion learning cycle) Treatment description Adding a prediction/discussion phase to learning cycle. Two hypothetico-predictive problem sheets were prepared for each HPD-LC lesson. Each sheet required the student to make prediction in writing or graphically, and to support it with an explanatory reason (i.e., hypothesis), also in writing. #70 Treatment Name advance questioning Treatment description Basic lesson (B), Basic + orienting questions (B+Q), Basic+orienting questions+rationale (B+Q+R) conceptual orienting questions plus rationale. #75 Treatment Name Molecular Workbench (a two-dimensional molecular dynamics application written in Java software) molecular dynamic system vs. Pedagogica, a control environment Treatment description online molecular dynamics mode: States of Matter #750 Treatment Name Molecular Workbench molecular dynamic system Vs. Pedagogica, a control environment Treatment description online molecular dynamics mode: Atoms in Motion #78 Treatment Name Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools (LeTUS) Treatment description Inquiry-based and technology-infused curriculum units (standards based curriculum, prof. developed, 4 units taught): Air #780 Treatment Name Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools (LeTUS)
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Treatment description Inquiry-based and technology-infused curriculum units (standards based curriculum, prof. developed, 4 units taught): Water #781 Treatment Name Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools (LeTUS) Treatment description Inquiry-based and technology-infused curriculum units (standards based curriculum, prof. developed, 4 units taught): Helmets #782 Treatment Name Center for Learning Technologies in Urban Schools (LeTUS) Treatment description Inquiry-based and technology-infused curriculum units (standards based curriculum, prof. developed, 4 units taught): Big Things #90 Treatment Name Concrete (hands-on) instruction vs. formal instruction Treatment description Concrete instruction was organized around the learning cycle approach and involved an emphasis upon hands-on activities; three phases: exploration, conceptual invention, and discovery (or application). #91 Treatment Name HASP (Hands-on Activity Science Program) inquiry-based program Treatment description Incorporated exemplary curriculum using modules, Full Option Science System (FOSS), incorporating manipulatives into elementary science #98 Treatment Name Science/Technology/Society (STS) format Treatment description Use societal issues as organizers for their study; study science in more community/citizenship activities rather than focus on knowledge and process #142 Treatment Name Kids as Global Scientists Weather (KGS) Program consists of a systematic, curricular approach to fostering students’ deep conceptual understanding of weather content Treatment description The use of a suite of learning tools designed specifically with inquiry science in mind. Tools include KGS curriculum, KGS software. (Urban teachers) #1420 Treatment Name Kids as Global Scientists Weather (KGS) Program consists of a systematic, curricular approach to fostering students’ deep conceptual understanding of weather content Treatment description The use a suite of learning tools designed specifically with inquiry science in mind. Tools include KGS curriculum, KGS software. (Maverick teachers)
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#150 Treatment Name “Local Systemic Change Initiatives” (LSC) Treatment description Professional development (changing teaching practices, strengthening teacher content knowledge, and providing hands-on science materials for classrooms) , hands-on act, kits #166 Treatment Name Level of group cooperation Treatment description Cooperative goal structure (role assignment & nonrole assignment) For the role assignment group, each student was assigned a specific role (i.e., manager, investigator, and recorder) but students in both traditional and nonrole assignment groups were not assigned a role. #170 Treatment Name Detailed assignments Treatment description Detailed assignments (favoring field independence and induction) employed block diagrams and stepwise direction. Nondetailed assignments (favoring field dependence and deduction) virtually lacked these. #229 Treatment Name Alternative science teaching methods Treatment description Traditional (lecture, drill, practice) vs. teacher-constructed self-teaching manipulatives vs. student-constructed self-teaching manipulatives #245 Treatment Name Instructional Strategy change Treatment description Middle school interdisciplinary team strategy #247 Treatment Name Hands-on lab activities Treatment description Cell biology unit with hands-on lab activities #276 Treatment Name Hands-on laboratory method Treatment description Students manipulated lab apparatus in small groups #278 Treatment Name Resequencing general science content Treatment description Revising the order of textbook chapters, in order to clarify content structure and establish interrelationships among major concepts. (content arranged into interrelated pattern) #281 Treatment Name Wait-time after teacher questioning
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Treatment description Teachers assigned wait-times of 1, 3, & 5 sec. #2810 Treatment Name Wait-time after teacher questioning Treatment description Teachers assigned wait-times of 1, 3, & 5 sec. #285 Treatment Name Single-sex & mixed sex cooperative interaction Treatment description In the cooperative conditions, subjects were instructed to work together as a group, completing the task as a group with all members sharing one set of materials and helping each other. They were instructed to make sure that each member was involved, and that they should check to make sure every member knew the materials and could explain the answers on the group’s data sheets. #369 Treatment Name Scope, Sequence and Coordination (SS&C) project Treatment description Extension from Chautauqua Model, constructivist learning model (CLM): invitation phase, exploration phase, coordination, implementation phase. integrated science; hands-on/minds-on ; problem centered #433 Treatment Name Concrete Instruction (learning cycle) First-hand experience Treatment description During the exploration phase of the learning cycle, students were usually provided with concrete materials and written directions for their use in gathering data about the concept to be learned. These direction sheets provided guidelines to help the students observe, compare, measure, and experiment, as they interacted with the selected concrete materials. #434 Treatment Name Concrete-the learning cycle inquiry Treatment description The instruction of the inquiry group was based upon the teaching concept designed and implemented by the Science Curriculum Improvement Study and called the learning cycle. Hands-on exploration, conceptual invention, discovery. #439 Treatment Name Science-Based Reading Strategies Treatment description Teachers implemented an in-depth science teaching program by expanding the lesson plans in their science textbook, Journeys in Science, to emphasize an integrated approach to science concept instruction through hands-on science activities, science process skills, and science textbook/ tradebook reading assignments. #448 Treatment Name Supported Inquiry Science (SIS), constructivist learning theory Treatment description
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SIS principles: 1. provide a safe environment for expressing emerging or divergent ideas. 2. Design curricula and instruction to focus on a unifying concept. 3. Elicit students’ alternative conceptions and provide opportunities for them to examine conflicting evidence and reconstruct their ideas over time. 4. Use recursive, whole-class coaching to help students elaborate and revise their understanding. 5. Integrate opportunities for students to work with new material individually as well as in whole-class and small-group work. 6.~8. #451 Treatment Name Concept Relatedness Treatment description Instructional materials consisted of an explicit study, a reading supplement, and an activities supplement. The experimental study guide began with an introduction which explained how concepts and principles are important in the learning process and how to prepare a concept map. In addition, it included conceptual cues which reminded students of the importance of major concepts to related activities and readings. #452 Treatment Name Constructing Physics Understanding Project (CPU): Lead CPU Students Treatment description Computer-based modular curriculum activities: The CPU project produced modular content units and computer software, to support an environment where students, individually, in small groups, and as a whole class construct knowledge in physics. #4520 Treatment Name Constructing Physics Understanding Project (CPU): Beginning CPU studens Treatment description Computer-based modular curriculum activities: The CPU project produced modular content units and computer software, to support an environment where students, individually, in small groups, and as a whole class construct knowledge in physics. #455 Treatment Name Diagnostic-Prescriptive Teaching Treatment description Teacher-managed diagnostic-prescriptive assistance: Using progress checks (diagnostic tests) and review activities (prescriptive remediation) developed for this study. #457 Treatment Name Modified Mastery Learning strategy Treatment description Instruction for all classes was characterized by a blend of lecture, question-answer sessions, laboratory work, demonstrations, and audio-visual materials. Teacher-directed remediation and student-directed remediation (diagnostic quizzes and remediation activities). #467 Treatment Name Computer-animated dissection techniques Treatment description Use CD-ROM dissection tool "Dissection Works" #468 Treatment Name Full Option Science System (Foss)
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Treatment description Use science manipulatives, hands-on/minds-on activities #475 Treatment Name Simulation before dissection (SBD) vs. dissection only (DO) Treatment description Combinations of actual & simulated frog dissection
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Appendix F Comprehensive Meta-Analysis Output
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Appendix G Regression Output
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Regression without Length of Treatment
Variables Entered/Removedb
PublicationYear,DependentVariable,gradescode, PublishType,TreatmentCategories, StudyRating,Type ofstudy, TestContentcode
a
. Enter
Model1
VariablesEntered
VariablesRemoved Method
All requested variables entered.a.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizeb.
Model Summary
.409a .167 .039 .722334Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), Publication Year, DependentVariable, gradescode, Publish Type, TreatmentCategories, Study Rating, Type of study, Test Contentcode
a.
ANOVAb
5.451 8 .681 1.306 .261a
27.132 52 .52232.583 60
RegressionResidualTotal
Model1
Sum ofSquares df Mean Square F Sig.
Predictors: (Constant), Publication Year, Dependent Variable, gradescode, PublishType, Treatment Categories, Study Rating, Type of study, Test Content code
a.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizeb.
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Coefficientsa
.533 .874 .609 .545
.193 .183 .151 1.052 .297
.111 .235 .067 .474 .638
.012 .046 .036 .254 .801-.294 .185 -.233 -1.591 .118-.090 .070 -.181 -1.279 .207.028 .064 .064 .438 .663.040 .081 .066 .488 .628.062 .089 .117 .696 .489
(Constant)Type of studygradescodeTreatment CategoriesPublish TypeStudy RatingTest Content codeDependent VariablePublication Year
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizea.
Regression with Length of Treatment
Variables Entered/Removedb
Length ofTRT(month),TreatmentCategories,gradescode, Type ofstudy,PublishType,StudyRating,TestContentcode,DependentVariable,PublicationYear
a
. Enter
Model1
VariablesEntered
VariablesRemoved Method
All requested variables entered.a.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizeb.
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Model Summary
.441a .195 .018 .653986Model1
R R SquareAdjustedR Square
Std. Error ofthe Estimate
Predictors: (Constant), Length of TRT (month),Treatment Categories, gradescode, Type of study,Publish Type, Study Rating, Test Content code,Dependent Variable, Publication Year
a.
ANOVAb
4.243 9 .471 1.102 .383a
17.536 41 .42821.778 50
RegressionResidualTotal
Model1
Sum ofSquares df Mean Square F Sig.
Predictors: (Constant), Length of TRT (month), Treatment Categories, gradescode,Type of study, Publish Type, Study Rating, Test Content code, Dependent Variable,Publication Year
a.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizeb.
Coefficientsa
.693 1.064 .652 .518
.177 .175 .157 1.012 .317-.092 .234 -.061 -.393 .696-.017 .045 -.057 -.387 .701-.132 .181 -.122 -.731 .469-.095 .082 -.191 -1.157 .254-.023 .072 -.056 -.314 .755.077 .108 .137 .714 .479.034 .093 .071 .364 .718.063 .041 .342 1.532 .133
(Constant)Type of studygradescodeTreatment CategoriesPublish TypeStudy RatingTest Content codeDependent VariablePublication YearLength of TRT (month)
Model1
B Std. Error
UnstandardizedCoefficients
Beta
StandardizedCoefficients
t Sig.
Dependent Variable: Effect Sizea.
Initial Report
Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching 96
Appendix H Formulas
Initial Report
Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching 97
1. ScXXES CT −= where pre-tests were assumed to provide equivalent groups
XE = mean of experimental group (post-test) XC = mean of control group (post-test) SC = standard deviation of control group
2. Hedge’s d used in Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software
P
CT
SXXES −
= where ( ) ( )
211 22
2
−+−+−
=CT
CCTTP nn
SnSnS
3. n
tES 2= for nT=nC=n; n = sample size of each group
4. CT nn
tES 11+= for unequal ns
5. CT
CT
nnnn
FES+
=
6. ⎥⎦⎤
⎢⎣⎡
−−=
9431'N
ESES small sample size (N<30) adjusted with bias correction formula
7. ( )( )21
2
21
21
2 nnES
nnnn
se+
++
=
8. 2
1se
w =
9. Weighted average effect size: ( )∑
∑ ×=
wESw
ES
10. Stander Error (se) of the ES , ∑
=w
seES
1
11. Z-test for the ES , ES
seESZ =
12. 95% Confidence Interval
( )ES
seESLower 96.1−=
Initial Report
Meta-Analysis of National Research Regarding Science Teaching 98
( )ES
seESUpper 96.1+=
13. Testing Homogeneity of Effect Size
WBT QQQ +=
( )∑=
−=k
iiiT ESESwQ
1
2.
( )2.... ESESwQ jjB −= ∑ 14. Failsafe N or Nfs
( )
C
Cfs ES
ESESNN −= where N= # of studies in the meta-analysis
=ES average ES for the studies in the meta-analysis
=CES criterion ES