Met a Cognitive, Cognitive and Affective Aspects of Learning Styles

8/3/2019 Met a Cognitive, Cognitive and Affective Aspects of Learning Styles

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Hi g h er E d u ca t io n 31: 25-5 0, 1996. 259 1996 K l u w er A ca d em i c P u b l i s h e rs . P r i n t ed i n th e N e t h e rl a n d s.

M e t a c o g n i t i v e , c o g n i t iv e a n d a f fe c t iv e a s p e c t s o f l e a r n i n g s t y l e s

a n d s tr a t eg i e s: A p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c a n a l y si s

J .D . V E R M U N TLeiden Univer s i ty , ICLO N-G raduate Schoo l o f Education , P .O. Box 9555 , NL-230 0 RB

Leiden, T he Ne ther la nds

Abstract.This paper addresses the following questions: how d o students perform metacog-nitive, cognitive and affective learning functions; how is the execution of learning functionsregulated by internal and external sources; what learning styles can be discerned from theviewpoint of learning functions and regulation? Subjects were students from an open distanceuniversity and a regular university. Th ey w ere interviewed extensively about their learningstrategies, me ntal mode ls of learning, learning orientations and interpretations and appraisalsof instructional m easures. The interviews were analyzed in a phenomenographic wa y. Th eresults indicate that there are large differences among students in the manner in which theycarry out learning functions, that these differences are associated with internal and externalsources, and that four qualitatively different learning styles can b e discerned: an und irected, areproduction directed, a meaning directed and an application directed learning style. Mental

models o f learning and learning orientations turn out to be related to the w ay in w hich studentsinterpret, appraise and use instructional measures to regulate their learning activities. It isconcluded that in many instances instructional measures do not have the intended effects. Sug-gestions are given regarding the implications of these results for the improvement o f teachingpractices in higher education.

I n troduct ion

I n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t l e a d t o l e a r n i n g a u t o m a t i c a l l y . T h e l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s

t h a t s t u d e n t s e m p l o y d e t e r m i n e t o a la r g e e x t e n t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l e a r n i n g

o u t c o m e s t h e y a c h i e v e . T h e r e f o r e , t e a c h i n g s h o u l d b e d i re c t e d a t e n c o u r a g -

i n g s t u d e n t s t o u s e h i g h - q u a l i t y l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s . I n t h i s a r t i c l e , r e s e a r c h

o n t h e l e a r n i n g a c t i v it i e s o f s t u d e n ts w i ll b e r e p o r t e d . L e a r n i n g a c t i v it i e s

a r e v i e w e d h e r e a s t h i n k i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t p e o p l e e m p l o y t o l e a r n , l e a r n i n g

s t r a t e g i e s a s p a r ti c u l a r , o f t e n u s e d c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v it ie s . L e a r n -

i n g s t y l e s a re c o n c e i v e d h e r e a s r e l a t iv e l y s ta b le , b u t n o t u n c h a n g e a b l e , w a y s

i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s l e a r n . T h e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d y s t r a te g i e s r e s e a r c h i n h i g h -

e r e d u c a t i o n h a s f o c u s e d o n c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g s t r a t e g i e s a n d m o t i v a t i o n( e .g . S c h m e c k , 1 9 8 3 ; E n t w i s t l e & R a m s d e n , 1 9 8 3 ). R e c e n t l y , i n r e s e a r c h o n

l e a r n in g p r o c e s s e s o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s t u d e nt s , a tt e n ti o n h a s b e e n d r a w n t o

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f m e t a c o g n i t i o n ( e. g. B r o w n , 1 9 8 7) . M e t a c o g n i t i o n r e fe r s t o

l e a r n e r s ' v i e w s a n d b e l i e f s a b o u t l e a r n i n g a n d to th e a c t i v e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e i r



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Tabl e I . Learn ing activities: types and ca tegories

T y p e s C a t e g o r i e s

Cognitive

Affective

Regulative

Relating, structuring,analyzing,concretizing,applying,

memorizing,criticalprocessing,selecting.

Attributing, motivating,concentrating, udg ingoneself,

appraising, exertingeffort, generatingemotions,expecting.

Orienting, p lanning,monitoring, es ting, diagnosing,

adjusting, evalua ting, eflecting.

learning pro cesses (Flave l l , 1987). T he focus he re is on me tacog ni t ive aspec ts

of s t uden t l e a rn ing i n h ighe r educa t i on : r egu l a ti on s t r at eg ie s and m enta l mod -

e l s o f l e a rn ing . An a t temp t wi l l be m ade t o l ink t he se me tacogn i t ive a spec t s to

s tuden t s ' cogn i t ive p rocess ing s t ra t eg ie s and t o t he i r s t udy m ot iva ti on , wi th

the a im of enr i ch ing and broaden ing ea r l i e r concep tua l i sa t ions o f s t uden t s '

l e a rn ing s ty l e s and s t ra t eg ie s i n h ighe r educa t i on .

In g enera l , three types of l ea rning ac t ivi t ies a re di scerned: cogn i t ive , a f fec-

t ive an d m e tacogn i t i ve o r r egu l a ti ve (e .g . Sh or t & W ei sbe rg-Benche l l , 1989).

A s tudy of t he l it e ratu re i nd i ca t ed t ha t the se l ea rn ing ac t iv i ti e s may b e g rouped

into the ca tegor ies depic ted in Table 1 (Vermunt , 1989; 1992) . Cognitive

process in g ac t iv it ies are those th inking ac t ivi t i es tha t people use to process

l ea rn ing con t en t . They l ead d i rec tl y to l e a rn ing re su l ts i n t e rms of kno wled ge ,

und e rs t and ing , sk i l l and so on . Ex amp les a re : l ook ing fo r r e la t ions am ong

pa r ts o f t he sub j ec t ma t t e r ( r e la t ing) , d i s ti ngu i sh ing ma in an d m inor po in t s

( se lec t ing) , t h ink ing o f e xam ple s ( conc re t iz ing) and l ook ing fo r app l i ca ti ons

(app ly ing) . Affec tive learn ing activit ies are di rec t ed a t cop ing w i th t he fee l i ngs

tha t a r i se dur in g learning , and lead to an em ot ion a l sta te tha t may p os i t ive ly ,

neu t ra l l y o r neg a t i ve ly a ffec t the p rogre s s ion o f a l e a rn ing p rocess . Exam ples

are m ot iva t ing onese l f , a tt r ibut ing learn ing resul ts to causa l fac tors, a t t aching

sub j ec t ive appra i sal s t o l e a rn ing t a sks and g e t ti ng b lock ing em ot ions und e r

cont rol . M etaco gn itive regulation activit ies are di rec ted a t regula t ing the cog -

ni t ive and a ffec t ive learnin g ac t ivit i es and therefore indi rec t ly lead to learn ing

re su l ts . Ex am ples a re : o r i en t i ng on a l e a rn ing t a sk , m oni to r ing w he the r t he

l ea rn ing p rocess p roceed s a s p l ann ed , d i agnos ing t he cau se o f d if f icu l ti e s and

a d j u s ti n g l e a r n in g p r o c e s se s w h e n n e e d e d .In co ns id er ing thes e ac t ivi t ies , i t i s s t r ik ing to ob serve tha t these a re th inking

ac t iv i ti e s t ha t peop l e n o t on ly nee d t o l e arn , bu t a l so need t o do t he i r j ob . In

func t i ona l de sc r ip t ions t he se t e rms a re o f t en used : som ebod y wi th ana ly t i c

sk i ll s , some on e who k now s how to read i ly d i sce rn re l evan t f rom i r re l evan t



27

i n f o r m a t i o n , h a s t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o m a k e k n o w l e d g e u s a b l e , c a n m o t i v a t e

o n e s e l f a n d o t h e rs , c a n i n d e p e n d e n t l y p l a n a n d m o n i t o r w o r k a c ti v it ie s , a n d s o

o n . I n r e a d i n g p e r s o n n e l a d v e r t i s e m e n t s i n n e w s p a p e r s i t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t fo rm a n y s e n i o r j o b s , i t is s e e m i n g l y e v e r le s s i m p o r t a n t w h a t a c a d e m i c su b j e c t

s o m e o n e h a s q u a l i fi e d in ( e .g . ' a n a c a d e m i c e d u c a t i o n ' ) , i f o n l y t h e c a n d i d a t e

h a s t h e s e t h i n k i n g s k i ll s. I n m o d e m t im e s , a n d i n f a c e o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g

r e d u n d a n c y o f k n o w l e d g e , i t is a l so l e s s i m p o r t a n t w h i c h s p e c if ic d o m a i n

k n o w l e d g e s o m e o n e h a s a c q u i re d . I t is o b v i o u s l y m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t p e o p l e

acq u i r e s k i ll i n t h i n k i n g a c t i v it i e s t h a t ma k e t h em cap ab l e o f a s s i mi l a t i n g n ew

k n o w l e d g e i n o r d e r t o d e a l w i t h t h e h u g e a m o u n t s o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e y

a r e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h i n th e i r w o r k . T h e s o c ie t a l d e m a n d o n h i g h e r e d u c a t io n

t o p a y m o r e a t t e n t i o n to ' t e a c h i n g h o w t o l e a rn a n d t h in k i n d e p e n d e n t l y ' is

i n c reas i n g .

A n o t h e r s t ri k i n g a t t r ib u t e o f th e ca t eg o r i e s o f l e a rn i n g ac t iv i t ie s d e s c r i b e d

i n T ab l e 1 i s t h a t t h ey can a l s o b e r e l a t ed t o i n s t ru c t i o n a l ac t i v i t i e s . W h a t

t e a c h e r s d o t o t e a c h p e o p l e s o m e t h i n g c a n b e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e s a m e t e r m s ;

t h e y e x p l a i n t h e r e l a ti o n s a m o n g l e a r n in g c o n t e n t, p r o v id e e x a m p l e s , s h o w

h o w a t h e o r y m a y b e a p p l i ed i n p r a c ti c e , m o t i v a t e s tu d e n ts , a n d p l a n, m o n i t o r

a n d e v a l u a t e t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s o f s t u d en t s. I t s e e m s t h at l e a r n i n g a n d

i n s tr u c t i o n a l a c ti v it ie s c a n b e s e e n a s i m a g e s o f e a c h o t h e r a n d t h a t t h e y m a y

b e d e s c r i b e d i n s i m i l a r t e r m s . T h u s , o n e c a n s p e a k o f learning funct ions;fu n c t i o n s t h a t h av e t o b e fu l f i l l ed fo r w o r t h w h i l e l ea rn i n g p ro ces s e s t o b e

rea l i zed ( co mp are Sh u e l l , 1 9 8 8 ) . W h o fu l f i l s t h e s e fu n c t i o n s , t h e l ea rn e r o r

t h e t e a c h e r , m a y v a r y , i f o n l y t h e y a r e f u lf il le d . W h e n s o m e f u n c t i o n s a re n o t

f u l fi ll e d o n e m a y s p e a k o f i n c o m p l e t e le a r n i n g p r o c e ss e s , w h i c h is o f t e n t h e

cas e .

F r o m t h e v i e w p o i n t o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n st r uc t io n a l a c t iv i ti e s o n s t u d e n t s '

u s e o f l e a rn i n g ac t i v i ti e s , t h r ee b as i c i n s t ru c ti o n a l s t r a teg i e s can b e d i s ce rn ed :

t ak i n g o v e r , o r s u b s t i t u t i n g , l e a rn i n g an d t h i n k i n g ac t i v i t i e s f ro m s t u d en t s( s t ro n g ex t e rn a l co n t ro l ) ; a c t i v a t in g s t u d en t s t o u s e ce r t a i n l ea rn i n g an d t h i n k -

i n g ac t i v i t ie s ( s h a red co n t ro l ); an d cap i t a l i z i n g o n t h e p ro p e r u s e o f le a rn i n g

an d t h i n k i n g ac t i v i ti e s th a t s t u d en t s a l r ead y p o s s e s s ( l o o s e ex t e rn a l co n t ro l) .

I n t h e f i r st c a s e t h e t each e r , f o r ex am p l e , ex p l a i n s a l l r e l a t io n s b e t w e en t w o

t h eo r i e s , i n t h e s e co n d ca s e i n s t ru c t i o n s t i mu l a t e s s t u d en t s to s e a rch fo r r e l a -

t i o n s b e t w ee n t h e t h eo r i e s . I n t h e t h ird ca s e t h e t each e r p ay s n o a t t en t i o n t o

t h e r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r i e s, a n d h e o r s h e e x p e c t s f r o m t h e s t u d e n ts

t h a t t h ey w i l l s ea rc h an d f i n d th o s e r e l a t i o n s t h em s e l v es .

T h e q u e s t i o n n o w a r is e s a s to w h e t h e r c er t a in p s y c h o l o g i c a l l a w s m a y b ed i s co v e red i n t h e w ay t h a t p eo p l e u t i l i z e v a r i o u s l ea rn i n g ac t i v i t i e s . I s t h e

e m p l o y m e n t o f s o m e l e a r n i n g a c t iv i ti e s a s s o c ia t e d w i th t h e u s e o f o th e r s ?



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Can l ea rn ing s t ra teg i e s be i den ti f ied , cons is t ing o f t yp i ca l combina t ions o f

think ing ac t ivi t ies? Th ese a re cent ra l ques t ions in the s tudy repor ted here .

As s t a t ed above , ac t i ve ' on- l i ne ' r egu la t i on of l ea rn ing i s one a spec t o fme tacogni t i on ; i t is t he m ore dy nam ic a spec t . Ano the r a spec t i s more s ta ti c

in na ture ; t he kn ow ledg e , be l ie f s , concep t ions and v i ew s people have about

l ea rn ing processes , the fun c t ion ing of one ' s ow n th ink ing and the va r i ab l e s

tha t inf luence these processes . In the f i rs t years of metacogni t ive research

m any s tud ie s w ere based on a p re sumpt ion o f kno wled ge re l a ted t o spec if i c

fac ts peo ple hav e ab out l ea rn ing , such a s t he dura t ion and capac i ty o f shor t-

t e rm memory . More recen t ly t he t o t a l , cohe ren t sys t em of concept ions o f

l e a rn i n g a n d a s s o c ia t ed p h e n o m e n a a r e m o r e i n fo c u s ; th e m e n t a l m o d e l s o f

l ea rn ing tha t people po ssess . T hese l ea rn ing concep t ions re fe r to , fo r exam ple ,

conce pt ions o f l ea rn ing and th ink ing ac t iv i ti e s, concep t ions o f on ese l f a s a

l ea rne r , concep t ion s o f l ea rn ing ob j ec t i ves and l ea rn ing t a sks , con cep t ions o f

l ea rn ing and s tudying in g ene ra l and regu la t ion concept ions : v i ews on the t a sk

divis ion b e tw een o ne se l f and others in learning processes (e .g . Vole t, 1990;

M arton, D al l 'A lba an d Beaty, 1993; Prosser, Tr igw el l and Taylor , 1994).

Asp ec t s o f s t uden t l ea rn ing tha t a re w e l l r e sea rched a re s tudy m ot iva tion

(Entwi s t l e & Ramsden , 1983) and l ea rn ing or i en t a t i ons (Gibbs , Morgan &

Taylor, 1984). Lea rn ing or i en t a ti ons re fe r t o t he w hole dom a in of pe rsona l

goals , in tent ions , a tt i tudes , wo rr ies and do ubts o f s tudents in re la t ion to the i r

s tud ie s . Th ey a re su ppo sed to i n f luence l ea rn ing because s tuden ts , w i th in t he

reper toi re o f learning ac t ivi t ies they m aster , ma inly use those ac t ivi t ies they

think a re bes t s ui ted to rea l ize the i r person al goa ls.

L i t tl e i s, how eve r , kno w n about t he i n te rp l ay be twe en self-regulation an d

external regulation of l ea rn ing . Thi s , fo r example , r e fer s to t he w ay in w hich

s tudents inte rpre t , appra ise and use ex terna l regula t ion devices (didac t ic m ea-

sure s) , dep end ent on t he i r menta l m ode l s o f l ea rn ing , l ea rn ing or i en ta t ions

and ski l ls in learning . I t i s of ten sup pose d tha t didac t ic m easures l ike learn-ing ob jec t ives , ass ignm ents , se l f- test s , d i rec t ions for s tudying, and so on , a re

des i rab l e dev i ces fo r t he improvement o f s t uden t l ea rn ing . The regu la t i on

po w er o f t he se t ypes o f t each ing dev ices , e spec i a ll y i n ins t ruc tiona l des ign

theor i e s , is p re sum ed, bu t r a re ly emp i r ica l l y s tud i ed . The actual i n f luence o f

these ex t e rna l r egu la t ion d ev ices on s tudent s ' use o f s t udy s t ra teg i es , and h ow

th is i n f luence is m edia t ed by s tudent s ' m enta l lea rn ing mode l s and l ea rn ing

or ienta t ions , remains unc lear .

W ha t has a l so rem a ined unc l ea r un ti l now a re the i n t er re la t ions am ong

studen ts ' pro cess in g s t ra tegies , regula t ion s t ra tegies , m enta l learning mo delsand learning or ienta t ions . These inte rre la t ions a re re ferred to here in te rms

of the co ncep t o f ' l e a rn ing s ty l e ' . The t e rm ' l e a rn ing s ty l e ' i s usua l ly used

in a na r rower sense , fo r example , i n t he sense o f t he l ea rn ing ac t i v i t i e s



2 9

s t u d e n t s u s u a l l y e m p l o y to l e ar n ( e. g . M o r a n , 1 9 9 1 ). H e r e t h e c o n c e p t i s u s e d

i n a b r o a d e r s e n s e , a n d a l s o i n c lu d e s s t u d e n t s ' m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l e a r n in g

a n d l e a r n i n g o r i en t a ti o n s . ' L e a r n i n g s t y le ' m e a n s h e r e a c o h e r e n t w h o l e o fl e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s t u d e n t s u s u a l l y e m p l o y , t h e i r l e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n

a n d t h e i r m e n t a l m o d e l o f l e a r n in g ; a w h o l e t h a t is c h a ra c te r is t ic o f t h e m

a t a c e r t a i n p e r i o d . W i t h i n t h i s b r o a d e r m e a n i n g l e a r n i n g s t y l e i s t h u s a

c o o r d i n a t i n g c o n c e p t , i n w h i c h t h e i n te r re l at io n s a m o n g c o g n i t iv e , a f fe c t iv e

a n d r e g u l a t i v e l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t i e s , m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l e a r n i n g a n d l e a r n i n g

o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e u n i te d . L e a r n i n g s t y l e is not c o n c e i v e d o f a s a n u n c h a n g e a b l e

p e r s o n a l i t y a t t r ib u t e , b u t a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e t e m p o r a l i n t e r p l a y b e t w e e n

p e r s o n a l a n d c o n t e x t u a l i n f lu e n c e s .

F r o m t h e a b o v e i t i s c l e a r t h a t l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s p l a y a c e n t ra l r o l e in t h e

t h e o r y o n r e g u l a t io n o f l e a r n in g p r o c e s s e s ( V e r m u n t , 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 2 ). H o w e v e r ,

l it tl e is k n o w n a b o u t t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h s t u d e n t s c a rr y o u t t h e s e f u n c t i o n s

i n a r e a l e d u c a t i o n a l c o n t e x t , a n d a b o u t t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h i s e x e c u t i o n i s

r e g u l a t e d b y i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s . I n s i g h t i n t o t h e s e p r o c e s s e s c a n

m a k e a n i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t io n t o t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f i n s tr u c ti o n a l p r a c ti c e

i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n b e c a u s e , i n li n e w i t h t h e f o r e g o i n g a r g u m e n t , t h e l e a r n in g

a n d t h i n k i n g a c t i v i t ie s o f s t u d e n t s s h o u l d b e t a k e n a s a s ta r t in g p o i n t in

d e s i g n i n g i n s tr u c ti o n .

Research questions. The p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n t h is a r t ic l e i s

p r i n c i p a l l y t o g e t m o r e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s c a r r y o u t t h e

v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s t h a t a re r e l a t e d t o th e i r le a r n i n g s t y le s o n t h e o n e

h a n d , a n d t h e e x t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n i m p o s e d b y i n s t r u c t i o n a l a c t iv i t ie s o n t h e

o t h e r. T h e f o c u s h e r e i s o n s m a l l s ca l e, b u t i n d e p t h , i n t e r v i e w s t u d i e s a n d t w o

o f t h e s e s t u d i e s a r e r e p o r t e d h e r e ; o n e i n v o l v i n g o p e n u n i v e r s i ty s t u d e n t s a n d

o n e i n v o l v i n g r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s . M o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g

r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s w e r e f o r m u l a te d :

1 . I n w h a t w a y s d o s t u d e n t s c ar r y o u t th e v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s i n t h e i rn o r m a l s t u d i es ?

2 . H o w i s t h i s e x e c u t i o n in t e r n a l l y a n d e x t e r n a l l y r e g u l a t e d ?

3 . W h a t l e a r n i n g s t y l e s c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e f ir st

t w o q u e s t io n s ?

Research contexts. S t u d y i n g a t t h e o p e n u n i v e r s i ty m e a n s t h a t s t u d e n t s w o r k

a l o t w i t h s e l f - i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s . B e s i d e t h e i r a c t u a l l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t ,

t h e s e m a t e r ia l s c o n t a i n a l o t o f i n - te x t te a c h i n g d e v i c e s m e a n t t o s u p p o r t a n d

d i r e c t t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s o f s t u d e n t s . E x a m p l e s a r e : in t r o d u c t i o n s , h i g h -l i g h t e d c e n tr a l c o n c e p t s , s u m m a r i e s , o v e r v i e w s , r e h e a rs a l u n i ts , a s s i g n m e n t s ,

l e a r n i n g o b j e c t i v e s , q u e s t i o n s , t a s k s , d i r e c t i o n s f o r s t u d y i n g , a n d s e l f - t e s t s

w i t h f e e d b a c k . S t u d e n t s c a n a ls o a t te n d a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f m e e t i n g s g u i d e d

b y a tu t o r. I n c o n t r a s t, s t u d y i n g a t th e r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y



3 0

a c o m b i n a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t s t u d y , l e ct u r es , a n d t u t o ri a ls . S t u d e n t s s t u d y

i n d e p e n d e n t l y t h e s t u d y m a te r ia ls c h o s e n o r c o m p i l e d b y t h e i r te a ch e rs . T h e s e

s t u d y m a t e r ia l s m a y a l s o c o n t a i n r e g u l a t i o n d e v i c e s l i k e o b j e c ti v e s , q u e s t i o n s ,a n d t h e l ik e , b u t m o s t o f t h e m d o n o t . T h e r e a r e re l at iv e l y m a n y c o n t a c t p e r i-

o d s w i t h t e a c h e r s t h a t s t u d e n t s m a y a t t e n d . I n t h e s e l e c t u r e s a n d t u t o r i a l s

t e a c h e r s c l a ri f y t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d p r o v i d e s t u d e n t s w i t h d i r e c t i o n s f o r

t h e ir i n d e p e n d e n t s tu d y .

Research methodology. The r e s u l ta n t i n t e r v ie w d a t a w e r e a n a l y z e d f r o m

t h e t h e o r et ic a l p e r s p e c t i v e o u t l in e d a b o v e . T h e p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c r e se a r ch

m e t h o d o l o g y w a s u s e d f o r t h e s e a n al y se s . P h e n o m e n o g r a p h y i s a r e s ea r ch

m e t h o d o l o g y t o m a p t h e q u a l i ta t iv e d i f f e r e n t w a y s p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e , c o n -

c e p t u a l i ze , p e r c e i v e a n d u n d e r s t a n d p h e n o m e n a (M a r to n , 1 9 8 6) . O b j e c t iv e o f

t h e m e t h o d i s t o f r a m e a n d d e s c r i b e t h e s e q u a l it a ti v e d i f f er e n c e s i n c o n c e p t u a l

c a t e g o r i e s ( S~ iljS , 1 9 8 8 ). T h e p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n u s e d i n

v a r i o u s e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h c o n t e x t s a n d w i t h v a r i o u s p o p u l a t i o n s . M a r t o n

e t a l. ( 1 9 9 3 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , a n a l y z e d i n t e r v i e w s w i t h B r i ti s h O p e n u n i v e r s i t y

s t u d e n ts i n a p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c w a y t o d e s c ri b e d if f er e n c es a n d d e v e l o p -

m e n t s i n l e a r n i n g c o n c e p t i o n s o f s t u d e n ts . P r a m l i n g (1 9 9 0 ) h a s a n a l y z e d

i n t e r v i e w s w i t h S w e d i s h p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n a b o u t th e i r le a r n i n g c o n c e p t i o n s

p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c a l l y . M u r p h y ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s , in a s i m i l a r w a y , a n a ly z e d h e r

i n t e r v i e w d a t a o f a d u l t s t u d e n t s i n T u r k i s h o p e n d i s t an c e e d u c a t i o n . P r o s s e r

e t al. ( 1 9 9 4 ) u s e d t h e p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c m e t h o d i n a s tu d y o n c o n c e p -

t io n s o f t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g o f A u s t r a li a n u n i v e r s i ty te a c h e r s. T h e ' p h e -

n o m e n o n ' d e a l t w i th i n t h is a r ti c le i s ' s t u d y i n g in t h e b e g i n n i n g p h a s e o f

h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ' . F o r a m o r e e l a b o ra te d i s c u s s io n o f th e p h e n o m e n o g r a p h i c

r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g y t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r ed t o M a r t o n ( 1 9 8 6 , 1 9 9 0 ) a n d S ~ ilj6

(1988) .

Me t h o d

Students. ( 1 ) T h e O U - S t u d y . A s a m p l e o f 3 4 f ir s t y e a r O U - s t u d e n t s w a s t a k e n

f r o m t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s u b j e c t ar ea s : s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e C u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s

O r i e n ta t io n C o u r s e , f r o m t h e F o u n d a t i o n L a w C o u r s e a n d s t u de n t s w h o d i d

a m o r e e x a c t c o u r s e : e i th e r t h e N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s O r i e n ta t io n C o u r s e o r t h e

S y s t e m s a n d t h e ir R e g u l a t io n C o u r s e f r o m t h e T e c h n ic a l S c i e n c es s u b j e c t

a re a. H a l f t h e s a m p l e c o n s i s te d o f w o m e n , t h e o t h e r h a l f o f m e n . O f t h e 3 4

s tuden t s , 25 (74% ) w e re w i l l ing t o pa r t ic ipa t e in t he s tudy . D u e to a te chn ica l

m a l f u n c t i o n o n e i n te r v i ew w a s n o t r e c o r d e d o n ta p e. T h e r e s i d u a l g r o u p o f

r e s p o n d e n t s c o n s i s t e d o f f o u r m e n a n d o n e w o m a n f r o m t h e L a w S c i e n ce s ,

f iv e m e n a n d f i v e w o m e n f r o m t h e C u l tu r a l S c ie n c e s a n d fo u r m e n a n d f i ve



31

w o m e n f r o m t h e N a t u r a l a n d T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c es . T h e m e a n a g e o f t h e s e 2 4

s t u d e n t s w a s 3 3 . 0 y e a r s .

( 2 ) T h e R U - S t u d y . A s a m p l e o f 2 0 f ir st y e a r P s y c h o l o g y s tu d e n t s w a s t a k e nf r o m a r e g u l a r u n i v e r s i t y . C o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n , 1 4

f u l l t i m e a n d 6 p a r t t i m e s t u d e n t s w e r e s e l e c t e d . T h e s e 2 0 s t u d e n t s w e r e

a p p r o a c h e d i n w r i t i n g w i t h t h e r e q u e s t to p a r t ic i p a t e in a n i n t e r v i e w , a n d 11

o f t h e m ( 5 5 % ) a g r e e d t o d o s o. T h i s r e s p o n s e g r o u p c o n s i s t e d o f e ig h t f u ll

t i m e a n d t h r e e p a r t ti m e s t u d e n ts , n i n e w o m e n a n d t w o m e n , a n d t h e m e a n

a g e w a s 2 2 . 4 y e a r s .

In t e rv i ew sch ed u le s. I n b o t h s t u d i e s s i m i l a r i n t e rv i e w s c h e d u l e s w e r e u s e d .

T h e s e s c h e d u l e s c o n t a i n e d s o m e o p e n c o r e q u e s ti o n s a n d a n u m b e r o f s u g g e s -

t io n s f o r c o n t i n u a t io n q u e s t io n s . Q u e s t io n s w e r e a s k e d a b o u t, a m o n g o t h e r

t h i n g s , t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s s t u d i e d t h e c o u r s e m a t e r i a ls , t h e ro l e o f

t u t o r ia l s a n d f e l l o w s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r s t u d ie s , v i e w s o n s t u d y i n g a t th e u n i v e r -

s it y , s t u d y e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d s t u d y p la n s . I n th e R U - s c h e d u l e a l s o q u e s t i o n s

w e r e a s k e d a b o u t t h e r o l e o f l e c t u r e s i n t h e s t u d i es .

Pro ced u res . ( 1) T h e O U - S t u d y . S t u d e n t s w h o h a d d e c l a r e d , i n a t e l e p h o n e

c a l l, t h e i r w i l l i n g n e s s t o p a r t i ci p a t e i n t h e s t u d y , w e r e i n t e r v i e w e d b y o n e

i n t e r v i e w e r , a l m o s t a l w a y s a t th e s t u d e n t ' s h o m e . A l l i n t e rv i e w s w e r e d i v i d e d

a m o n g t h r e e i n t e r v i e w e r s a n d p r o g r e s s e d i n a s e m i - s t r u c t u r e d w a y . S t u d e n t s

w e r e s t i m u l a t e d t o e x p l a i n a n d c l a r i f y e v e r y t h i n g r e l a te d t o t h e i r s ty l e o f

l e a r n i n g . I n a l l b u t o n e c a s e s p e r m i s s i o n w a s g r a n t e d t o t a p e - r e c o r d t h e

i n t e rv i e w . E l a b o r a t e n o t e s w e r e t a k e n i n t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c a se . E a c h i n t e r v i e w

l a s t e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m i n u t e s . P a rt i c ip a t i o n i n th e s t u d y w a s v o l u n t a r y a n d

a s t h e o n l y r e w a r d t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e p r o m i s e d a s h o r t r ep o r t o f t h e s t u d y

a f t e r it s c o m p l e t i o n .

( 2 ) T h e R U - S t u d y . S t u d e n t s i n t h is s t u d y v o l u n t e e r e d to p a r t ic i p a t e v i a a

p o s t a l r e s p o n s e t o a w r i t t e n i n v i ta t io n . F a i l u r e to r e s p o n d r e s u l t e d i n a f o l l o w -

u p r e m i n d e r . T h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s f o l l o w e d d i f f er e d fr o m t h o s eo f t h e O U - s t u d y o n l y i n s o f a r a s i n t er v i e w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d o n u n i v e r s it y

p r e m i s e s , l a s t ed a p p r o x i m a t e l y a n h o u r a n d w e r e r e w a r d e d w i t h t e n g u i ld e rs .

A l l i n t e r v i e w s w e r e t a p e - re c o r d e d .

Da ta a n a ly s i s . A l l i n t e r v i e w s w e r e t r a n s c r i b e d a n d p r i n t e d , r e s u l t i n g i n

4 5 0 p a g e s o f t ra n s cr ip t . T h e t ra n s cr ip t s w e r e t h e n a n a l y z e d p h e n o m e n o -

g r a p h i c a l ly . A s a f i rs t s te p a l l i n t e r v i e w s w e r e r e a d c o m p l e t e l y . S u b s e q u e n t l y ,

t h e i n t e r v i e w s w e r e s t u d i e d s e v e r a l m o r e t im e s , d u r i n g w h i c h p h a s e q u o t e s

w e r e s e l e c t e d t h a t w e r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e r e s e a rc h q u e s ti o n s. T h e s e q u o t e s w e r e

o r g a n i z e d o n a w o r d p r o c e s s o r , p e r i n d i v id u a l , u n d e r o n e o f t h e f iv e c e n t r a li n t e r v i e w t o p i cs : c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g , r e g u l a t i o n o f l e a r n i n g , a f f e c t iv e p ro -

c e s s e s , m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l e a r n i n g a n d l e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s . T h e s e s e l e c t e d

q u o t e s w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y p ri n t ed a n d f o r m e d t h e b a s is o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t



3 2

i t e ra t i v e d a t a a n a l y s i s . S e l e c t e d q u o t e s w e r e s t u d i e d p e r to p i c . C h a r a c t e r i s ti c

a s p e c t s o f t h e l e a r n i n g s t y l e s o f th e s t u d e n t s w e r e r e c o r d e d a s f e a tu r e s i n a

l is t, t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n s e v e r a l t h e m a t i c a s p e c ts . T h e s e f e a t u r e s w e r es u b s e q u e n t l y g r o u p e d a n d r e g r o u p e d i n t o c a t e g o r i e s , b a s e d o n s i m i l a r i t i e s

a n d d i f fe r e n c e s . T h e s e c a t e g o r i e s w e r e t h e n d e s c r ib e d , a n d t h e d e s c r i p t io n s

w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a . B a s e d o n t h e s e c o m p a r i s o n s , c o l l e c -

t i o n s o f fe a t u r e s w e r e r e g r o u p e d , a n d s o o n . A f t e r r e a c h i n g a s t ab l e g r o u p i n g

i n t h e c a t e g o r i c a l s y s t e m , u l t im a t e d e s c r i p t io n a l c a t e g o r ie s w e r e f o r m u l a t e d

t h a t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e m o s t e s s e n t ia l f e a tu r e s o f t h e g r o u p i n g s t h a t w e r e f o u n d .

F i n a l ly , e a c h c a t e g o r y w a s i l l u s tr a t e d w i t h t y p i c a l q u o t a t i o n s .

Resu l t s

T h e a b o v e d e s c r i b e d m e t h o d o f a n a ly s i s re s u l te d i n f o u r m a i n c a t e g o r i e s o f

d e s c r i p t i o n , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t q u a l i t a t iv e l y d i f f e r e n t s ty l e s o f l e a r n i n g . T h e s e

s t y l e s d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r i n f i v e a r e a s : t h e w a y i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s c o g -

n i t iv e l y p r o c e s s l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t s , t h e w a y i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s r e g u l a te t h e i r

l e a rn i n g , t h e a f f e c ti v e p r o c e s s e s t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g s t u d y i n g , th e m e n t a l l ea r n -

i n g m o d e l s a n d t h e l e a r n i n g o r i e n ta t i o n s o f s t u d e n ts . T h e s e l e a r n i n g s t y l es w i l l

b e d e s c r i b e d h e r e a l o n g t h e se t h e m e s . T h e y m a y b e n a m e d a s a n u n d i re c t ed ,

a r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c t e d , a m e a n i n g d i r e c te d a n d a n a p p l i c a t io n d i r e c t e d le a r n-

i n g s t y l e . T h e s e f o u r l e a r n i n g s t y l e s ar e p r o t o t y p i c a l s t y l e s, i n t h e s e n s e t h a t

a s t u d e n t c a n m a n i f e s t f e a tu r e s o f d i f f e r en t s ty l es . A l l 3 5 s t u d e n t s h o w e v e r

s h o w a d o m i n a n t s t y l e . F o r s ix s t u d e n t s t h i s i s t h e u n d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g s t y le ,

f o r t w e l v e t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c t e d s ty l e , f o r te n t h e m e a n i n g d i r e c te d s t y le

a n d f o r s e v e n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n d i r e c t e d s t y l e.

T h e d e s c r i p t io n s w i l l b e i l lu s t ra t e d b y c h a r a c t er i st ic e x a m p l e s o f q u o t e s o f

s t u d e n ts . T h e s t u d e n t n u m b e r i s in d i c a t e d b e t w e e n b r a c k e t s b e h i n d q u o t a t io n s ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e u n i v e r s i t y a n d s u b j e c t a r e a to w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t b e lo n g s .

O U r e fe r s t o O p e n U n i v e r s it y , R U t o R e g u l a r U n i v e r s it y . L S s ta n d s f o r

L a w S c i e n c e s , C S f o r C u l t u ra l S c i e n c e s , T S f o r T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s , N S f o r

N a t u r a l S c i e n c e s , a n d P S f o r P s y c h o l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s. I n t h e q u o t e s ' I ' m e a n s

I n t e r v i e w e r a n d ' S ' m e a n s S t u d e n t .

Undirected learning style

Cogn itive processing. S t u d e n t s w i t h t h i s l e a r n i n g s t y l e h a v e a l o t o f t r o u -

b l e p e r f o r m i n g a l m o s t a l l l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s . T h e y h a v e m u c h d i f f i c u l t y i n

s e l e c t in g t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r t s i n t h e s t u d y m a t e r i al s a n d i n d i s ti n g u i s h i n g

b e t w e e n m a i n a n d m i n o r p o i nt s . T h e y f i n d e v e r y t h in g o f e q u a l im p o r t a n c e

a n d p a y e q u a l a t te n t i o n t o a ll p a r ts o f th e l e a r n i n g c o n t e n ts . T h e y d o n o t



3 3

k n o w w h a t t h e y h a v e t o r e m e m b e r , a n d t h e s t u d y m a t e r i a l s a r e t o o v o l u m i -

n o u s t o r e m e m b e r e v e r y t h i n g . B e c a u s e t h e s e s t u d e n ts a r e n o t a b le to d i sc e r n

l e v e l s o f i m p o r t a n c e i n th e s u b j e c t m a tt er , t h e y h a r d l y g e t a r o u n d t o a f u r t h e rp r o c e s s i n g o f t h e s t u d y m a t e ri a ls . T h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s i n g a c t i v i ti e s

a r e r e a d i n g a n d r e r e a d i n g t h e s t u d y m a t e r i a l s m a n y t i m e s . T h e y h a v e t r o u -

b l e s e e i n g r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n t h e p a r t s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d s t r u c t u ri n g

t h e s e p a r t s i n b i g g e r w h o l e s . T h e y a l s o h a v e d i ff i cu l ti e s w i t h c o n c r e t i z in g a n d

a p p l y i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d t h e y s e e l it tl e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n w h a t t h e y

s t u d y a n d p h e n o m e n a i n d a i l y l if e .

S: "It is very difficult to select. W hen you are in an ordinary class y ou ask: 'd oyou h ave to know this or is th is not so important? ' . But wh en yo u are on your

ow n that is very diff icult . You never know well what they w ant you to know ."

I : "D o the l earn ing ob jec t ive s ind ica te wh a t i s impo r tan t?"

S: "Yes, but these are also ver y general. Th at you can explain something in broad

outlines, for exam ple, how the earth is built up. Bu t then yo u stil l do not know

how muc h they w ant you to know abo ut that. No exa mple is g iven about how

mu ch you should k now about i t. I don ' t f ind them so clear. ( .. .) S om e people

know it as soon as they have read it , but that is not the case with me. I really

have to wri te dow n everything, i f necessary three times. B efore the exam I jus t

will w rite dow n every thing another t ime. Th at is the w ay it really g oes in. (.. .)I cann ot learn in another w ay." (17, OU, NS )

R e g u l a t i o n o f l ea r n in g . T y p i ca l o f t hi s l e a rn i n g s t y l e is th a t s t u d en t s s t ro n g -

l y d ir e c t t h e m s e l v e s t o w a r d t h e r e g u l a t i o n a s s u p p l i e d b y i n s tr u c ti o n , b u t t h e y

e x p e r i e n c e i n s u f fi c i e n t h o l d o n t h a t. T h e y e x p e r i e n c e a l a c k o f r e g u la t i o n i n

t h e i r l e a rn i n g ac t i v it i e s . S t u d e n t s f i n d t h e o b j ec t i v e s , i n s t ru c t io n s an d i n t ro -

d u c t i o n s g i v e n b y t h e t e a c h e r o r t h e b o o k t o o g e n e r a l a n d n o t c l e a r e n o u g h t o

s u p p o r t t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f th e i r le a rn i ng . O f t e n t h e y a l s o e x p e r i e n c e t e n s io n s

b e t w e e n q u e s t i o n s a n d a s s i g n m e n t s t h a t a r e a i m e d a t t h e b r o a d o u t l i n e , a n d

w h i c h d i s t r a c t t h e m f r o m t h e f a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n t o w h i c h t h e y t h e m s e l v e s

a re d i r ec t ed . T h e o n l y v a r i a t i o n s i n th e i r ap p ro ach t o s t u d y i n g a re o f a q u an -

t i t a t iv e n a t u re : t h e m o re d i f f i cu l t a ch ap t e r o r l e a rn i n g u n i t i s , t h e m o re t i m e

t h e y s p e n d o n i t b y r e r e a d i n g i t m o r e t im e s .

I n th i s le a r n i n g s t y l e m o n i t o r i n g p r o c e s s e s c o n s i s t m a i n l y o f b e c o m i n g

a w a r e o f t h e d i f f ic u l ti e s s t u d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h t h e r e g u l a t io n

o f th e i r l e a r n in g p r o c e s s e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y n o t i c e t h a t th e y d o n o t h a v e a

fee l i n g fo r w h a t i s i m p o r t an t , t h a t t h e q u an t i t y o f t h e s t u d y m a t e r i a l s i s f a r

t o o l a r g e t o p r o c e s s i n a r e a s o n a b l e t i m e , a n d t h a t t h e ir p a c e o f s t u d y i n g i s t o os l o w . T h e s e s t u d e n t s a l s o e x p e r i e n c e p r o b l e m s t e s t i n g a n d e v a l u a t i n g t h e i r

l e a r n in g r e s u l t s. T h e y a r e s t r o n g ly f o c u s e d o n t h e q u e s t io n s , a s s i g n m e n t s , a n d

s e l f - te s t s s u p p l i e d i n t h e c o u r s e m a t e r i a ls o r b y t e a c h e rs , b u t w h a t t h e y n e e d

t o k n o w f o r th e e x a m r e m a i n s u n c l e a r to th e m . T h e i r o n l y a d j u s tm e n t s t r a te g y



3 4

w h e n t h e y d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g i s t o s t a y r e a d i n g a n d r e r e a d i n g t h e

d i f f i cu l t p a r t s .

S: "Re gularly there is writ ten: 'yo u ma y read th is , but you do not have to learn

it by heart . ' Fo r exam ple, a num ber o f historical d ates are given, that I find

wo rthwhile to know, but then there is writ ten: 'you do not have to remem ber

the m '. ( .. .) W ell, if I do n6t have to learn every thing there is in the book . The re

is quite a lot in i t , I think, in the sen se o f 'oh, jus t read it , i t is not so important,

i t i s n ice to know, but . . . '. I do not know if that is a lways so good. M ayb e certain

facts are g oo d to hav e in your mind. (. . .) There are que stions that instruct yo u

to m ake certain conn ect ions , or to find out contradict ions betw een John 's and

Pe ter 's story, but eviden tly I do that too lit tle" (8, OU , CS)

T h e s e s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e y s t u d y i n a m a n n e r t h a t t h e y h a v e a l w a y s

d o n e . O U - s t u d e n t s o f t e n r e v e rt t o th e ir e x p e r i e n c e s o f m a n y y e a r s a g o i n

s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n f o r t h e i r c u r r e n t a p p r o a c h t o s t u d y i n g . I n s e c o n d a r y

e d u c a t i o n t h i s w a y o f s tu d y i n g w o r k e d w e l l f o r t h e m , b u t t h e in c r e a s e i n t h e

q u a n t i t y o f s t u d y m a t e r i a ls b r i n g s t h e m i n to p r o b l e m s n o w . T h e y r e a l i s e t h a t

t h e i r c u r r e n t l e a r n i n g s t y l e d o e s n o t s u f f ic e a n y m o r e , b u t t h e y d o n o t k n o w

h o w t o a p p r o a c h t h e i r s t u d i e s in a b e t t e r w a y .

A f f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s . S t u d en t s w i t h t h i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e a r e a f r a i d t h a t t h ey

a r e n o t a b l e t o c o p e w i t h t h e ir s t u d i e s , t h a t t h e y d o n o t d e a l w i t h t h e m w e l l ,a n d t h a t t h e y c a n n o t l e a r n t h e s t u d y m a t e r ia l s . T h e y h a v e a n e g a t i v e v i e w o f

t h em s e l v es a s s t u d en t s , an d h av e l i t t l e co n f i d en ce i n t h e i r s t u d y cap ab i l i t i e s .

T h e y a r e d i s a p p o i n t e d i n t h e m s e l v e s a n d h a v e b u i l t u p f a i l u r e e x p e c t a t i o n s

i n th e c o u r s e o f t h e ir s t u d ie s . T h e y w o r r y a b o u t th e ir o w n a c h i e v e m e n t s a n d

b e g i n t o p o s t p o n e s t u dy i n g .

I: "Are there th ings you have wo rried abou t wi th regard to your s tudies?"

S: "Yes , my own achievements . I had expected that these s tudies would not be

easy , but I had not expected that they wou ld be so hard . I worried a lo t about

that, a nd I st il l do. Wh en I hav e to study something I keep thinking again and

again: w hy am I not a ble to do i t? I a lway s could . I jus t fa i l now." (33, R U, PS)

M e n t a l m o d e l s o f le a r ni ng . T h e s e s t u d e n t s s e e a l m o s t a l l c o g n i t i v e a n d

r e g u l a t i v e l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s a s t a s k s o f in s tr u c ti o n . W i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n t h e y

s a y t o w a n t a l o t o f e x t e r n a l r e g u l a t io n , m o r e t h a n t h e y a r e g e t t in g n o w ,

a n d t h e y w a n t i t i n t e rm s o f t h e s u b s t i tu t i o n o f t h in k i n g a c t iv i t ie s t h e y h a v e

t o e m p l o y c u r r e n t l y . W i t h r e g a r d t o c o g n i t i v e l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s , s t u d e n t s

w i t h t h i s l e a r n i n g s t y l e a re , f o r e x a m p l e , o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s o r

c o u r s e w r i t e r s s h o u l d e x p l a i n t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r v e r y c l e a r l y , s u m u p w h a t

s t u d e n t s n e e d a n d n e e d n o t to k n o w , s h o w v e r y c l e a rl y th e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n

t h e d i f f e r e n t t o p i c s c o v e r e d , a n d s k e t c h a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e l e a rn i n g c o n t e n t s .

T h e r e g u l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s t h e y e x p e c t o f t h e c o u r s e m a t e r ia l s o r t e a c h e r s

a r e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s : e x p l a i n h o w t h e y s h o u l d s t u d y , g i v e a s s i g n m e n t s



3 5

t o d o a t h o m e , e x p l i c a t e d i f f i c u l t p a r t s u n t i l s t u d e n t s u n d e r s t a n d t h e m , a n d

c h e c k w h e t h e r s t u d e n t s s t u d y a n d m a s t e r t h e s u b j e c t m a t te r. T h e y a l s o w a n t

m a n y a s s i g n m e n t s , s e l f -t e s ts a n d t r ia l e x a m s . S t u d e n t s a l s o f i n d t h a t t u t o r s o rt e a c h e r s s h o u l d r e g u l a t e t h e i r le a r n i n g m o r e t h a n t h e y d o i n p r a c ti c e .

I: "W hat do you fin d the task of a teacher in good education?"

S: "Th at he explains c lear ly. Tha t he also gives ass ignments that y ou can ma ke at

hom e, so that you can s tudy the subject mat ter in a s tepw ise manner . And that

he tes ts wh ether the s tudents a lso s tudy and master the subject matter . I do no t

mean the b ig exam, b ut I am u sed to ge t hom ewo rk as signments , for example .

(. . . ) I find tutorials important because there I can ask questions more directly

than in lectures. If yo u canno t understand something, y ou can ask, ask, ask until

yo u do unders tand i t ." (33, RU , PS)C o o p e r a t i o n w i t h f e l l o w s t u d e n t s is c o n s i d e r e d v e r y i m p o r ta n t b y s t u d e n t s

w i t h t h is l e a r n in g s t y le . A f f e c t i v e f u n c t i o n s t h a t s t u d e n t s a t t a c h t o th i s c o o p -

e r a t i o n a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , g e t t i n g s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r s, m o t i v a t in g e a c h o t h e r t o

g o o n a t w e a k m o m e n t s , a n d n o t ic i n g t h at o t h e r st u d e n ts h a v e t h e s a m e p r o b -

l e m s a n d q u e s t i o n s . T h e y a l s o f in d it i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s u l t o t h e r s tu d e n t s w h e n

t h e y d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g . A s m o s t i m p o r t a n t t a s k s f o r t h e m s e l v e s

t h e s e s t u d e n t s s e e t a k i n g t h e t i m e t o s tu d y , s tu d y i n g r e g u l a r ly a n d g e t ti n g t h e

s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n t o t h e ir h e a d s .

Lea rn in g o r i en ta t io n s . S t ude n t s w i t h t h i s l e a rn i ng s t y l e ha ve s t a r t e d t he i r

s t u d i e s w i t h a v a r i e ty o f l e ar n i n g o r i e n t a ti o n s . T h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s w i t h s t u d y i n g

u n t il n o w h a v e h o w e v e r r a is e d d o u b t a b o u t th e r e a li z ab i li ty o f th e ir l o n g - t e r m

g o a l s . T y p i c a l l y , t h e r e i s a s o m e w h a t a m b i v a l e n t , i n s e c u r e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s

t h e ir s t u d ie s . T h e y a s k t h e m s e l v e s , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e c h o s e n

t h e r i g h t c o u r s e , s t u d i e s o r s u b j e c t a r e a , a n d w h e t h e r t h e y a r e a b l e t o c o p e

w i t h t h e i r s tu d i e s . T h e y d o u b t t h e ir o w n c a p a b i l i ti e s to s u c c e e d a n d d o n o t

k n o w w h e t h e r t h e y w i ll g o o n .

S: "In the beginning the spiri t was very high, but that has become less. ( . . . ) It is

a ques t ion wh ether I wi ll go on. M ayb e, i f I wou ld pass the exam of this f i rs t

course, the spir it bec om es higher, b ut I do not see that happ en yet . I wan t to

loo k at i t pe r cou rse and if i t satisfies or if I can c op e with i t , I say: I go on with

i t . " ( 8 , O U , C S )

Rep r o d u c t io n d i rec ted l ea rn in g s t y le

Co g n i t i ve p ro cess in g . S t u d e n t s w i t h t h i s le a r n in g s t y l e s p e n d a l o t o f ti m e

s e l e c t i n g w h a t a r e , i n th e i r v i e w , t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r ts o f t h e s t u d y m a t e -r ia ls . T h e y u n d e r l i n e o r m a r k i n th e i r s t u d y te x t s th e p a r t s th e y h a v e t o k n o w

b y h e a r t f o r th e e x a m i n a ti o n . I n o r d e r to d i st in g u i s h b e t w e e n m a i n a n d m i n o r

p o i n t s t h e y f o c u s o n t h e i n d i ca t i o n s g i v e n b y c o u r s e w r i t e rs , a u t h o r s o f s t u d y

b o o k s , t u t o r s o r t e a c h e r s . T h e s e i n d i c a t i o n s s u p p l y th e m w i t h e n o u g h c l a r i ty



36

as to what the important parts are and, in general, they have little trouble

with the process of selection. Often quantitative criteria are decisive for the

importance they attach to parts of the subject matter, such as the number ofpages spent on a topic, the number of times certain subjects are repeated in a

text, and the amount of time teachers spend on a topic. Besides the selection

of main points in study materials, memorizing and rehearsal form the most

important processing activities within this learning style. Typical is that the

study materials are processed in a stepwise fashion, sequentially and thor-

oughly. Students work through the study materials page by page, part by part

and study every topic separately.

S: "There are no parts of which I think: Oh, I know those already. There are parts

that look familiar to me, but for me that is no reason to say: I just do that a bit

faster, because I know that. No, I read everything very precisely! (...) Then I

read it all over again. The second time I not only read, but I also mark. With

a marker pen I indicate what text I should definitely know by heart. Between

40 and 50% is yellow then, so very much. And central concepts and words I

should have in my head I mark red. When the exams are coming closer, I start

reading everything for the third time. (...) In my view there is only one way: I

have to make sure that a mass of those concepts gets into my brains. So it is:

rehears, rehears, rehears. If I do it four times I know it better than after threetimes, and after five times I know it better than after four times." (23, OU, CS)

Regu lation o f learning. Students with this learning style are very sensitive

to indications about what course parts teachers or course writers consider

most important. They restrict themselves to the examined subject matter and

consult no other sources about the course contents. Mostly this reproductive

learning style is regulated externally: students let themselves be directed by

the regula tion sources suppl ied by instruction, such as introductions, learning

objectives, directions for studying, questions, assignments and self-tests. Stu-

dents test and evaluate their learning results mainly by doing the questions,

tasks and tests suppl ied by instruction. Often however this happens in a some-

what superficial way. Students think, for example, for a moment whether they

would be able to answer the questions, without actually doing so. Also they

look whether they understand the questions and if that is the case, they think

they master the subject matter enough.

S: "I appreciate those self-tests. They make you know where you have to go to.

You know exactly what they consider to be the main points and you know of

certain other things that they probably do not find them so important. So, I

do not have to study these so intensively. (...) Sometimes there is something

written like: 'you are not expected to learn by heart the part that follows now,

only the main points.' Then you get the text and the most important points

are often immediately asked for, like 'name the three points that Brown has



37

m ention ed in the tex t regard ing . .. ' T hat they find the most important and the

rem ainder of Brow n's text you m ay forget , I assume. O nly those th ings they

consider important and only those you have to rem em ber." (22, O U, CS)

T h e o n l y v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r ap p ro ac h t o s t u d y i n g a r e q u an t i t a t iv e i n n a t u re .

S o m e t i m e s i t co s ts t h e m m o r e t im e t o r e m e m b e r t h e c o u rs e c o n t e n t a n d

t h ey h av e t o r eh ea r s e i t m o re o f t en . V a r i a ti o n s in t h e i r ap p ro ach t o d i f f e r en t

c o u r s e s m a i n l y h a v e t o d o w i t h w h a t t h e y m e m o r i z e . I f t h e y t h i n k t h a t t h e

e x a m w i l l b e f a c t - o r ie n t e d , th e y l e a r n d e t ai ls , n a m e s a n d c o n c e p t s b y h e a rt .

I n o t h e r c o u r s e s , t h e y l e a rn b r o a d o u t l in e s , c o m p a r i s o n s a n d s u m m a r i e s b y

h ea r t . Mo n i t o r i n g p ro ces s e s a r e , w i t h i n t h is l e a rn i n g s t y l e , m a i n l y d i r ec t ed a t

t h e p a c e o f s t u d y i n g . O f t e n t h e s e s t u d e n ts i n d i c a te a n e e d f o r a l o t o f t im e t o

s tu d y . T h e m o s t c h o s e n a d j u s t m e n t s tr a t e g y w h e n e n c o u n t e r i n g d i ff i cu l t p a r ts

i s m o r e o f t e n r e r e a d i n g a n d r e h e a r s i n g t h e m . T h e s e s t u d e n t s s e l d o m d i a g n o s e

t h e ca u s e o f t h e i r d i f f icu l t ie s o r r e f l ec t o n t h e i r ap p ro ach t o s t u d y i n g . M o s t l y ,

t h e i r w a y o f s t u d y i n g is n o t v e r y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i r a p p r o a c h i n s e c o n d a r y

e d u c a t i o n .

Affective processes. St u d en t s w i t h t h i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e mo s t l y p u t a l o t o f

e f f o r t a n d t i m e i n t o t h e i r s t u d i e s . T h e y a r e o f t e n i n s e c u r e a b o u t w h a t w i l l

b e a s k e d a t t h e e x a m i n a t io n . T h e y a r e a f ra i d th a t th e y h a v e t o k n o w e v e r y -

t h i n g a n d t h a t t h e y w i l l f o rg e t s o m e t h i n g . S o m e t i m e s t h is l e a d s t o e x c e s s i v eu n d e r l i n i n g , m a r k i n g o r v e r y e x t e n s i v e s u m m a r i e s . T h e i r p e r s o n a l i n t er e s ts

p l ay o n l y a s m a l l r o l e i n th e r eg u l a t i o n o f t h e i r l e a rn in g . S u b j ec t m a t t e r t h a t

i n te r e s ts t h e m is r e m e m b e r e d f a st e r t h a n s u b j e c t m a t t e r th a t t h e y d o n o t f i n d

s o i n t e r e s t i n g .

S: W hen I read I u nderl ine almost everything, because I don ' t l ike the idea of

forgett ing som ething wh en I start learning i t. ( . ..) But w hen I learn i t , I underline

the rea l essential parts a little bit thicker. W hen I start rehearsing, then I o nly

look at th e thickest l ines. But I expe rience that as a ne gative point, b ecause in

fac t I should select from the start. That w ould save t ime. But then I ha ve the

feeling: I m ay ha ve selec ted now, but possibly I forgo t something important.

That i s m ayb e an insecuri ty in m y s tudy me thod." (34, RU, PS)

M ental models o f learning. T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t u d y g o a l f o r t h e s e s tu -

d e n t s is t o p a s s e x a m i n a t i o n s . B y ' s t u d y i n g ' t h e y m e a n a b s o r b i n g th e o f f e r e d

k n o w l e d g e f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n . T h e i r re g u l a t io n c o n c e p t i o n i n d ic a t e s a s t ro n g

p re fe r e n c e fo r i n s t ru c t i o n a l s t r a teg i e s t h a t s u b st i tu t e fo r t h e i r o w n l ea rn i n g

ac t iv i t ie s . R eg a rd i n g t h e c o g n i t i v e l ea rn i n g fu n c t i o n s , th e s e s t u d en t s ap p rec i -

a t e i t w h e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r ts o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a re c l e a r l y i n di c a te d .T h e y a l s o f e e l t h a t t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r s h o u ld b e w e l l s e g m e n t e d , a n d s h o u l d

b e r e p e a t e d r e g u l a r l y , i n a n o t h e r c o n t e x t. T h e y e x p e c t t h e c o u r s e m a t e r i a l s

t o s h o w t h e r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t c h a p t e r s o r l e a r n i n g u n it s a n d

d es i r e a c l ea r s t ru c t u re fo r t h e s t u d y ma t e r i a ls . T h ey co n s i d e r d i s cu s s i o n s



38

a m o n g s t u d e n t s a b o u t s t u d y t o p i c s a s u s e le s s . A s t h e t a sk s o f t e a c h e r s th e s e

s t u d e n t s s e e m a i n l y t h e c l a r if i c a ti o n a n d e x t r a e x p l a n a t io n o f s u b j e c t m a tt e r.

I n t h e i r o p i n io n , t e a c h e r s s h o u l d g i v e e x t r a e x a m p l e s a n d s tr e ss t h o s e t o p ic st h e y c o n s i d e r i m p o r t a n t . T h e y s h o u l d i n d i c a te t h e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n p a r ts o f

t h e s u b j e c t m a t te r , g i v e a n o v e r v i e w o f w h a t i s in t h e b o o k , a n d e x p l a i n t h e

s t ru c t u re o f t h e s u b j ec t ma t t e r c l ea r l y . A s t a s k s o f i n s t ru c t i o n i n t h e a f f ec -

t iv e a r e a t h e s e s t u d e n t s s e e , a m o n g o t h e r th i n g s, m a k i n g s t u d e n ts e n t h u s i a st ic

a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d g e n e r a t i n g i n te r e s t i n it. T h e r e g u l a t iv e t a sk s t h e y

t h i n k t e a c h e r s h a v e a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , t e ll in g e x a c t l y w h a t t h e y e x p e c t f r o m

s t u d e n t s in e x a m i n a t i o n s , a s k i n g q u e s t io n s t o c h e c k s t u d e n ts ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g

a n d m a k i n g c l e a r to s t u d e n t s w h a t h a s n o t b e e n u n d e r s t o o d .

I : "W hat do you cons ider goo d educa tion ?

S: "G ood e ducat ion is m ainly clear educat ion, showing unam biguously wh at they

m ean, and also tel ling what they w ant from you at the exam. You mu st know

what you are up to , tha t you know what you have to do and how yo u can pass

the exam . That I c onsider good education, that you k now w hat is expected from

you. ( .. .) L earning is jus t being able to repro duce what you h ave learned." (34,

RU , PS)

S t u d e n t s w i t h t h is l e a r n i n g s t y l e s e e th e i n t a k e o f k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s u b j e c tm a t t e r in t o t h e i r h e a d i n o r d e r t o m a k e i t r e p r o d u c i b l e a s t h e i r c e n t r a l ta s k i n

s t u d y i n g . T h e v a l u e o f l e a r n i n g a c t i v it ie s i s j u d g e d i n t e r m s o f t h e i r c o n tr i -

b u t i o n t o a b e t t e r r e m e m b e r i n g o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t er . L e a r n i n g b y h e a r t a n d

r e h e a r s i n g th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r m a n y t im e s a r e c o n s i d e re d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

l ea rn i n g ac t i v i t i e s b y t h e s e s t u d en t s . C r i t i c a l p ro ces s i n g i s n o t co n s i d e red a

r e l e v a n t le a r n i n g a c ti v it y , b e c a u s e t h e y t h i n k t h e a u t h o r s k n o w i t m u c h b e t t e r

t h a n a b e g i n n i n g s t u d e n t a n y w a y .

L e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s . A l e a r n i n g o r ie n t a t io n a i m e d a t te s t in g o n e ' s o w n

cap ab i l i t ie s , co u p l ed w i t h a s t ro n g d i r ec t ed n es s a t p a s s i n g t h e ex am i n a t i o n s , iso f t e n c h a r a c t e r i s t ic f o r t h is l e a r n i n g s ty l e. S t u d e n t s w a n t t o k n o w w h e t h e r th e

s t u d i e s a re f e a s i b l e f o r t h e m a n d w h e t h e r t h e y c a n c o p e w i th h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .

P a s s i n g e x a m i n a t i o n s i s t h e m a i n o b j e c t iv e f o r th e s e s t u d e n ts , b e c a u s e t h a t

i s a p r o o f th a t t h e y c a n c o p e w i th t h e i r s tu d i es , a n d b e c a u s e t h e n t h e y k n o w

w h e t h e r th e y h a v e t a k e n i n th e k n o w l e d g e t h e y h a v e a b s o rb e d w e ll . T h e y

w a n t t o s c o r e a s h i g h a s p o s s ib l e f o r th e e x a m i n a t io n . T h e m a i n o b j e c t iv e o f

t h e i r s t u d i e s i s i n acq u i r i n g s t u d y p o i n t s an d o b t a i n i n g ce r t i f ica t e s .

S: "M y exp ectation at the beginn ing was: wou ld i t be difficult? W ould I be ab leto cope wi th acad em ic educat ion? (. .. ) I do n ' t have a n eed for d iscuss ions in

tutorials, for the t im e being I re strict m yse lf to the su bject matter. And I will

nee d m y hands and feet to ge t it in to m y head in such a w ay that I can cope w i th

aca dem ic educ ation. ( .. .) Y ou have to get a sufficient grade to be able to go on,



3 9

so w ith sw eat in my hands I mad e the final self-test in the last course unit. (23,

O U , C S )

M eaning directed learning style

Cognitive p rocessing. C h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h m a i n p o i n t s a re

s e l ec t ed w i t h i n t h i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e i s t h e l a rg e r ro l e o f i n tr i n si c i n t e re s t in

t h e s u b j ec t . S t u d e n t s p r i m ar i l y t ry t o g e t p a rt s o u t o f t h e s t u d y t ex t s , le c -

t u re s o r tu t o r i a l s t h a t t h ey t h e m s e l v es f i n d i m p o r t an t . T h ey t ry to u n d e r s t an d

t h e m ean i n g o f a s to ry , an d t h e y h av e l i t tl e a t t en ti o n fo r d e t a il s . W h a t t h ey

f i n d i m p o r t a n t a r e m a i n l in e s , c e n tr a l c o n c e p t s , th e e s s e n c e o f t h e m a t e r i -

a l , h y p o t h e s e s , t h e o r i e s t h a t t r y t o p r o v e o r d i s p r o v e t h o s e h y p o t h e s e s , t h ee v i d e n c e t h a t i s p r o v i d e d , a n d h o w o n e c o n s t r u c t s t h e o ri e s . T y p i c a l o f t h is

l ea rn i n g s t y l e i s t h a t s t u d e n t s o f t e n t ry t o i n t e r re l a t e p a r t s o f t h e s u b j ec t m a t -

t e r . T h e y s e a r c h , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n f o r m u l a s , t h i n k a b o u t

r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t t o p i c s w i t h in a l e a r n in g u n i t o r c h a p te r , b e t w e e n

d i f f e r e n t l e a rn i n g u n i t s o r c h a p t e r s a n d b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t s t u d y b o o k s . T h e y

a l s o l o o k w h e t h e r t h e y c a n b u i l d r e l a t i o n s t o k n o w l e d g e t h e y a l r e a d y h a v e

ab o u t th e d o m a i n . S t u d e n t s w i t h th i s le a rn i n g s t y l e t ry to b u i l d a t o t a l p i c t u re

o f th e s u b j e c t m a t te r . O f t e n t h e y w r i t e d o w n t h e m a i n l in e o f a l e a rn i n g u n i t

o r c h a p t e r i n a s t r o n g l y a b b r e v i a t e d o r s c h e m a t i c a l w a y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h ef o r m o f k e y c o n c e p t s w i t h a r r o w s t h a t s y m b o l i z e th e m u t u a l re l a ti o n s. T h e s e

s t u d en t s a l s o o f t en t ry t o ap p r o ach t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n a c r it i c a l m an n e r , b y

a s k i n g q u e s t i o n s a b o u t it , a n d b y f o r m i n g o w n i n t e rp r e ta t io n s , o p i n i o n s a n d

c o n c l u s i o n s .

S: " M y w ay of studying is that I alway s try to see relationships and to get an

ov erv iew o ver the su bjec t matter. There is a certain line in a chapter, a story,

and I try to f ollo w that. For exa mp le, there are different theories abo ut a topic.

Then I summ arize the core of each theory and also the pro 's and contra 's , and

wh ich the ory is a reaction to which theory. (.. .) M y sum ma ry is very important

to m e, bec ause I get an overv iew over the subject mat ter , I see the main l ines

and conn ect ions that get los t when I only read from page to page." (31, RU , PS)

Regulation o f learning. In m o s t ca s e s t h is l e a rn i n g s t y l e is r eg u l a t ed i n t e r -

n a l l y : t h e s e l ec t i n g , r e l a t i n g , s t ru c t u r i n g an d c r i t i c a l p ro ces s i n g ac t i v i t i e s

a r e a c t i v a t e d b y t h e s t u d e n t s th e m s e l v e s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y l e t t h e m s e l v e s b e

g u i d e d b y q u e s t i o n s t h a t t h e y a s k d u r i n g s t u d y i n g a n d t h e y t r y t o fi n d a n s w e r s .

S t u d en t s w i t h th i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e a l s o co n s u l t n o n - p re s c r i b ed l i t e r a tu re r e l a t ed

t o t h e c o u r s e t o p i c s , t o d e e p e n t h e i r i n te r e st s , t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u b j e c t

m a t t e r o r t o g e t a b r o a d e r v i e w o n i t . T h e s e s t u d e n t s a d a p t t h e i r a p p r o a c h

t o s t u d y i n g e s p e c i a l l y t o t h e i r p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s , p r i o r k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e

r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a t i n th e i r v i e w a r e p o s e d b y d i f f e re n t c o u r s e s . F o r e x a m p l e ,

fo r co u r s e s i n S t a t i s t ic s , s t u d en t s w i t h th i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e o f t en u s e an an a l y t i c



4 0

p r o c e s s i n g s t r a t e g y i n w h i c h t h e y p r a c t is e a l o t o f p r o b l e m s . F o r o t h e r c o u r s e s

t h e y o f t e n e m p l o y a r e la t in g a n d s t r u c t u r in g s tr a te g y . M o n i t o r i n g p r o c e s s e s in

t h is l e a r n i n g s t y l e ar e m a i n l y f o c u s e d o n th e d e g r e e t o w h i c h s t u d e n ts u n d e r -s t a n d t h e s u b j e c t m a tt e r. W h e n t h e s e s t u d e n t s e n c o u n t e r d i f f ic u l ti e s, t h e y

o f t e n e x t e n s i v e l y d i a g n o s e w h y t h e s e h a v e o c c u rr e d . T h e y t r y t o f in d o u t w h y

t h e y d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d s o m e t h i n g a n d t h e n d e r i v e c o n c l u s i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e ,

t h a t t h e y s h o u l d u p g r a d e t h e ir p r io r k n o w l e d g e o r t h a t t h e y s h o u l d g o b a c k t o

p r e v i o u s l e a r n i n g u n i t s o f c h a p te r s . T h e i r a d j u s t m e n t s t r a te g y m o s t l y c o n s i s ts

o f u s i n g o t h e r p r o c e s s i n g a c t i v it ie s . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e y c o n s u l t o t h e r b o o k s

o r a r t i c l e s , t h ey t ry t o wr i t e d o wn t h e d i f f i cu l t p a r t s i n s ch em a t i c o r s t ro n g l y

a b b r e v i a t e d f o r m , o r t h e y t r y t o s i ft o u t a p a rt i c u la r p a r t v e r y d e t a i l e d l y a n d

an a l y t i ca l l y . T o t e s t an d ev a l u a t e t h e i r l e a rn i n g p ro g re s s t h e s e s t u d en t s a s k

q u e s t i o n s w h e n t h e y r e a d , t h e y t r y to e x p l a i n t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o a n im a g i -

n a r y p e r s o n , o r t h e y f o r m u l a t e i n t h e ir o w n w o r d s o r t h o u g h t s w h a t a t h e o r y

m e a n s . W h e n t h e y h a v e t h u s c o n s t r u c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a n d w h e n t h e y c a n

e a s i l y d i s c e r n t h e m a i n f e a t u r e s in t h e i r o w n w o r d s , t h e n t h e y f e e l t h at t h e y

h a v e m a s t e r e d t h e s u b j e c t m a t te r .

S: "I a lw ays ask m yse lf things whe n I read. W hen I ask those quest ions, I expectthat somewhere the answers wil l come. Then you go on reading and i f theansw ers do no t come, yo u know there m ust be something wrong. ( .. .) I f you

can create the pr oblem you rself and invent another examp le, you have i t undercontrol ."

I: "W hat do you do w i th d i ff icu l t par t s? "

S: "When I encounter something I have t rouble with , I t ry to analyze why i t is

difficult. A nd then I hav e to dra w conclusions. W hen, fo r exam ple, I com e to

the conc lusion that something is very diff icul t for m e becau se I miss the prior

know ledge, I m ust conclude I have to go bac k to that prior knowled ge." (18,

O U , T S )

A f f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s . In t r i n s i c i n t e re s t i n s u b j ec t m a t t e r p l ay s an i m p o r t an t

r o l e i n t h e r e g u l a t i o n o f t h e l e a rn i n g p r o c e s s e s o f th e s e s t u d e n ts . T h e y c a nb u i l d m a n y m o r e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n a l l k i n d s o f to p i c s a nd t h e y r e a d m u c h

m o r e a r o u n d t h e c o u r s e c o n t e n t w i t h s u b j e c t m a t t e r th a t in t e r e st s th e m . T h e y

a r e m o r e i n c l i n e d t o l e a r n b y h e a r t t h o s e t o p i c s t h a t i n t e r e s t t h e m l e s s , a n d

t h e n t h e y o n l y r e a d t h e c o u r s e c o n t e n t . G e n e r a l l y , t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a l o t o f

p l ea s u re i n t h e i r s t u d i e s an d t h e y f i n d t h e co u r s e s en r i ch i n g an d i n t e re s t in g .

S: "A t th is mom ent I have to do courses for my w ork, cr iminal law, tax laws and

the like, and they don't interest me at all . I learn them in a totally different

manner, that is consta ntly learning by heart. B ut in this OU -cou rse I really wa nt

to get ins ight, so I s tudy i t in a com pletely d ifferent way. Not bec ause I have to

kno w i t, but becau se I want to know i t. These th ings fascinate me. W hen I learn

abo ut the wa y a p lant grows, I th ink: h ow for he aven 's sake is that poss ib le?"

(3, OU , NS)



41

Mental models of learning. St u d en t s w i th t h is l e a rn i n g s t y l e v i ew s t u d y i n g

a s a d i a l o g u e w i t h p e o p l e w h o k n o w a l ot, a s b e i n g c o n f r o n t e d w i th t h o u g h t s o f

o t h e r s a n d t h i n k i n g a n d f o r m i n g a n o p i n io n a b o u t th e m . I n t h e ir v i e w s t u d y i n gis d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e y c a n m a k e r e l at io n s

t o o t h e r c o u r s e s , t h a t t h e y c a n f o l lo w a l i ne o f re a s o n i n g a n d t h a t t h e y c a n

t h i n k fu r t h e r o n t h a t l in e . A s s t u d y g o a l s t h e s e s t u d en t s s ee t h e acq u i s i ti o n o f

i n s i g h t, b e i n g ab l e t o d e r i v e fo rm u l a s o n es e l f , d ev e l o p i n g s c i en t if i c t h i n k i n g

ab i li ty , b e i n g ab l e t o b u i l d r e la t i o n s , an d b ec o m i n g acq u a i n t ed w i t h t h e l i n e s

o f t h o u g h t i n t h e i r s u b j ec t a r ea . I n th e i r v i ew t each e r s s h o u l d t a lk ab o u t th i n g s

t h a t a r e n o t in t h e b o o k s , b e o p en t o q u es t i o n s f ro m s t u d en t s an d th e i r v i ew o n

co u r s e t o p ic s , g i v e s t u d en t s s p ace t o t h i n k a lo n g , an d g i v e t h e i r o w n o p i n i o n s

ab o u t s u b j ec t ma t t e r . T h es e s t u d en t s s ee a s fu n c t i o n s o f tu t o r ia l s , am o n g o t h e r

t h in g s , h o l d i n g d i s c u s s i o n s a n d e x c h a n g i n g o p i n i o n s a n d v i e w s . A s f u r t h e r

c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f g o o d e d u c a t i o n t h e y m e n t i o n t h a t it is n o t o n l y d i r e c t e d a t

e x a m i n a t i o n s b u t t h a t i t p u ts t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i n t e re s ts o f s t u d e n ts t o t h e

fo re .

S t u d e n t s w i t h t h is l e a rn i n g s t y l e s ee i t a s t h e i r o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i ty t o p e r fo rm

m o s t l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s . L e a r n i n g , i n t h e ir v i ew , c a n n o t b e d o n e f o r t h e m b y

s o m e o n e e l se . I n t h e c o g n i t i v e a r e a t h e y c o n s i d e r a s i m p o r t a n t p e r so n a l t a sk s ,

am o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t o t r y to t h i n k c r i t ic a l l y ab o u t t h e s u b j ec t ma t t e r , d ev e l o p a

ce r t a i n v i ew o n i t, f e ed t h e co n t en t o f l e a rn i n g u n i t s o r ch ap t e r s b ack t o ea r l i e r

l e a r n i n g u n it s , a n d s u m m a r i z e t h e i r e ss e n c e . T h e y d i sl ik e s t u d y i n g f o r th e s a k e

o f o n l y b e i n g a b l e t o r e p r o d u c e k n o w l e d g e i n a n e x a m a n d f o r g e t it a f t e rw a r d s .

I n t e r m s o f t h e a f f e c t i v e a r e a, t h e y s e e t h e ir o w n t a sk s a s , a m o n g o t h e r th i n g s,

b e i n g mo t i v a t ed , b e i n g i n t e r e s t ed i n t h e s u b j ec t ma t t e r , b e i n g i n v o l v ed i n

t h e i r s t u d y i n g an d p u t t i n g en e rg y in t o it. A s r eg u l a t i v e t a s k s fo r t h em s e l v e s

t h e y s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e a s k i n g o f q u e s t io n s , b e i n g a c t i v e ly e n g a g e d w i t h

t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a n d r e a d i n g b o o k s a n d m a g a z i n e s a b o u t t h e c o u r s e t o p ic s .

T h e y a r e o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e r e a li st ic i n d i a g n o s i n g t h e c a u s e so f d i f fi c u lt ie s t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a n d s h o u l d f i nd o u t w h e r e t h e y s h o u l d b l a m e

t h e m s e l v e s a n d w h e r e t h e r e a r e d id a c t ic s h o r t c o m i n g s . T h e y t h i n k t h e y s h o u l d

k e e p t h e i r e y e s o n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e o ri e s, i n s t e ad o f h u r r y i n g a f te r p o in t s

a n d g a t h e r i n g g r a d e s.

I: "What do you consider tasks of a student in good education ?"

S: "Having motivation, you have to l ike i t . Also being actively engaged in i t .

Putting ene rgy into i t, for example, not taking in everyth ing, but also trying

to think critically about things, trying to make the subject matter alive for

yourse lf. ( .. .) T he m ost important thing o f studying for m e is to deal with the

subject matter in such a way that i t gets a part of yourself, that you can do

something with i t . That you can play with i t , that you can relate i t to other

course s or daily l ive o r whatever." (31, RU, PS)



4 2

L e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s . St u d en t s w i t h t h i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e o f t en s t u d y t o

d e e p e n t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , t o d e v e l o p a s a p e r s o n , o r f o r t h e s a k e o f s t u d y i n g

i t s e l f t h a t i s f o u n d p l ea s an t . Pe r s o n a l i n t e r e s t in t h e t o p i c s t h a t a r e d ea l t w i t hi s o f t e n t h e m o t i v e f o r d o i n g t h e i r s t u d ie s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s s tu d y t o d e v e l o p a n d

e n r i c h t h e m s e l v e s a s a p e r s o n . T h e y w a n t to g e t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h th e s u b j e c t

a r e a , a r e c u r i o u s a b o u t i t a n d w a n t to k n o w e v e r y t h i n g t h e y c a n u n d e r s ta n d .

T h e y l i k e t o s h a r p e n t h e i r t h o u g h t s w i t h t h e i d e a s o f o t h e r s . T h e y f i n d i t

f a s c i n a t i n g to f o l l o w t h e i d e a s o f o t h e rs , t h in k a b o u t t h e m a n d d e v e l o p o t h e r

v e r s io n s o f t h e m .

S: "Th e m ost important reason for me to s tar t these s tudies i s that I have alwa ys

been very interested in Natural sciences. ( . . .) The most important thing of

s tudying is that yo u are eng aged wi th yoursel f , that you t ry to m ake your sel f

sharp, and es pecia lly to stay that way. I do no t study for a career, but really only

because I w ant to develop myse lf ." (3 , OU, NS)

A p p l i c a t i o n d i r e c t e d l e a r n in g s t y l e

C o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s i n g . I n t h i s l e a r n i n g s t y l e th e u s e f u l n e s s o f l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t

f o r r e a l i z in g p e r s o n a l g o a l s i s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r i te r i o n f o r s e le c t i n g m a i n

p o i nt s. S t u d e n t s m a i n l y p a y a t te n t io n t o t h o s e p a r ts o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r

t h a t h a v e p r a c t i c a l r e l e v a n c e . P h e n o m e n a fr o m d a i ly l if e , e v e n t s t h e y s e e o n

T V , o r r e a d a b o u t i n t h e n e w s p a p e r s , a r e c o n s i d e r e d m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n

o t h e r s . T h e p ro ce s s i n g s t r a t eg y o f th i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e is ty p i ca l l y t h a t s t u d en t s

f r e q u e n t l y s e a r c h f o r r e l a t io n s b e t w e e n t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r a n d t h e r e a l i ty t o

w h i c h i t r e f e rs . S t u d e n t s t r y to c o n c r e t i z e t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r ; t h e y u s e t h i n g s

t h e y k n o w f r o m o w n e x p e r i e n c e , p r a c t i c a l k n o w l e d g e f r o m t h e i r w o r k , o r

e v e n t s w i t h w h i c h t h e y a r e c o n f r o n t e d d a i l y v i a t h e m e d i a , a s e x a m p l e s o r

v i s u a l i m a g e s o f w h a t t h e y r e a d i n t h e ir s tu d y m a t e ri a ls . T h e s e s t u d e n t s a ls o

t r y t o a p p l y i n p r a c t i c e w h a t t h e y l e a r n f ro m a c o u r s e . T h e y u s e k n o w l e d g e

a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h e i r s t u d ie s t o i n t e rp r e t a n d t h i n k a b o u t p h e n o m e n a i n th e i r

f ie ld t h at t h e y k n o w a b o u t v i a t h e m e d i a . T h e y r e c o g n i z e p h e n o m e n a i n d a il y

l if e f r o m w h a t t h e y h e a r a b o u t i n l e c t u re s o r r e a d a b o u t i n th e i r te x t b o o k s .

T h e y b r i n g t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o p r a c t i c e , i n t h e i r w o r k , o r s o c i a l , o r f r e e

t i me , ac t i v it i e s . T h es e s t u d en t s f ee l a n ee d to f i ll ab s t r ac t l in e s o f r ea s o n i n g

w i t h c o n c r e t e th i n g s a n d a s l o n g a s t h e y c a n i m a g i n e e n o u g h w i t h th e s u b j e c t

m a t t e r , t h e y c a n f o l l o w i t q u i t e w e l l. H o w e v e r , w h e n t hi s i s n o l o n g e r p o ss i b le ,

t h e y e x p e r i e n c e p r o b le m s .I: "Are there par ts in the course s that you f ind more important than other par ts ? "

S: "T he pract ical th ings are of ten m uch m ore important for yoursel f. The th ings

you hear when you l isten to the debates in the parliament, the things from

daily l ife. ( . ..) If y ou rea d in the n ew spape r that a m inister is in trouble, then

you a l ready th ink: w hat would happen wi th th is and that when a m em ber of



4 3

parl iament proposes to cha nge that law? T hen yo u bring y our know ledge in to

prac tice." (13, OU , LS).

R e g u l a t i o n o f l e a r ni n g. T h i s l ea rn i n g s t y l e is r eg u l a t ed b o t h i n t e rn a l l y an d

ex t e rn a l l y . T h e mo re i t i s r eg u l a t ed i n t e rn a l l y , t h e l e s s u s e s t u d en t s mak e o f

p r o v i d e d d i d a c t i c a i ds . T h e i r m o n i t o r i n g p r o c e s s e s a re m a i n l y d i r e c t e d a t t h e

d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y c a n i m a g i n e t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r c o n c r e t e l y a n d a r e a b le t o

a p p l y i t. S o m e t i m e s t h e s e s t u d e n ts e x p e r i e n c e p r o b l e m s w h e n t h e a b s t r a c ti o n

l e v e l o f a c o u r s e is t o o h i gh . W h e n t h e s e s t u d e n t s e n c o u n t e r d if f ic u l t p a rt s,

t h e y e m p l o y a v a r i e t y o f a d j u s t m e n t a c t i v i t i e s . T h e y c o n s u l t o t h e r b o o k s ,

m a k e c o m p a r i s o n s , d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s , m a k e s c h e m e s w i t h a r r o w s , o r r e s o r t

t o a n a n a l y t i c s tr a te g y . T o t e s t w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e m a s t e r e d t h e s u b j e c t m a t te r ,

s t u d e n ts t h i n k o f q u e st io n s , a s s i g n m e n t s , p r o b l e m s a n d e x a m p l e s . T h e y a l s o

t ry , f o r e x a m p l e , t o e n v i s i o n c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s e s a n d d e s c r i b e th a t i m a g e i n

t h e i r o w n w o r d s . T h e y f i n d t h a t t h e y m a s t e r t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r w h e n t h e y

u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e , w h e n t h e y u n d e r s t a n d

w h y , in t h e s t u d y m a t e r i a ls , a ce r t a i n t h eo ry is t r ea t ed an d a f t e rw a rd s a p a r t

o f r ea l i t y i s ex p l a i n ed .

I: "W hat do you do with the assignments inserted into the learning units?"

S: "I d o hav e t ime to read an d understan d the learning units , but unfortun ately I

do not have t ime to do the assignments. Otherwise I do not read newspapersany m ore. ( . . .) T here are things that I find extrem ely important. T hat does

not m ean that the profess or wh o sets the exam also considers them important.

So m etim es I read som ething and I think: this is ve ry important, I will have to

rem em ber i t. But in the exam i t does not come. That remains a problem for

me , because for m e eve rything is new. For som eone from the Netherlands who

has a lo t of expe rience with dem ocracy, these are very ordinary mat ters. But I

learned to k now dem ocracy here. W hen I see the word dem ocracy in a text, o r

constitutional state, or basic rights, I con sider it extrem ely important fo r m e to

know about wh en I go back to m y country ." (19, OU, LS, poli tical refug ee)

W h e n t h i s l e a r n i n g s t y le i s r e g u l a t e d m o r e e x t e r n a ll y , s t u d en t s m a k e m o r e

u s e o f t h e d i d a c t i c a i d s. T h e c o n c r e t i z i n g a n d a p p l y i n g a c t iv i ti e s a r e th e n m a i n -

l y ac t i v a t ed b y , e s p ec i a l l y , t h e a s s i g n men t s t h a t a r e i n s e r t ed i n t o t h e co u r s e

m a t e r i a ls o r p r o v i d e d b y t h e t e a c h e r s. T h e s e a s s i g n m e n t s s t im u l a t e t h e m t o

g i v e t h e i r o w n i n t e rp re t a t i o n s , t o ap p l y t h e s u b j ec t ma t t e r , an d t o i n v o l v e

s u p p l e m e n t a r y l i t e r a t u r e , n e w s p a p e r s , T V - p r o g r a m s a n d t h e l i k e . S t u d e n t s

a d a p t t h e i r a p p r o a c h t o t h e l e a r n i n g o b j ec t iv e s . T h e y l e a r n p u r p o s i v e l y a n d

i n g e n e r a l d o w h a t i s r e c o m m e n d e d i n t h e l e c t u re s a n d d i d a c t ic a i ds .A f f ec t i ve p r o ces s e s . Prac t i ca l i n t e r e s t p l ay s an i mp o r t an t ro l e i n t h e r eg u -

l a ti o n o f t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s o f t h e s e s t ud e n ts . T h e y a u t o m a t i c a ll y r e la t e

w h a t f a s c i n a t e s t h e m t o d a i l y l i f e a s in , f o r ex am p l e , a r t ic l e s in t h e n ew s p ap e r s

t h e y r e a d . T h e y d o n o t h i n g w i th t o p i c s th a t d o n o t i n te r e s t t h e m . T h e y s t u d y



4 4

p r a c t i c a ll y r e l e v a n t p a r ts m o r e i n t e n s iv e l y ; t h e y h a v e m o r e t r o u b l e c o n c e n -

t r a t i n g o n a b s t r a c t t o p i c s . T h e y s t u d y a c h a p t e r m o r e e a s i l y i n w h i c h t h e y

e n c o u n t e r t h i n g s t h a t th e y a r e d a i ly c o n f r o n t e d w i t h th a n c h a p t e r s i n w h i c ht h is i s n o t t h e c a s e . T h e y r e m e m b e r f in e d e ta i ls a s a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e , b e c a u s e

o f t h e i r i n t e re s t in t h e m , w i t h o u t a c t u a l ly l e a r n i n g t h e m .

S: "Yo u study the intere sting things m ore intensively and easily. You like them ,

and then y ou are m ore curious to go on. In contrast , w hen i t is about abstract

things I re ad for a qua rter of an h our and th en I find my sel f staring at the ceil ing.

Th en I think: c om e on, another t ime. A nd then I go on for ten lines." (13, O U,

L S)

M e n t a l m o d e l s o f l ea r ni n g. St u d en t s w i t h t h i s l e a rn i n g s t y l e s ee a s ma i ng o a l o f t h e i r s tu d i e s l e a r n in g t o u s e t h e k n o w l e d g e t h e y a c q u i r e . T h e y w a n t

t o t ry to p r ac t i ca l l y u t i li z e t h e ex p e r i e n ce s t h ey g a i n d u r i n g t h e i r s t u d i e s an d

t h e y c o n s i d e r th e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r t o b e v e r y i m p o r ta n t . F o r

e x a m p l e , th e y d e s c r i b e ' s t u d y i n g ' a s p r o c e s s i n g n e w i n f o r m a t i o n a n d b e in g

ab l e t o ap p l y i t i n p r ac t i ce . Fo r t h e s e s t u d en t s k n o w l ed g e i s o n l y p re s en t i f

i t c a n b e u s e d . T h e y w a n t c o n c r e t e o r ie n t e d e d u c a t io n a n d d i s li k e e d u c a t i o n

t h a t i s ab s t r ac t . T h ey f ee l t h ey mu s t h av e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o b e p rac t i ca l l y

e n g a g e d w i t h t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T h e y c o n s i d e r i t v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e

s u b j ec t m a t t e r d o es n o t r em a i n t h eo re t i ca l , b u t t h a t it is ap p l i ed b y t h e t each e r s

o r c o u r s e w r i t e rs . O t h e r v a l u e d e x p e c t a t i o n s a r e t h a t t e a c h e r s s h o u l d, a m o n g

o t h e r t h i n g s , s t i mu l a t e s t u d en t s t o t h i n k t h ems e l v es , g en e ra t e cu r i o s i t y , b e

e n t h u s i a s ti c , a n d g o b e y o n d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f w h a t is s t ri c tl y n e c e s s a r y . I n

t u t o r i a l s t h ey l i k e t o fo cu s o n t h e t h i n g s t h ey f i n d i mp o r t an t an d a s k mo re

s p e c i fi c q u e s ti o n s a b o u t t h e m .

A s a n i m p o r t a n t l e a r n i n g a c t i v i t y t h e s e s t u d e n t s c o n s i d e r a p p l y i n g t h e

s u b j e c t m a t t e r in p r a c t ic e . T h e y f i n d it i m p o r t a n t to s e e w h a t h a p p e n s i n th e i r

o w n e n v i r o n m e n t a n d to c o m p a r e t h a t t o w h a t t h e y h a v e le a r n e d a n d d o n e int h e i r s tu d i e s. T h e y t h i n k t h a t s t u d e n ts s h o u l d , f r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g , k e e p

t h e i r v i s i o n d i r ec t e d a t p r ac t i ce , b eca u s e a f t e r t h e i r st u d i e s t h ey a l s o h av e t o

d o t h a t a n d b e c a u s e i t m a k e s t h e i r s t u d ie s m o r e u s e f u l. T h e s e s t u d e n ts s e e a s

t h e i r o w n t a s k s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n gs , t h e i n v e n t i o n o f p r a c ti c a l a p p l ic a t io n s ,

s h o w i n g i n t e r e s t b y a s k i n g a l o t o f q u e s t io n s a n d t a l k in g t o o t h e r p e o p l e a b o u t

t h e c o u r s e t o p ic s , a n d t r y i n g to d o s o m e t h i n g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t m a t te r .

I: "W hat do you ac tual ly mean by learning a nd s tudying ?"

S: "A cqu iring new inform ation, processing i t, com paring it to what I already kno w

and be ing able to apply i t in practice. I do not me an becom ing a psych ologist

imm ediately, but also being ab le to apply the things I ha ve learned in my da ily

contact with people, situations and work. Not by attaching certain labels, but

. h roug h gaining a broade r view at the world. (27, RU, PS)



45

Learning orientations. The l e a r n ing o r i e n ta t ion in th i s l e a r n ing s ty l e i s

o f t e n i n t ri n s i c a l l y v o c a t i o n a l l y o r ie n t e d . S t u d e n t s w a n t t o a c q u i r e k n o w l e d g e

a n d s k i ll s t o b e a b l e t o u s e i n t h e i r c u r r e n t o r f u tu r e w o r k . O r t h e y w a n t t ou s e t h e c o n t e n t o f th e i r s t u d i e s i n t h e i r d a i l y f u n c t i o n i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , i n

t h e i r s o c i a l a n d s o c i e t a l a c ti v it ie s . T h e y w a n t t o l e a r n a p r o f e s s i o n , a c q u i r e

p r o f e s s i o n a l s k il ls . T h e y t h i n k t h e y n e e d t h e k n o w l e d g e t o b e a b l e to r e a l iz e

t h e i r p e r s o n a l g o a l s l a t e r o n . T h e s e s t u d e n t s s e e as g o a l s o f s t u d y i n g , a m o n g

o t h e r th i n g s : g e t t i n g a j o b , b e i n g a b l e t o p r a c t ic e a p r o f e s s i o n , a n d a p p l y i n g

t h e k n o w l e d g e a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h t h e i r st u di es .1: "What do you try to gain from your studies?"

S: "You try to apply i t in practice . I think you get know ledge by studying, and of

cou rse i t is very useful that you can also apply these things w hen yo u find a jobin the future . M ayb e also just applying them in practice for yo urself , so looking

around in you r own en vironm ent wh at happens there , and com paring that to

what y ou have lea rned and done ." (32 , RU, PS)

C o n c l u s i o n s a n d d i s c u ss i o n

T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e s e q u a li t a ti v e s t u d i e s is t h a t t h e r e a r e

b i g d i f f e r e n c e s a m o n g s t u d e n ts i n t h e w a y t h e y c a r r y o u t t h e v a r io u s l e a r n in g

f u n c t i o n s i n t h e i r n o r m a l s t u d i es . T h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a l s o e x i s t a m o n g s t u d e n t s

w h o g e t t h e s a m e i n s t ru c t io n . S t u d e n t s d i f f e r i n t h e th i n k i n g a c t iv i t ie s t h e y

e m p l o y i n o r d e r to l e a r n . S o m e s t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c e d i f f ic u l t y i n c a r r y i n g o u t

a l m o s t a ll l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s , o th e r s p e r f o r m o n l y s o m e f u n c t i o n s t h e m s e l v e s ,

a n d s o m e c a r r y o u t m o r e f u n c ti o n s . M e t a c o g n i ti o n , in t h e s e n s e o f b o t h

r e g u l a t i o n s t r a te g i e s a n d m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l e a rn i n g , p l a y s a c e n t r a l ro l e i n

r e g u l a t i n g s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n .

T h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h s t u d e n t s c a r r y o u t l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s i s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s . In t e r n a l s o u r c e s m a i n l y c o n c e r n s t u d e n t s '

m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l ea r n i n g , l e a r n i n g o r i e n t a ti o n s a n d s k il l in t h e u s e o f le a r n i n g

a c t iv i t ie s . A l l s t u d e n t s c o n s i d e r i t im p o r t a n t t h a t a l m o s t a l l l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s

b e c a r r i e d o u t , b u t t h e y d i f f e r i n t h e i r v i e w s o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h o i s re s p o n -

s i b le f o r d o i n g s o ; t h e y t h e m s e l v e s , o r i n s tr u c ti o n . I t is r e m a r k a b l e t h a t t h e

l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t c a r r i e d o u t b y s t u d e n t s a r e o f t e n p e r c e i v e d

b y t h e m t o b e n o t t h e i r r e s p o n s ib i l it y , b u t a s t h e t a sk s o f i n st r u c ti o n . M e n -

t a l m o d e l s o f l e a r n i n g a n d l e a r n i n g o r i e n t a ti o n s i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y s t u d e n t s

i n t e rp r e t , a p p r a i s e a n d u s e i n s t ru c t i o n a l m e a s u r e s . T h e e f f e c t o f e x t e r n a l r e g -u l a t i o n d e v i c e s , s u c h a s q u e s t i o n s , a s s i g n m e n t s , l e a r n i n g o b j e c t iv e s a n d t h e

l ik e , i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e i n t e r p r e t a ti o n s a n d a p p r a i s a l s s t u d e n t s g i v e t o t h e m .

T h e w a y s t u d e n ts i n t e rp r e t i n st ru c t io n a l m e a s u r e s s e e m s m a i n l y t o b e d e p e n -

d e n t o n t h e i r m e n t a l m o d e l s o f l ea r n in g , a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y a p p r a is e



4 6

t h o s e m e a s u r e s t o b e b a s e d o n t h e i r le a r n i n g o r ie n t a ti o n s . E x t e rn a l s o u r c e s

t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e w a y s t u d e n t s p e r f o r m l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s m a i n l y c o n c e r n

t h e i n s t r u c t io n a l s tr a te g i e s a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h d i d a c t ic m e a s u r e s a r e s h a p e d .W h e n a f u n c t i o n i s s u b s t i t u t e d ( c a r d e d o u t ) b y i n s t ru c t i o n , it i s o f t e n n o t c ar -

d e d o u t b y s t u d e n ts . W h e n a f u n c t i o n is a c ti v a t e d in s t u d e n t s b y i n s t ru c t io n , i ts

f u l f il m e n t is d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s t u d e n t s ' m e n t a l m o d e l o f l e a rn i n g a n d l e a r n i n g

o r i e n t a t i o n . W h e n i n s t r u c t i o n d o e s n o t a d d r e s s a c e r t a in l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n , i ts

e x e c u t i o n b e c o m e s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e l ea r n i n g s ty l e o f s t u d en t s .

T h e s e d i f f e re n c e s a m o n g s t u d e n t s c a n b e g r o u p e d i n to f o u r m a i n c a t e g o r i e s

t h a t r e p r e s e n t q u a l i t a ti v e l y d i f f e r e n t l e a r n i n g s ty l e s . A p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o h e r -

e n c e s e e m s t o e x i st b e t w e e n t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f le a r n i n g a c ti v it ie s a n d t h e

n a t u r e o f m e n t a l l e a r n i n g m o d e l s a n d l e a r n i n g o r ie n t a ti o n s . T h e s e s t y l es o f

l e a r n i n g d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r i n f i v e a r e a s : t h e s t r a t e g i e s s t u d e n t s u s e t o

p r o c e s s l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t s , t h e s t r a t e g i e s t h e y u s e t o r e g u l a t e t h e i r l e a r n i n g ,

t h e a f f ec t i v e p r o c e s s e s t h a t o c c u r d u r i n g s t u d y i n g , a n d t h e m e n t a l m o d e l s o f

l e a r n i n g a n d l e a r n i n g o r i e n t a t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s . T h e s e s t y l e s w e r e r e f e r r e d to

a s a n u n d i r e c t e d , a r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c te d , a m e a n i n g d i r e c te d a n d a n a p p l i-

c a t i o n d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g s t y l e . T h e s e a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2 . T h e t h r e e

l a st m e n t i o n e d s t y le s m a y v a r y f r o m e x t e rn a l ly t o i n t e r n al ly r e g u l a te d . O f th e

s e v e n i d e n t i f i e d le a r n i n g s t y l e v a ri a n t s , t h e r e a r e o n l y t w o i n w h i c h t h e d i d a c -

t ic m e a s u r e s r e s u l t i n a m o r e c o n s t r u c t i v e w a y o f l e a rn i n g t h a n t h a t w h i c h

s t u d e n t s w o u l d a d o p t o n t h e ir o w n a c c o r d , n a m e l y b o t h e x t e r n a ll y r e g u l a te d

v a r i an t s o f th e m e a n i n g a n d a p p l i c a t io n d i r e c t e d l e a rn i n g s t y le s .

T h e r e o f t e n s e e m s t o b e a d e v e l o p m e n t w i t h in a l e a rn i n g s t y le f r o m e x t e r n a l

t o i n t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n . T h u s , s t u d e n t s w i t h a r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g

s ty l e o f t e n r e fe r t o s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e i r w a y o f

l e a r n i n g . T h e m o r e e x p e r i e n c e a n d s k i l l s t u d e n t s g e t w i t h a c e r t ai n l e a r n i n g

s t y l e , t h e m o r e i t i s e x e c u t e d u n d e r i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l ( c o m p a r e S c h m e c k &

G e i s l e r -B r e n s t e i n , 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e y c o n t i n u e t o a d o p t th i s s ty l e u n t i l t h e y e x p e r i -e n c e f r ic t io n b e t w e e n i t a n d t h e d e m a n d s o f , f o r e x a m p l e , h i g h e r e d u c a t io n ,

o r u n t i l t h e y g e t d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h i t f o r a n o t h e r r e a s o n . O n l y t h e n d o t h e y

b e g i n t o a d o p t a n a l t e r n a t i v e s t y l e u n d e r e x t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n . I n t h i s w a y a n

i n t e rn a l l y r e g u l a t e d r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c te d l e a r n i n g s t y le c a n c h a n g e i n to a n

e x t e r n a l ly r e g u l a t e d m e a n i n g d i r e c te d s t y le .

M e n t a l m o d e l s o f l e a r n in g s e e m m a i n l y to b e b a s e d o n e x p e r ie n c e s a c q u i r e d

i n f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s , a n d m u c h l e s s s o o n l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s

a c q u i r e d o u t s i d e e d u c a t io n . A d u l t s t u d e n t s w h o f o r a l o n g t im e h a v e f o l l o w e d

n o f o r m a l e d u c a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r p re t th e d e m a n d s o f t h e ir s t u d i es f r o m t h em e n t a l m o d e l o f le a r n in g t h e y f o r m e d m a n y y e a rs a g o . T h e y s e e m t o h a v e

s t o r e d a l l i n t e r m e d i a t e l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e s t h e y a c q u i r e d o u t s i d e f o r m a l

e d u c a t i o n i n a k n o w l e d g e d o m a i n t h a t is n o t c o n n e c t e d , ac c o r d in g t o t h e m ,



4 7

Table 2. Learning styles and their components

Com ponen ts Lea rn ing ty les

U n d i re c te d R e p r o d u c t i o n M e a n i n g A p p li ca ti on

directed directed directed

Cognitive Ha rdly any Stepwise Deep Concrete

p ro ce ss in g p r o c e s s i n g p r o c e s s i n g p r o c e s s i n g p ro ce ss in g

Regulation of Lack of Mostly external M os tly elf- Both external

learning regulation re gu lat ion re gu lat io n and self-

regulation

A f f e c t i v e L o w - s e l f - e s t e e m F e a rof Intrinsic Practical

processes Failure forgetting interest interest

expectations

Mental m od el Coope rat ion nd Intakeo f C o n s t ru c t i o nf Use of

o f learnin g b ein g s tim u la ted k n o w l e d g e k n o w l e d g e k n o w l ed g e

L e a r n in g A m b i v a l e n t C e rt i f ic atend Pe rso n Vocation

orientation self-test oriented oriented

oriented

t o a n e x p e r i e n c e o f ' l e a r n i n g i n a n e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t ' . A l t h o u g h , f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e y m a y h a v e s t u d i e d a ll k i n d o f w o r k - r e l a t e d d o c u m e n t s i n a ' d e e p '

w a y , t h e m e r e t e s t i n g o f le a r n i ng a c h i e v e m e n t s t h a t i s i n h e r e n t to e d u c a t i o n a l

s i t u a t i o n s i s r e a s o n e n o u g h f o r t h e m t o a c t i v a t e t h e m e n t a l l e a r n i n g m o d e l

o f ' l e a rn i n g i n ed u ca t i o n a l s e t t i n g s ' . T h i s o f t en r e s u l t s i n a r eg re s s i o n t o a

r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c t e d l e a r n i n g s t y le , th a t th e y w e r e u s e d t o a d o p t i n f o r m e r

d a y s .

T h e r e s u l ts i n d i c a t e t h a t s y s t e m a t i c d i f fe r e n c e s e x i s t a m o n g s t u d e n ts i n t h e

w a y t h e y c a r r y o u t l e a r n i n g f u n c t i o n s . T o o p t i m i z e t h e q u a l i ty o f le a r n in g

p r o c e s s e s i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t a l l f u n c t i o n s a r e p e r f o r m e d . F o r i n s t r u c ti o n a l

d e s i g n t h i s m e a n s t h a t fu n c t i o n s s h o u l d b e s u b s t i t u t e d o r a c t i v a t e d o t h e r t h an

t h o s e t h a t s t u d e n t s p e r f o r m o n t h e ir o w n a c c o r d . A g o o d d i a g n o s i s o f th e

l ea rn i n g s t y l e s o f s t u d en t s i s i n d i s p en s ab l e f o r t h is .

I n c o n c l u s i o n , t h e r e s u l ts o f th e s e s t u d ie s p o i n t t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f d i s -

c o u r a g i n g u n d i r e c t e d a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n d i r e c t e d l e ar n i ng s t y le s o f st u d e n ts ,

a n d e n c o u r a g i n g m e a n i n g a n d a p p l i c a t io n d i r e c t e d l e a rn i n g s t y le s . T h e s e l a s t



4 8

m e n t i o n e d s ty l e s a p p e a r t o b e t h e m o s t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h th e g o a l s o f h i g h e r

e d u c a t i o n . H i g h e r e d u c a t i o n e s p e c i a l ly a i m s t o e d u c a t e p e o p l e w h o s h o u l d

b e a b l e t o t h i n k , d e c i d e a n d k e e p o n l e a rn i n g i n d e p e n d e n tl y . A n e d u c a t i o n a lc o n c e p t i o n b a s e d o n t h e i n t ak e o f e x is t in g , e x t e rn a l k n o w l e d g e , is n o t c o n -

g r u e n t w i t h t h i s a i m , w h e r e a s a c o n c e p t i o n i n w h i c h s t u d y i n g is s e e n a s a n

ac t iv e , se l f - d i r ec t ed an d c o n s t r u c t iv e p r o cess is . P r o cess o r i en ted in s t r u c tio n ,

i n w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f k n o w l e d g e c o n s t r u c t io n a n d u t i li z a ti o n a n d , t h er e -

f o r e , t h e l ea r n in g a n d th in k in g ac t iv i ti e s o f s tu d en t s o ccu p y a cen t r a l p l ace ,

s e e m s t o b e a g o o d w a y t o i m p r o v e t h e q u a li ty o f l e a r n in g p r o c e s s es i n h i g h -

e r ed u ca t io n ( e . g . Ve r m u n t , 1 9 9 4 ) . I t i s a im ed a t t e ach in g d o m a in - sp ec i f i c

k n o w l e d g e a n d t h i n k i n g s t r at e g ie s t h a t s t u d e n t s n e e d t o c o n s t ru c t , m o d i f y

an d u t i l i z e th a t k n o wled g e in co h e r en ce . I t i s ch a r ac te r i zed b y a g r ad u a lan d sy s t em a t i c t r an s f e r o f co n t r o l o v e r l ea r n in g p r o cesse s f r o m in s t r u c t io n

to l ea r n e r s . Th e m o s t im p o r t an t t a sk o f t each in g i s n o lo n g e r t r an sm i t t in g

k n o w l e d g e , b u t i n it ia t in g , c o a c h i n g a n d i n f lu e n c i n g t h e t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s e s

th a t s tu d en t s u se to l ea r n . Th e r e su l t s i n d ica te th a t i n o r d e r to b r in g ab o u t

c o n s t r u c t i v e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l e a rn i n g b e h a v i o u r, i n s t ru c t io n s h o u l d b e m a i n -

ly a im ed a t d e v e lo p i n g se l f - r eg u la t ed co n t r o l s t ra t eg ie s an d m en ta l l e a r n in g

m o d e l s i n s t u d e n t s i n w h i c h t h e c o n s t ru c t i o n a n d u s e o f k n o w l e d g e ar e c e n -

t ra l ( co m p ar e Jan ssen , 1 9 9 3 ). Th e l ea r n in g p r o cesse s o f s tu d en t s sh o u ld b e

m o r e i n f o c u s o f e d u c a t i o n , i n o r d e r to a c h i e v e th is . T h e h a b i t o f m a n y t e a c h -

e r s in h ig h e r ed u ca t io n to sp eak to h u n d r ed s o f s tu d en t s in o r d e r to t r an s f e r

t h e l e a r n i n g c o n t e n t s t o t h e m , i s p r o b a b ly b a s e d m o r e o n t r a d it io n t h a n o n

l e a r n in g p s y c h o l o g i c a l f i n d in g s .

S ix teen p r in c ip le s h av e b een id en t i f i ed f o r th e d es ig n o f p r o cess o r i en ted

in s t r u c t io n ( see Ver m u n t , 1 9 94 ) . Th ey a r e b ased o n th e r e su l ts o f p sy ch o lo g -

i ca l r e sea r ch in th e l a s t d ec en n iu m o n r ea l i z in g e f f ec t iv e l ea r n in g p r o cesse s .

Th e p r in c ip le s can b e d iv id ed in g en e r a l p r in c ip le s , t h a t a r e in o p e r a t io n

d u r in g th e en t i r e t ea ch in g l ea r n in g p r o cess , an d sp ec i fi c p r in c ip le s , t h a t a rein o p e r a t io n d u r in g a ce r t a in p h ase a n d su b seq u en t ly , a r e su b s t i tu t ed f o r b y

o th e r p r in c ip le s . Gen e r a l p r in c ip le s a r e , f o r ex am p le , f o cu s in g o n l ea r n in g

an d th in k in g ac t iv i t ie s , t e ach in g o f th in k in g s t r a teg ie s s i tu a t ed in a su b jec t

d o m a i n , g r a d u a l t r a n s fe r o f c o n t r ol , d e v e l o p i n g s tu d e n t s ' m e n t a l m o d e l o f

l ea r n in g , tak in g th e l ea r n in g o r i en ta t io n in to acco u n t , an d p r o m o t in g tr an s f e r

o f l ea r n in g an d th in k in g s t r a t eg ie s . Sp ec i f i c p r in c ip le s can b e d iv id ed in to

th r ee p h a ses o f th e t each in g l ea r n in g p r o cess . I n th e f i rs t p h ase th e th in k in g

s t ra t e g ie s a n d d o m a i n - s p e c i f i c c o n c e p t i o n s o f s t u d e n ts a r e d i a g n o s e d , a n d

in s t r u c t io n i s ad ap te d to th e i r l e a r n in g s ty l e s an d p r eco n cep t io n s ( see a l soM ey er , 1 9 9 3 ). I n th e sec o n d p h a se co g n i t iv e , a ff ec t iv e an d r eg u la t iv e lea r n -

in g an d th in k in g ac t iv it i e s a re t au g h t in co h e r en ce . Usu a l ly co v e r t l e a r n in g an d

th in k in g ac t iv i ti e s a r e m o d e l l ed a s o v e r t ly an d ex p l i c i t l y a s p o ss ib le . Nex t ,



4 9

s t u d e n t s a r e a c t i v a t e d t o u s e t h e m o d e l l e d l e a r n i n g a n d t h i n k i n g a c t i v i t i e s

t h e m s e l v e s i n d i f f e r e n t s it u a ti o n s , a n d t h e y g e t p r o c e s s o r i e n te d f e e d b a c k o n

t h e q u a l i t y o f th e w a y t h e y d i d i t ( c o m p a r e L o n k a , 1 9 9 3 ) . G r a d u a l l y a l s o th i sa c t i v a t i o n is w i t h d r a w n a n d , b y c re a t i n g c h a l le n g i n g l e a rn i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s , a

c o n t i n u o u s c a p i t a l iz i n g o n t h e u s e o f t h e n e w l y a c q u i r e d l e a r n in g a n d t h i n k in g

s k i l l s by s t ude n t s i s r e a l i z e d . Th e t h i rd p ha s e i s t he t e s t ing p ha s e . I n t h i s ph a s e

t e s ts a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t h a t m e a s u r e t h i n k i n g a c t i v it i e s a n d c o n c e p t i o n s o f th e

s ub j e c t ma t t e r . Es s e n t i a l l y t h i s pha s e i s i de n t i c a l t o t he d i a gnos t i c pha s e i n

t h e b e g in n i n g . F r o m t h e d i ff e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o d i a g n o s t ic m o m e n t s i t

t u r n s o u t to w h a t e x t e n t th i n k i n g s k il ls h a v e i m p r o v e d a n d c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e

s u b j e c t d o m a i n h a v e c h a n g e d . P r o c e s s o r i e n t ed i n s tr u c ti o n m a y b e a p p l ie d i n

v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n le c t u re s , c o - o p e r a t i v e l e a rn -

i ng , s t u d y m a t e r ia l s , a n d t h e d e s i g n o f c o m p u t e r s u p p o r t e d o r m u l t i -m e d i a

l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s .

T h e r e i s c l e a r l y a n e e d t o v e r i f y t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f th e s m a l l s c a le q u a l i t a ti v e

s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d h e r e , F u t u r e r e s e a r c h s h o u l d a l s o b e d i r e c t e d a t e s ta b l i s h i n g

t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e t r a n s fe r f r o m e x t e r n a l t o in t e rn a l r e g u l a t i o n o f l e a rn -

i n g p r o c e s s e s c a n b e c o n c r e t e l y r e a l i z e d i n v a r i o u s l e a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s .

I m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s i n t h i s r e s p e c t a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , h o w d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s

o f i n te r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l r e g u l a t i o n a c t u p o n e a c h o t h e r, w h e t h e r t h is o c c u r s

d i f f e r e n t l y in v a r i o u s t y p e s o f l e a rn i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d w h a t th e e f f e c t s o f

d i f f e r e n t le a r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s o n t h e th i n k i n g s t ra t e g ie s p e o p l e u s e t o le a r n

a r e. M o r e r e s e a r c h i s c e r t a i n ly n e e d e d o n t h e in t e r p la y b e t w e e n e x t e r n a l a n d

i n te r n a l r e g u l a t i o n o f le a r n in g p r o c e s s e s .

Acknow l edgemen t

T h e a u t h o r w i s h e s t o th a n k P i e t J a n s s e n a n d E r ik M e y e r fo r th e ir v a l u a b l ec o m m e n t s o n a n e a r l ie r d r a f t o f th i s a rt ic le .

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