i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Nothing is possible without the contribution of others. It is very important for me to thank everybody who participated in the elaboration of my dissertation.

I am most grateful to:

− Mr Nganteh from ANAFOR for his sound advice.

− Dr. Mbanya and all the staff of IRAD Bambui for their scientific support and advice. Thanks to them to let me enter their research centre.

− Dr. Bayemi (Ing. Agr.), my external supervisor, who helped me to design my project and all the background of my study. He provided me the necessary documentation needed in the realisation of my dissertation. Thanks to his wisdom.

− Mr Sali and all the staff of Mboscuda for their friendship, their advice and all the help they gave to me.

− All Mbororo-en from the North West region who let me enter their house, their families and who shared with me a part of their life, a part of their knowledge and a part of their wisdom.

− My friends Bubakar Ali Shiddiki, Ousman Haman and Neba Derik for their field assistance and all their extraordinary knowledge about forestry and the Mbororo community.

− Mr Robrecht, Mr Bamps and all the staff of the National Botanic Garden of Belgium who gave me the opportunity to verify my herbarium and to use their scan material.

− Mr Marche and Mr Warnant, the supervisors of my dissertation whom were always available during all the realisation of this work. Also for the hints, the help and the time they have dedicated to me.

− All the professors and staff of the ISIa who contributed to my training.

I am deeply thankful to my parents, Mr. Mercier Luc and Mrs. Yolande Georges for their love and the emotional and financial supports they provided to me.

Special thanks to Ángeles Luciana González Alcaraz, my beloved friend, for her encouragements.

Thanks to every person that in one way or another contributed to the elaboration of this work.

ii

RESUME Une étude sylvo-pastorale a été menée dans la communauté Mbororo de la

région de Bamenda dans la province du Nord-Ouest au Cameroun. Le but de cette étude était de comprendre la situation agro-socio-économique actuelle du peuple Mbororo. Pour cela il fallait rechercher et comprendre les causes de la transhumance et ce qu’elle implique dans la vie des éleveurs de bétail. Il a fallu, également, faire un compte-rendu de la situation sociale, géographique et agronomique de la communauté Mbororo dans la région de Bamenda. L’étude souligne les problèmes rencontrés entre les éleveurs de bétail et les cultivateurs, surtout durant la saison sèche quand les ressources alimentaires et en eau potable pour le bétail sont beaucoup plus limitées. Le système pastoral de la communauté Mbororo a ensuite été étudié. Des problèmes de gestion des terres, notamment, ont été mis en lumière, tels que : le surpâturage, l’érosion, l’invasion des pâtures par des fougères. La conclusion du travail consistait à dégager, à travers des solutions agro-sylvo-pastorales préalablement étudiées, des pistes de travail ultérieur dont l’objectif global est la sauvegarde du mode de vie et de la culture du peuple Mbororo. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, des entretiens structurés et semi-structurés, à l’aide notamment d’un questionnaire, ont été menés auprès des éleveurs de bétail Mbororo dans la région de Bamenda. Une collection de plantes, centrée sur les arbres, fut réalisée pour identifier les espèces les plus utiles aux éleveurs. Afin d’en faciliter la consultation, cette collection a été numérisée et présentée sur DVD-ROM. Une liste de plantes traditionnellement employées en médecine ethno-vétérinaire a été réalisée. Et un transect permet de comprendre la réalité agronomique et culturelle des deux protagonistes, les villageois (dit autochtones) et les Mbororo-en.

ABSTRACT A silvopastoral study was carried out in the Mbororo community in the North

Western province the region of Bamenda, Cameroon. The purpose of this study was to better understand the Mbororo agro-socio-economic situation. In order to do this we had to investigate and understand the causes of transhumance and its implications on the lives of cattle breeders. A report was drawn up to consider the social, geographical and agronomic situation in the Mbororo community, in the Bamenda region. The study highlighted the problems arising between grazers (cattle breeders) and farmers (villagers), especially during the dry season when food resources and water supplies for livestock are more limited. The report also studied the Mbororo pastoral system. Problems of land management including overgrazing, erosion and fern invasion of pastures were considered. The conclusion of this work was, using previously studied agro-silvo-pastoral solutions, to find leads for future works, the overall objective of which is the protection of Mbororo culture and lifestyle. To reach the objectives of this study, structured and semi-structured interviews were carried out, notably with the use of a questionnaire completed with Mbororo cattle breeders in the Bamenda region. A plant collection (focused on trees) was realized to identify which species are most useful to cattle grazers. The plant collection was scanned and presented in HTML format in order to facilitate access to it. A list of plants traditionally used in ethno-veterinary medicine was also made. Finally, a transect helped come to the understanding of the agronomic and cultural realities between the two protagonists; the villagers (autochthones) and the Mbororo-en.

iii

KEYWORDS Cameroon – North West – Community – Mbororo – Fulani – Transhumance –

Silvopastoralism – Nomadism

LIST OF ACRONYMS

− ANAFOR = Agence Nationale d’Appui au Développement Forestier

− a.s.l. = Above Sea Level

− CIRAD = Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement

− HPI = Heifer Project International

− IRAD = Institut de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement Rural

− MBOSCUDA = Mbororo Social and Cultural Development Association

− MINADER = Ministère de l’Agriculture et du Développement Rural

− MINEF= Ministère de l’Environnement et des Forêts

− MINEPIA = Ministère de l’élevage, de la Pêche, et des Industries Animales

− MINTRANS = Ministère des transports

− PRA/RRA = Participatory (Rapid) Rural Appraisal

− SNV = Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers (Foundation of Netherlands Volunteers)

− TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I

RÉSUMÉ II

ABSTRACT II

KEYWORDS III

LIST OF ACRONYMS III

TABLE OF CONTENTS IV

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1

1.1. BACKGROUND 1

1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 3

1.3. OBJECTIVES 3

1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 4

1.5. SCOPE 4

1.6. DURATION 4

CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5

2.1.1. TECHNICAL ASPECTS 6

2.1.2. INSTITUTIONAL RELATED ASPECTS 8

2.1.3. SOCIAL ASPECTS 8

2.1.4. ECONOMIC ASPECTS 9

2.1.5. SOME KEY CONCEPTS 9

2.2. MBORORO COMMUNITY IN CAMEROON 10

2.3. PROBLEMS FACED BY M INORITIES IN CAMEROON 11

2.4. CONFLICTS BETWEEN GRAZERS ANS FARMERS 12

2.5. POPULATION GROWTH AND INFLUENCE ON CONFLICTS OF INTEREST BETWEEN FARMERS AND GRAZERS 12

2.6. LAND TENURE 13

2.7. ACCESS AND CONTROL OVER LAND 15

2.8. IMPLICATIONS OF TRANSHUMANCE 16

2.8.1. TRANSHUMANCE PASTORALISTS 16

2.8.2. TRANSHUMANCE ACTIVITIES IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 16

2.9. FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 17

2.10. CATTLE PRODUCTION FOR THE NORTH WEST REGION 18

v

2.11. L IVESTOCK INFRASTRUCTURES 19

2.12. MAIN CATTLE MARKETS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 20

2.13. LABOUR AND GENDER 21

2.14. CATTLE DISEASE 21

2.15. SYLVO -PASTORALS SYSTEMS 22

2.15.1. SUB-SYSTEMS 22

2.15.2. PRUNING OF TREES : POLLARDING AND LOPPING 22

2.15.3. NOTION OF FORAGE SPECIES 24

2.15.4. PASTURES EVOLUTION FACTORS 25

2.15.5. OVERGRAZING 28

2.15.6. BUSH FIRES (PASTORALISTS’ POINT OF VIEW) 29

2.15.7. PASTURE IMPROVEMENT 31

2.16. IMPROVEMENT BY HAYMAKING 33

CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY 35

3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN 35

3.2. POPULATION OF THE STUDY 35

3.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA OF STUDY 36

3.3.1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 36

3.3.2. TOPOGRAPHY 38

3.3.3. CLIMATE 39

3.3.4. VEGETATION 41

3.3.5. SOIL TYPE 42

3.4. COLLECTION OF DATA 43

3.5. PRIMARY DATA 43

3.5.1. QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT 44

3.5.2. INTERNAL VALIDITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 44

3.5.3. DIRECT OBSERVATIONS 45

3.5.4. TRANSECTS 45

3.5.5. CHART OF TRADITIONALLY USED PLANTS 45

3.5.6. VIRTUAL PLANT COLLECTION 46

3.6. L IMITATION OF THE STUDY 46

3.7. ANALYZING DATA 47

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CHAPTER FOUR. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESULTS 48

4.1. VIRTUAL PLANT COLLECTION 48

4.2. TABLES OF TRADITIONALLY USED PLANTS 48

4.3. TABLES OF RESULTS 53

4.4. BRACKEN FERN INVASION 59

4.5. TRANSECT 60

CHAPTER FIVE. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 64

CHAPTER SIX. BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

ANNEX 1 69

ANNEX 2 74

1

Chapter One. Chapter One. Chapter One. Chapter One. IIIINTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTIONNTRODUCTION

1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1. BBBBACKGROUNDACKGROUNDACKGROUNDACKGROUND

The past years witnessed a number of measures in Africa as well as a number

of violations of human and indigenous rights. It also witnesses a clear rise in the

struggle of the minority movement, particular in Algeria, Niger, Mali and Nigeria.

The struggle for land and resources rights remained the mayor concern of

indigenous peoples throughout 2002 – 2003. A number of legal victories were

recorded such as the adoption by the Nicaraguan parliament of law on indigenous

communal lands and two landmark ruling on indigenous land rights. In other part

of the world, like Cameroon, Cambodia and Namibia, the indigenous people

feared the impact of cross-border development (e.g. Pipe-lines, hydroelectric dam

and commercial agriculture) (IWGIA 2003).

One of the indigenous groups in Cameroon is the Mbororo of the North West

region. The North West region, known as the Western Grassfields, covers an

area of about eighteen thousand kilometres. The majority of the population in the

area is subsistence farmers who belong to linguistically distinct communities but

share common features of socio-political organization. (Dafinger & Pelican, 2006:

132)

The Mbororo-en constitute a minority in the Westen Grassfields, accounting for

5 to 10% of the region’s total population. The majority are Grassfielders which are

largely subsistence farmers and are organized in centralized chiefdoms and

confederations. They consider themselves “natives” and “guardians of the land”.

(Pelican, 2008: 3)

The spatial pattern of farmer-grazer relation, in North West Cameroon,

separates herders’ and farmers’ settlements. Farmers concentrate in the valleys

and riverside areas, grazers dwell on the highland pastures. (Dafinger & Pelican,

2006: 132).

The Mbororo community is internally diversified, comprising members of two

main sub-groups, namely Jaafun and Aku. Originally, both groups dwelled in the

2

Kano area in present-day Nigeria. In the course of the nineteenth century they

adopted diverging migration trajectories and developed distinct sub-ethnic

identities. Driven by a continuous search for new pastures, The Jaafun started

entering the western Grassfields in the early twentieth century. They came mainly

from the Adamaoua Plateau. The Aku followed later, from the 1940s onwards,

attracted by favourable grazing conditions and administrative policies. (Pelican,

2008: 3-4)

Now Mbororo-en are well settled in the highlands of the region of Bamenda

and territories are clearly defined in their mind. They have occupied places

neglected by villagers, sometimes far away from cities. But with the colonisations,

the arrival of commercial crops and plantations (such as tea) and the increase of

population, farmers have seen in the highlands a new source of incomes by

exploiting plots of lands, especially closed to stream banks, that they didn’t care

about before because too far from their houses.

Because of poverty or hard lifestyle, some Mbororo-en attempt to change their

conditions of live by moving into cities. Inside towns, where they don’t find any

works because of lack of education or discriminations, some of them turn toward

Islamic fundamentalism. Away from their cultural fashion of life, religion stays

their ultimate identity.

Growing up separately from the majority of their livestock, young Mbororo-en

no longer develop an interest in their cattle. An idle lifestyle results, and they sell

their animals with little concern for their pastoral future. Over the long term, this

sedentary way of life lends itself to the development of dangerous behaviours.

(Boutrais, 1996: 967).

During the dry season, feed and water is lacking in the highlands. Cattle

breeders have to move down from the highlands to find better conditions in the

lowlands. This is transhumance which is experienced by Mbororo-en as much as

a suffering as a part of their culture. During transhumance, they know they will

lose animals, the dairy productivity will be reduced and they will have to fight

against villagers to reach pastures, to reach drinkable water or to defend

themselves and their cattle. It’s also the good period to contract diseases due to

the change of climate. Faced with the reality, Mbororo-en prefer the welfare of

3

their animals to the continuation of some traditions. They are often described as a

community with strict customs, but they may be more ready than expected to

change if changes respect their deep nature.

Some governmental organizations like ANAFOR are sensible to the conflicts

between Mbororo-en and farmers. For ANAFOR, an important part of the

problems faced by the Mbororo community could be resolved with transhumance

stopping. In facts, ANAFOR for which the role is to provide trees and develop

agroforestry systems is ready to work hard to integrate Mbororo ethno-veterinary

know-how in a silvopastoral system for Mbororo-en use. Around water

catchments, they would develop kind of parks where Mbororo-en will find water

and all necessary plants to feed and cure their cattle. Final objective of this

process would be the settlement of Mbororo-en in defined places to ease their

education and provide healthcare to a community usually broken up and isolated.

1.2.1.2.1.2.1.2. SSSSTATEMENT OF TATEMENT OF TATEMENT OF TATEMENT OF PPPPROBLEMROBLEMROBLEMROBLEM

The Mbororo-en as an indigenous group has been faced with several

problems. Some of them are transhumance due the lack of animal feed, water

and land. Urbanization, as a result of population growth, and agricultural

development activities help in reducing the available pastoral land on the

lowlands and the highlands at large. In consequences, tensions and conflicts

have appeared between farmers/grazers and between grazers themselves. What

directly contributes to the conflicts is also the lack of technical knowledge on

modern farming.

1.3.1.3.1.3.1.3. OOOOBJECTIVESBJECTIVESBJECTIVESBJECTIVES

The global objective of this survey is the preservation of a fashion of life.

Through agronomic skills, the specific objectives of this survey will try to bring

some elements of response to the Mbororo’s problems. These specific objectives

are:

1. To identify the socio-economic activities of Mbororo-en.

2. To examine the silvopastoral systems in the Mbororo’s communities.

3. To identify trees, grass and shrubs species integrated in the system.

4

4. To determine the problems involved in pasture improvement and prefer solutions.

1.4.1.4.1.4.1.4. SSSS IGNIFICANIGNIFICANIGNIFICANIGNIFICANCE OF THE CE OF THE CE OF THE CE OF THE SSSSTUDYTUDYTUDYTUDY

The Mbororo people have long faced problems of integration. Today, their

culture is threatened by a policy that does not take them into consideration, and

indeed exploits them. The issues raised here relate to preserving a fashion of life,

and preserving cultural diversity that enriches the world. We should not neglect

that with the loss of Mbororo culture, we run the risk of losing unique African

ethno-medicinal know-how.

Through this research, we hope to collect sufficient data on silvopastoral

systems and on present Mbororo society to find solutions to problems faced by

cattle breeders including transhumance, grazer-farmer conflicts, animal diseases,

pasture improvement and a lack of technical knowledge.

1.5.1.5.1.5.1.5. SSSSCOPECOPECOPECOPE

The study will identify the socio-economic activities and the silvopastoral

system of Mbororo people.

1.6.1.6.1.6.1.6. DDDDURATIONURATIONURATIONURATION

The study was carried out from May until July 2009. This included one month

of field research undertaken to conduct interviews with members of the Mbororo

community of Santa subdivision and to collect, from the regions of Santa, Sabga

and Ndop, the plant samples needed for the establishment of the plant collection.

5

Chapter Two. Chapter Two. Chapter Two. Chapter Two. LLLLITERATURE ITERATURE ITERATURE ITERATURE RRRREVIEWEVIEWEVIEWEVIEW

2.1.2.1.2.1.2.1. TTTTHEORETICAL HEORETICAL HEORETICAL HEORETICAL FFFFRAMEWORKRAMEWORKRAMEWORKRAMEWORK

The main objective of this study is to understand the socio-economic context in

relation with grazing activities for the development of a sylvo-pastoral system for

the improvement of the Mbororo community in the North West region of

Cameroon. This study will use the concept of project elaboration that was

described by GITTINGER in 1985.

Source: Based on Ndambi, 2005

Technical aspect s: Soil and water resources Animal breeds used Animal feeding Fight against diseases and pests Transhumance Plants species utilization Pastures Management

Institutional related aspect s: Organization and management Land tenure Use of local institutions Management capacity of exploiters Government policies and policies of concerned structures

Social aspect s: Customs and cultures of grazers Conflicts between grazers and farmers Regional development Role of women

Economic aspect s: Farm size Revenue Production costs

6

The socio-economic and agro-environmental context of the Mbororo

community (MC) is function of: technical aspects (T), institutional related aspects

(I), social aspects (S), economic aspect (E).

MC = f(T,I,S,E)

2.1.1.2.1.1.2.1.1.2.1.1. TTTTECHNICECHNICECHNICECHNICAL AL AL AL AAAASPECTSSPECTSSPECTSSPECTS

a) SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES

The availability and the type of land and water used in pasturing are important.

The obtaining of a good pasturage depends on the quality of soil. Unfortunately,

in continuation to advanced erosion the quality of soils is poor. Moreover,

culturally, Mbororo don’t maintain soils voluntarily. They let animal droppings

there but they don't exercise an organized manure of pastures.

Animal health can greatly be influenced by impurities of soil and resources in

waters. In Cameroon, bovine local productions depend on water streams as only

drinkable water by animals. An elevated biologic load or pollution closed to farms

can affect the health of animals and endangered their production.

b) ANIMAL BREEDS USED

Some races in the world are known for their dairy performances (Holstein

Frisian, Jersey, Boran) or their performances for meat production (Blue Belgian,

Aberdeen Angus, Charolaise, Blond of Aquitaine…). Such performance is gotten

under some conditions as a high-quality food, technical knowledge bound to the

race, adequate infrastructures, a regular veterinary follow-up… the introduction of

high performance races in regions of the world where conditions of rearing for

these animals are not the same than in the original countries, cannot provide an

optimal yield of production. In Cameroon local races, that we can meet, are the

Gudalis, Red Fulani and White Fulani. Until now, the most present imported race

in aim to improve the Cameroonian cattle is the Holstein. Recently, other races

like Jersey, Simmental or Montbéliarde have been introduced to ends of

research.

7

Traditionally, Jaafuns rear the Red Fulani and Akus, the White Fulani. But it

doesn't prohibit co-existences in breeds of both communities. The mixed breed

between Red Fulani and White Fulani is called Gudali.

c) ANIMALS FEEDING

Nutrition is a key element in the metabolism of the cow and within all product of

the metabolism. It imports therefore in dairy production, as in growth of the animal

or even in reproduction maturity. Malnutrition is the first cause of delay in sexual

maturity tropical zebu. Diminution in yield production occurs during the dry

season, when available food stocks, mainly in the highlands, decrease. In fact,

culturally, Mbororo-en don’t make crops. Another fact is feed conservation as hay

or silage which could totally or partially stall the lack met during the lean season.

d) PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Pastures are the main food resource for the livestock of the North West cattle

breeder. Cattle is the most important good in Mbororo culture and people

dedicate their lives to rearing their animals with care. Mbororo-en deliberately

avoid fertilization of the land that receives only animal droppings during grazing

time and is insufficient to counter soil depletion. Better pasture and manure

management could provide a better quality feed over a longer period. It would be

interesting to find out if Mbororo-en would be prepared to maintain pastures in the

Highlands and practice effective pasture rotation to enable vegetation

regeneration.

e) FIGHT AGAINST DISEASES AND PESTS

The control of and the fight against cattle diseases are both essential. Not only

do diseases affect cattle productions (milk, growth…) but some, including

tuberculosis can be transmitted to humans in milk. Prophylactic treatment

programs should be organized in the aim to control such losses all the while

ensuring that veterinary services are sufficiently wide to cover all cattle breeders.

This coverage is, in general, very difficult to develop. In Cameroon, in 2003, of the

8

457.838 heads of cattle counted in the North West region, only 72.070 (31.48%)

animals were vaccinated against regional endemic diseases. (Ndambi, 2005)

f) TRANSHUMANCE

Transhumance is practiced in Cameroon as a method of survival. Not providing

enough feed and drinkable water for the cattle during the dry season, cattle

breeders of the highlands must go down to the lowlands, in proximity to streams

and where feed remains plentiful. During this period, a herder burns land when he

reaches it in order to encourage grass regrowth. This technique has the terrible

drawback of killing the soil’s biosphere. This could affect the fertility of the land

over the long term. It is also during this period that conflicts worsen between

highlands cattle grazers and lowlands farmers.

g) PLANTS SPECIES, UTILIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT

Mbororo-en have their own veterinary medicine based on the use of natural

resources and plants in particular. This knowledge could be preserved by

integrating these into an agro-forestry system to which cattle breeders have

access. Before this occurs however, it is necessary to identify the entirety of the

vegetal species used by the Mbororo community.

2.1.2.2.1.2.2.1.2.2.1.2. IIIINSTITUTIONANSTITUTIONANSTITUTIONANSTITUTIONAL L L L RRRRELATED ELATED ELATED ELATED AAAASPECTSSPECTSSPECTSSPECTS

These are very vital aspects since they determine the degree to which other

aspects could be influential. They include organization and management of

structures involved, land tenure systems, farm sizes, use of local institutions,

management capacity of exploiters government policies and policies of

concerned structures, customs and cultures of cattle breeder and the degree of

acceptance of innovation. (Ndambi, 2005: 7)

2.1.3.2.1.3.2.1.3.2.1.3. SSSSOCIAL OCIAL OCIAL OCIAL AAAASPECTSSPECTSSPECTSSPECTS

Social organisation brings out patterns of social relationship and institutional

arrangements within production set-ups. It includes roles, rules, authority systems

as well as their enforcement mechanisms. (Ndambi, 2005).

9

Attempting to resolve conflicts between grazers and farmers by managing

transhumance could improve life standards of both protagonists. Indeed, farmers

wouldn’t suffer propriety trespassing and, in the other hand, grazers wouldn’t be

attacked, insulted or stolen; they wouldn’t have to take as many risks and

marginalize them-selves to rear their cattle.

2.1.4.2.1.4.2.1.4.2.1.4. EEEECONOMIC CONOMIC CONOMIC CONOMIC AAAASPECTSSPECTSSPECTSSPECTS

These include the farm size, the revenue of farmers and production costs for

cattle rearing. Transhumance and conflicts generate situation where grazers may

lose their animals, because of diseases, thieves and attacks. These facts could

lead to a reduction of their incomes. Cattle improvement is a possibility to get an

alike production with less heads of cattle. Breeders could focalize on quality

rather than quantity.

2.1.5.2.1.5.2.1.5.2.1.5. SSSSOME OME OME OME KKKKEY EY EY EY CCCCONCEPTSONCEPTSONCEPTSONCEPTS

Though they all refer to livestock farming, terms like nomadism, pastoralism,

silvopastoralism or transhumance can sometimes remain confused in their use.

Therefore, for a better understanding of the survey of cattle rearing systems in the

concerned region, it would be interesting to present a definition of these terms.

Pastoral nomadism: “Pastoral nomads, who depend on domesticated

livestock, migrate in an established territory to find pasturage for their animals.

Most groups have focal sites that they occupy for considerable periods of the

year. Pastoralists may depend entirely on their herds or may also hunt or gather,

practice some agriculture, or trade with agricultural peoples for grain and other

goods.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

Pastoralism: “Herding societies are in many respects the direct opposite of

forest horticulturalists. They are usually the most nomadic of primitive societies,

they occupy arid grasslands rather than rainforests, they have a nearly total

commitment to their animals, and their sociopolitical system is nearly always that

of a true hierarchical chiefdom rather than of egalitarian villages and tribal

segments.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

10

Silvopastoralism: “In the case of dry tropical tree formations, silvo-

pastoralism is defined as the utilization by transhumant and agro-pastoral herds,

of natural environments that may be occasionally, but not permanently farmed or

cultivated.” (Bellefontaine, 2000)

“… silvopastoral systems will be considered as those where

trees are grown in grazed pasture in a regular or varied pattern.” (International

Congress on Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management, 2004)

Transhumance: “form of pastoralism or nomadism organized around the

migration of livestock between mountain pastures in warm seasons and lower

altitudes the rest of the year. The seasonal migration may also occur between

lower and upper latitudes. Most peoples who practice transhumance also engage

in some form of crop cultivation, and there is usually some kind of permanent

settlement.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

2.2.2.2.2.2.2.2. MMMMBORORO BORORO BORORO BORORO CCCCOMMUNITY IN OMMUNITY IN OMMUNITY IN OMMUNITY IN CCCCAMEROONAMEROONAMEROONAMEROON

The Mbororo-en in Cameroon make up one of the largest single ethnic group

who speak the same language: Fulani (or Fulfulde), in the North West province.

The Mbororo-Fulani arrived in Cameroon in the early eighteen century,

entering through the Adamaoua and Northen Provinces. They later migrated and

settled in eight of Cameroon’s ten provinces to the exception of the South and

Litoral Provinces which are not suitable for cattle rearing. (Mboscuda.org, 2010)

The Mbororo-Fulani can be divided into three major ethnic groups identified by

the colour of their cattle, style of decoration of their bowls, and migratory

movements. These are the “Aku-en” (-en is the plural form), Bodaabe and the

“Jaafun-en”. In Cameroon Mbororo-en (singular: Mbororo) are found all over the

national territory under four Lamidats (the paramount traditional institution) under

whom are found community leaders called ArDos. The four Lamidats are found in

Fuigil in the North Province, Lompta in the Adamaoua Province, Sabga in the

North West Province and Didango in the West Province. (Mboscuda.org, 2010)

The Mbororo-Fulani follow the traditions of their ancestors, and are considered

the purist of all Fulani groups. These nomadic herdsmen consider the long-

11

horned cattle to be a prized possession and have dedicated their lives to caring

for their herds. Owning cattle is a symbol of health and well-being among all

Fulani. In fact, the level of a man's respect is based on the number of cattle he

owns and how much he knows about herding. The cattle have their own names

and are treated with affection by the Mbororo-en. Milk is the staple food of the

Mbororo-en. Their daily diet usually includes milk, butter, and cheese. They feel

very strongly about morality, and constantly strive to be generous, honest, and

respectful. They are very reserved people, who are shy and modest in public.

Family relationships are therefore restrained. Even mothers are not permitted to

be with their infant sons, since the Mbororo feel that it is inappropriate for

affection to be shown in public. (Joshua Project, 2010)

2.3.2.3.2.3.2.3. PPPPROBLEMS FACED BY ROBLEMS FACED BY ROBLEMS FACED BY ROBLEMS FACED BY MMMM INORITIES IN INORITIES IN INORITIES IN INORITIES IN CCCCAMEROONAMEROONAMEROONAMEROON

The Mbororo in the Western Grassfields experienced themselves as a

politically marginalised and economically exploited minority. The British colonial

administration had classified them as “strangers” and had denied them

autonomous political representation. Local Grassfielders’ (“autochthones’”)

attempts to integrate them into their socio-political community constituted a

constant source of dependency and exploitation. (Pelican, 2007: 7)

A draft law on Marginal Populations in Cameroon is being prepared by the

Ministry of Social Affairs. The process started in 2007 and focuses on the

promotion and protection of marginal populations. The Ministry of Social Affairs is

the main actor. Though not officially consulted, in 2008 the indigenous

communities made their contributions through the United Nations Sub-regional

Centre for Human Rights and Democracy. The draft law has not yet been

validated. Groups to be protected by this law includes the Mbororo-en, the

Pygmies, the mountain dwellers (the Kirdi people), and the people of the creeks

(people of the small islands). The present draft law is favourable to indigenous

populations, as it deals with delicate questions of land ownership, culture and

social rights. With this law, indigenous people will have a legal base on which to

make claims whenever such rights are violated. (IWGIA 2009: 536)

12

2.4.2.4.2.4.2.4. CCCCONFLICTS ONFLICTS ONFLICTS ONFLICTS BBBBETWEEN ETWEEN ETWEEN ETWEEN GGGGRAZRAZRAZRAZERS ANS ERS ANS ERS ANS ERS ANS FFFFARMERSARMERSARMERSARMERS

Competition between husbandry and farming is common in tropical Africa. If

both activities are sometimes complementary, confrontational relations almost

always result. However, since farmers began to rear cattle, the problem is no

longer so simple. The success of new cattle rearing programs shows that this

activity is within reach of farmers themselves. Considered another way, conflicts

need not be reduced to a confrontation between those that own cattle and others.

Mbororo-en become aware of being directly blamed, to a greater extent than the

cattle, and as such, begin to consider themselves as being excluded as

“strangers”. A spatial dispute can thus deteriorate into ethnic and cultural

opposition.

To explain the nature of these conflicts, BOUTRAIS (1996) attempts a livestock

reasoning approach. According to him, the antagonism arising from the use of

plateaus opposes livestock on the one hand and women farmers on the other.

The importance of this pastoral case can be explained by the notion of ‘livestock

density’1. Female farmers, for their part, represent the main farming actors,

supported by the village population. According to the same author, the relative

population-livestock densities would appear to indicate the most plausible

tensions areas.

2.5.2.5.2.5.2.5. PPPPOPULATION OPULATION OPULATION OPULATION GGGGROWTH AND ROWTH AND ROWTH AND ROWTH AND IIIINFLUENCE ON NFLUENCE ON NFLUENCE ON NFLUENCE ON CCCCONFLICTS OF ONFLICTS OF ONFLICTS OF ONFLICTS OF

IIIINTEREST NTEREST NTEREST NTEREST BBBBETWEEN ETWEEN ETWEEN ETWEEN FFFFARMERS AND ARMERS AND ARMERS AND ARMERS AND GGGGRAZERSRAZERSRAZERSRAZERS

Conflicts of interest between grazers and farmers due to population increase

and pressure on natural resources are discussed here.

The sporadic or ribboning growth of towns brings pressures on such natural

resources as land, vegetation, streams and air. All uncontrolled development as

such causes loss of economic land, deforestation, air and water pollutions.

Deforestation itself reduces the water levels and moisture quantity in the air and

causes droughts. Grazers are pushed farther away resulting in conflicts between

1 Boutrais (1996) defines the livestock density as the average density of animals per km² and per year.

13

Agriculture and Forestry. All these bring pressure on the natural resources and

create problems both for urban and rural populations.

The towns are growing fast and uncontrolled in such a way that Bamenda town

for example is likely to link up with Bali, Mbengwi, Bafut, Bambili if things are

allowed to grow the way they go. In this connection the town would consume the

agricultural, grazing and forestry land between urban communities. This reduction

of land by city development and extension and increase of population using such

land will create a problem since each user will be struggling to get a sufficient

share of the land for its development. (MINEF, 1994: 11)

2.6.2.6.2.6.2.6. LLLLAND AND AND AND TTTTENUREENUREENUREENURE

Access to land and land tenure security are the heart of all rural societies and

agricultural economies. Land tenure comprises the rules and norms governing

how, when and where people access land and other natural resources. These

rules and norms can be administered by statutory (formal) and customary

(informal) systems. The two systems will be described briefly to highlight existing

linkages with livestock-related activities. (IFAD, 2009: 2)

− Statutory laws refer to legislation and/or other legal instruments promulgated

by official authorities. The term is used to denote law as made by the State,

in contrast to customary law, which derive from the customary institutions

specific to particular contexts and circumstances. In statutory systems,

access to and use of natural resources are governed formally by the State

and any dispute deriving from conflicting interests by various categories of

stakeholders (pastoralists, farmers, tenants) is also regulated by national

laws.

− Customary systems are context-specific and diverse. They tend to balance

individual and group rights and generally have a collective element to

resource management, including group decision-making for determining

access and use and management of resources in common areas. In such

contexts, group identity plays a significant role in managing access to land

and resources. Indeed, the right to access common property is based on

14

forms of group membership, in particular ethnicity, village affiliation and/or

residency.

Generally in Cameroon, land is state property. However, national land in the

North West region is owned and controlled by traditional authorities through

customary tenure. To acquire a piece of land one has to pass through these

traditional authorities. In 2006, a majority of people indicated land is mostly

acquired through inheritance within their communities, while others indicated that

families and individuals buy land. The landlords sometimes lease portions of their

land to individuals or groups for agricultural activities. A negligible portion of the

land is given out as gifts.

In most grazing communities, land which is not private property (has no land

title) is communally owned and grazed. Hence, there is usually a scramble over

resource use without adequate management leading to overexploitation and

depleting of rangeland resources.

The value of the land is determined by the nature of the terrain, its fertility

status, location and therefore the type of activity to be carried out on the piece of

land. There is no discrimination on the sale of land to non-indigenes. However, in

some rural areas where land is in abundance and the value is low, land is not

bought but acquired from the traditional rulers. (MINADER, Nov 2006, p. 42)

According to DAFINGER & PELICAN (2006), in Cameroon, colonial and post-

colonial governments grappled with the question of how to coalesce customary

and modern land tenure, that is, how to combine land ownership and property

rights. Approaches to nationalize and privatize land were already introduced by

the German and British colonial regimes and implemented after Cameroonian

independence. Through control over land, the government attempted to exercise

control and political power over people and their economic production. In the

early 1940s, the British administration, confronted with the problem of recurrent

crop damages, decided to intervene into farmer-herder relations and take control

over the allocation of land. They split the land into farming and grazing areas,

assigning these to farmers and herders, respectively. With the official

nationalization of all lands in 1974, farmers and herders were only given the

usufructs rights in the respective zones. Yet acquiring a land certificate is a

15

distinctively individual act and requires a fair amount of economic and social

capital. The majority of farmers and herders have not been able to do so and

therefore remain “landless”. The shift control over land from the local to the

national level had serious impacts on the power balance between farmers and

grazers. Both farmers and the herder lost large parts of the power as they

withdrew from active negotiation over land rights. The state, meanwhile, became

more powerful.

2.7.2.7.2.7.2.7. AAAACCESS AND CCESS AND CCESS AND CCESS AND CCCCONTROL OVER ONTROL OVER ONTROL OVER ONTROL OVER LLLLANDANDANDAND

A survey of 2006 shows men mostly control land while 92% indicated that

women have access over land. It is worth noting that most traditional norms and

customs of the province prohibit the girl child from inheriting land.

Most women do not have the economic power to buy land and decisions on

households income is largely determined by men thus limiting women to buy and

own land. However, women who have money can buy and own land but the

situation is difficult. Applying for land grants by individual women or women

groups to carry out permanent development initiatives is an alternative option to

encourage. (MINADER, Nov 2006: 41)

PROBLEMS RELATED TO LAND TENURE SYSTEM :

− Unequal distribution of farmland (some people have excess while others have

little or no farmland)

− Conditions to acquire land from the traditional councils are rigid and take long

− Individual women do not have the right to acquire land from the traditional

council

− Family dispute on family land

− Poor demarcation of land leading to boundary and farmer/grazer conflicts

− Poor implementation of the land tenure law at grassroots e.g. administrative

and traditional bottlenecks at village and Sub Divisional levels hinders land

acquisition and resolution of land disputes.

16

POSSIBLE AREAS OF INTERVENTION :

− Train and educate traditional leaders and parents on gender issues

− Carryout workshop at grassroots on the land tenure law in Cameroon

− Carryout proper demarcation and recognition of village boundaries

− Set up transparent local commissions to resolve land conflicts

− Lobby and advocate for simplification of the procedure to acquire land

certificates

− Exploit possibilities of enhancing farmers/grazers integrated activities

− Carryout workshop for farmers, herders, traditional authorities and

administration on conflict resolution and form farmer/grazer mixed conflict

resolution commissions in the communities (MINADER, Nov 2006: 41)

2.8.2.8.2.8.2.8. IIIIMPLICATIONS OF MPLICATIONS OF MPLICATIONS OF MPLICATIONS OF TTTTRANSHUMANCERANSHUMANCERANSHUMANCERANSHUMANCE

2.8.1.2.8.1.2.8.1.2.8.1. TTTTRANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE PPPPASTORALISTSASTORALISTSASTORALISTSASTORALISTS

Transhumance pastoralists follow a cyclical pattern of migrations that usually

take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in

the winter. This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which

they have regular encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses.

Transhumance pastoralists usually depend somewhat less on their animals for

food than do nomadic ones. They often do small scale vegetable farming at their

summer encampments. They also are more likely to trade their animals in town

markets for grain and other things that they do not produce themselves. (0’Neil,

2007)

2.8.2.2.8.2.2.8.2.2.8.2. TTTTRANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE RANSHUMANCE AAAACTIVITIES IN THE CTIVITIES IN THE CTIVITIES IN THE CTIVITIES IN THE NNNNORTH ORTH ORTH ORTH WWWWEST EST EST EST

RRRREGIONEGIONEGIONEGION

In the dry season, grazers in search of green pasture and water, move their

cattle down the plains and valleys. Prominent transhumance areas in the

Province include the Ndop plains (Ngoketunjia), Ako Sub Division, Mayo Binka

17

(Nkambe), Sabongari (Nwa), Moons (Mbven), Batibo Sub Division, Njikwa Sub

Division, Menchum Valley and Wada Valley (Menchum), Ber and Wasi (Jaliri).

During transhumance, some negative consequences are witnessed which

include:

− High death rate of calves due to hunger, pests, diseases and stress

− High transmission rate animals pests and diseases

− Farmer/grazer conflicts

− Children drop out of school to become herds men

− Increased bush fires by grazers

− Cross border infections of humans and animals

− High rate of cattle theft

(MINADER, Nov 2006: 56)

2.9.2.9.2.9.2.9. FFFFARMING ARMING ARMING ARMING SSSSYSTEMS IN THE YSTEMS IN THE YSTEMS IN THE YSTEMS IN THE NNNNORTH ORTH ORTH ORTH WWWWEST EST EST EST RRRREGIONEGIONEGIONEGION

In general, farming in the North West region is extensive and dominated by

four main agricultural domains: crops, livestock, aquaculture and non-

conventional activities (mosly bee-farming). There is the practice of crop

associations like plantain/maize/beans/cocoyams, maize/beans/yams,

maize/beans/solanum potato, maize/soyabeans/beans, etc, involving, at least two

to four crops planted on the same piece of land followed by five months to five

years fallow to restore the soil fertility. Crops rotation like maize-

bean/groundnuts/soyabeans or solanum potato-maize/beans, etc are also

common. Perennial crops like coffee/cocoa, oil palm are cultivated either pure or

in association with fruit trees, plantain/banana and food crops. Contour ridging is

common and is formed from crop residues and grasses.

The use of improved seed variety is common despite their inadequate

availability. The intensification of use of improved seeds will increase production,

reduce diseases and increase the income of the farmer. Chemical fertilizers and

pesticides used on food crops are low while their low availability and high prices

18

remain a problem. Labour is essentially provided by family members of farming

groups and hired labour for special activities.

Concerning animal production, there are the extensive and semi intensive

types, which involve large ruminants, small ruminants, pigs, poultry and cattle. A

lot of the extensive livestock production is praticed in Donga Mantung and

Menchum Divisions. Crop – livestock farmers’ conflict are predominant due to the

free ranging of livestock and the encroachment of crop farmers into grazing lands.

Conflicts usually occur during transhumance when animals stray into crop farms.

The concept of crops livestock integrations is still to be improved upon. The

agricultural pressure is more pronounced on lowlands and urban area than on the

highland due to easier cultivation possibilities and high population density

respectively.

The production of market oriented gardening crops like carrots, tomato,

cabbages is common in the high land zone involving an intensive use of inputs

and labour.

Concerning forest exploitation, there is mainly the fetching of wood for home

consumption and medicinal plants for traditional healing. However, some illegal

small-scale timber exploitation is carried out by individuals. Some forests need to

be conserved for bio-diversity and environmental conservation (Oku forest,

Bamenda Highland forest). There are also private forests made up of mainly the

eucalyptus trees (used for fuel and construction work), raffia palms and other

natural plants mostly used for craftwork and tapping of wine. (MINADER, Nov

2006: 8)

2.10.2.10.2.10.2.10. CCCCATTLE ATTLE ATTLE ATTLE PPPPRODUCTION FOR THE RODUCTION FOR THE RODUCTION FOR THE RODUCTION FOR THE NNNNORTH ORTH ORTH ORTH WWWWEST EST EST EST RRRREGIONEGIONEGIONEGION

Cattle rearing is a common practice in the Province due to its physical

landscape, climate and grasslands with spotted forest patches making it easy for

free range grazing.

The Province has a high potential for livestock production with the presence of

Mbororo-en that carry out the activity as their major livelihood. The availability of

19

markets for these products in Bamenda, Bafoussam, Douala and other parts of

the country is also an important factor contributing to livestock production.

Table: Cattle production in the North West region

Divisions

Grazing land (ha)

Grazing land (ha) invaded by bracken

fern

Number of grazers 2005

Number of cattle in

2005

Number of cattle in

2006

Boyo 30,230 24,773 582 43,661 69,250

Bui 66,500 45,100 1,143 56,010 55,382

Donga Mantung 115,963 51,980 1,717 129,754 129,654

Menchum 144,120 39,345 784 62,920 70,500

Mezam 37,431 478 2,988 26,937 62,920

Momo 105,610 44,179 515 14,745 28,934

Ngoketunjia 932 300 274 6,649 8,422

TOTAL 500,786 206,155 8,003 340,676 425,062

Source: Divisional Delegation of MINEPIA 2006

According to MINEPIA, about 90% of the cattle in the North West region owns

to the Mbororo community.

Bracken fern occupies approximately 41% of total grazing land in the Province.

Little or no measures are taken to eliminate bracken fern, which is a major

threat to livestock production in the Province. The ministry of Livestock, Animal

Industry and Fisheries (MINEPIA) encourages the establishment of improved

pastures in the Province. Guatemala, Brachiaria, Desmodium plots exist in some

parts of the Province, though quantity planted and area covered is insignificant

and not regularly managed. There is need to organise mass sensitization

campaigns against bush burning and embark on sustainable rangeland

management by supporting herders to carry out improved pasture development.

(MINADER, Nov 2006: 55)

2.11.2.11.2.11.2.11. LLLL IVESTOCK IVESTOCK IVESTOCK IVESTOCK IIIINFRASTRUCTURESNFRASTRUCTURESNFRASTRUCTURESNFRASTRUCTURES

Generally, little efforts have been made to develop livestock infrastructure

through out the Province. Most Sub Division do not have major livestock

20

infrastructure such as slaughterhouses, modern vaccination and weighting

crutches. 53% of slaughterhouses and 60% of vaccination crutches in the

Province have temporal structures. Quarantine areas for cattle under custody do

not exist especially for areas vulnerable to cattle diseases and pests.

The absence of drinking points escalates conflicts especially during the dry

season when cattle stray into farms in search of water. Furthermore, in many

places both animals and humans tend to drink from the same water source, a

typical example being the Nkambe watershed, Lip, Mbonso, and other places.

(MINADER, Nov 2006)

2.12.2.12.2.12.2.12. MMMMAIN AIN AIN AIN CCCCATTLE ATTLE ATTLE ATTLE MMMMARKETS IN THE ARKETS IN THE ARKETS IN THE ARKETS IN THE NNNNORTH ORTH ORTH ORTH WWWWEST EST EST EST RRRREGIONEGIONEGIONEGION

Livestock marketing is an important economic activity that provides

employment and generates revenue to most councils in the Province. Apart from

cattle markets, which are organised to an extent, small livestock are sold at

random.

Table: Bovine sold in cattle markets and cattle pri ces in 2006

Cattle prices (in CFA) Division Animals sold in

cattle markets Minimum Maximum

Bui 9,542 50,000 350,000

Boyo 2,432 120,000 376,000

Donga Mantung 2,520 40,000 430,000

Menchum 1,999 65,000 300,000

Mezam 23,395 110,000 450,000

Momo 2,432 250,000 500,000

Ngoketunjia 16 60,000 250,000

TOTAL 42,336

The prices of cattle show great variation from one division to another. This

variation can be accounted for by economic factors (market dynamics) as you

move from one location to another. (MINEPIA, 2006)

21

More than 80% of these cattle markets are not homologated and lack basic

market infrastructure. Over 90% of cattle bought in rural markets are taken to

Bamenda, Bafoussam and Douala for consumption.

2.13.2.13.2.13.2.13. LLLLABOUR AND ABOUR AND ABOUR AND ABOUR AND GGGGENDERENDERENDERENDER

Generally, the whole family is involved in cattle caring. In the more pastoralist

communities, adult men take cattle for grazing while women and children do the

milking, processing and milk marketing. School children milk cows before going to

school in the morning. The peak period for labour demand is the dry season

(January to March) when the farming season starts. At this time, labour is hired to

take cattle for transhumance at a cost of 15,000 FCFA per month. Labour is paid

for farm preparation at 10,000 to 20,000 FCFA for a one eighth hectare farm or

600 FCFA per man day. When men are married to many wives, at least one of

them is in charge of farming and gardening. In the Mbororo pastoralist

communities, men own cattle but the milk belongs to the women. In Mukweh,

some labour is paid with liquid milk. In Sabga peak labour demand in the rainy

season is for training of first-calf cows for milking. (Bayemi & Al., 2005: 16)

2.14.2.14.2.14.2.14. CCCCATTLE ATTLE ATTLE ATTLE DDDD ISEASEISEASEISEASEISEASE

Major dairy cattle diseases in the Western highland are in order of importance

ticks and tick born diseases: babesiosis, anaplasmosis, dermatophilosis,

cowdriosis; mastitis in milking cows; diarrhea; foot and mouth disease (FMD);

black quarter; ephemeral fever and ear infection. Veterinary services are provided

by non governmental organizations or private veterinarians. Vaccination is done

yearly against black quarter, haemorrhagic septicaemia, and contagious bovine

pleuropneumonia. Only few farmers spray their dairy animals. Hand de-ticking is

more common. It is the fear of ticks that prevents some farmers from sending

crossbred cattle in low and hot lands on transhumance during the dry season.

Many traditional farmers make use of ethno- veterinary medicine (Sabga, Jakiri,

and Bamdzeng). (Bayemi & Al., 2005: 17)

22

2.15.2.15.2.15.2.15. SSSSYLVOYLVOYLVOYLVO ----PPPPASTORALASTORALASTORALASTORALS S S S SSSSYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEMS

2.15.1.2.15.1.2.15.1.2.15.1. SSSSUBUBUBUB ----SYSTEMSSYSTEMSSYSTEMSSYSTEMS

2.15.2.2.15.2.2.15.2.2.15.2. PPPPRUNING OF RUNING OF RUNING OF RUNING OF TTTTREESREESREESREES :::: PPPPOLLARDING AND OLLARDING AND OLLARDING AND OLLARDING AND LLLLOPPINGOPPINGOPPINGOPPING

Pollarding consists in pruning branches level with the main stem, trimming-out

end parts of branches or apical shoots of the crown. It is very widely used by the

Silvopastoralism

Association

Trees Animals

Direct Indirect

Entomoforestry

Aquaforestry

Mammals

Pruning of trees used as forage (Forage bank)

Silvoapiculture

Silvosericulture

Silvopisciculture

Pisciculture in mangroves

Forestry pastoralism

Animal production under tree cover

Ameliorated pasture Based on Neba (2009)

23

dry tropical zone pastoralists in order to increase fodder availability at the end of

the dry season. The woody vegetation provides about 50 percent of the proteins

in the lean period between the dry and the rainy season. (Bellefontaine and Al.,

2000: 157)

According to De BOER and KESSLER (1994), a study carried out on the

Mbororo livestock husbandry system in Burkina Faso, shows that it has very little

harmful effect on the environment, except on the trees which are pollarded.

Different types of pollarding and leaf stripping (extraction of leaves and twigs)

operations have been carried out in Mali (Cissé, in Le Houérou, 1980) on three

species (Combretum aculeatum, Cadaba farinosa and Feretia apodanthera): total

leaf stripping every 15 and 50 days respectively, partial leaf stripping the total

removal of the leaves every 15 days, the total removal of leaves every 30 days,

partial leaf removal and a control treatment. The results have shown that there is

a direct influence on leaf production of both the periodicity and the period of

lopping:

− The leaf biomass is larger after the rainy season;

− A partial pruning of the branches and stripping of the leaves is more

productive than a total extraction;

− When comparing the two leaf stripping operations at 15 and 30 days,

production is higher in the case of the 30-day leaf stripping;

− Leaf stripping can have both a depressive effect on leaf production (Cadaba

and Combretum) and a stimulating effect (Feretia);

− The protein content is inversely proportional to the frequency of pruning.

Few surveys and studies have been conducted into the response capacity of

different species to pollarding, lopping and stumping. Those that have shown that:

− If overdone, these practices threaten the survival of the species;

− The trees are more subject to termites attack;

− In the event of a fire, the whole tree is affected, especially umbrella trees

whose partially sectioned branches hang to the ground, protecting grass from

grazing (hence constituting a stock of flammable straw);

24

− The effect of pollarding varies according to the species and the season;

− Pollarding extends the fruit gathering period into the second half of the dry

season for some species.

CISSÉ (1992) has shown that lopping tends to spread out the period during

which trees bear leaves, if it does not kill it. Defoliation is delayed to the point that

the sprouts, which remain in the vegetative state, can keep their leaves in the off-

season. This is one of the practical advantages of the lopping technique.

Figure: Pruning of trees

Source: von Carlowitz, 1991

2.15.3.2.15.3.2.15.3.2.15.3. NNNNOTION OTION OTION OTION OF OF OF OF FFFFORAGE ORAGE ORAGE ORAGE SSSSPECIESPECIESPECIESPECIES

According to BELLEFONTAINE (2000), the term ‘Forage’ refers to all species

whose organs serve to feed livestock animals, whereas “fodder” refers more to

the function of a species than any specific characteristic. In fact, almost all plants

may be used as fodder when conditions are preferable to, or require their use.

Qualitatively however, not all species are equivalent. Some are considered to

be good forage, others only average or poor. Reaching a qualitative measure also

depends on the type of animal that appreciates a plant species to a greater or

lesser extent. A further consideration is the state of the plant organs to be

consumed.

25

Characteristics of forage species:

− Palatability: some plants or parts of plants seem more palatable to cattle than

others. Cattle are first attracted to these plants, neglecting less palatable

species.

− Nutritive value: as is the case for human food, nutritive values differ between

fodder types.

− Digestibility: a species can provide forage of high nutritive value for one

animal, yet pose digestive difficulties for others.

− Absence of toxicity: toxicity can occur in one animal and not in another. It is

possible that the organs of certain plants are toxic while others are not.

− Grazing resistance: it is essential that plants stay alive after grazing,

otherwise the species would disappear.

− Fodder productivity: the amount of forage produced by each plant is

important. Discrete species, the fodder organs of which do not grow back easily

will be eliminated during successive cattle movements.

− Exploitability: facility with which we can establish the species on a land and

exploit it.

All criteria listed above apply in a progressive manner. A given leaf is

particularly appetizing and digestible for cattle while it is young. Another type of

leaf, an irritant, is refused as long as it is living, but constitutes excellent forage

once wilted.

2.15.4.2.15.4.2.15.4.2.15.4. PPPPASTURES ASTURES ASTURES ASTURES EEEEVOLUTION VOLUTION VOLUTION VOLUTION FFFFACTORSACTORSACTORSACTORS

According to BELLEFONTAINE (2000), pasture is the land where herbivores –

domestic or wild – come to feed. This differs from fields on which crops are

cultivated. A pasture can be ‘natural’ if seedling occurs naturally and without

human intervention, or artificial when species developing there are in the greater

part, sowed by humans. Pasture vegetation is, generally, composed of many

seasonal, pluriseasonal or perennial species. They are either herbaceous or

woody.

26

If the term “pasture” refers to a particular geographic space, it also has a

botanical meaning: a group of associated or rival vegetables, constantly evolving

with changes in climate, soil fertility, the level of intensive cattle exploitation,

vegetative cycles and reproductive patterns of each species present.

Exploitation techniques for pastures also lead to different evolutions. If a land

is permanently grazed by cattle, its vegetation evolves differently than if this land

is in rotation. Likewise, land evolves differently depending on whether it is

mowed, pastured or burnt.

We must also distinguish forage fields – or forage orchards – from pastures.

Forage fields are plots of land cultivated to produce fodder that will be harvested

and stored before serving as cattle feed. In relation to types of fodder, we must

distinguish between two types of development, one annual and the other

pluriannual.

Seasonal development of pastures

Over the course of a year, plants succeed each other in occupying the land.

The most significant biomass activity occurs at the beginning of the rainy season.

There are both early species whose development proceeds in a few weeks and

more belated species, whose cycle only ends after the rainy season, or even

during the dry season.

Seasonal pasture development also depends on the reproductive patterns of

different species. Those that reproduce exclusively by seed can develop only

after the first rains and this development will be either hastened or slowed

depending on the conditions. Those that reproduce by rhizomes, by tillers, bulbs

or tubers have accumulated resources available that enable them to begin their

cycle earlier, sometimes even before the rains start. Some develop vegetation

during the dry season using stored water in their organs or water reserves stored

in soil layers deep in the earth.

It is in this progressive seasonal context that animals feed on natural pastures.

The interest hereby arises in species diversity of the pastureland as it enables the

production of edible matter for animals to be spread over time.

27

Pluriannual development of pastures

The constant presence of cattle on pasture changes its floral composition.

Developmental factors linked to the presence of cattle are the following:

− Selectivity: When cattle remain on the same land, the most palatable plant

species are first eaten by animals and are overexploited. They are

subsequently unable to complete their vegetative cycle and reproduce. The

dissemination of seed-reproducing seasonal or perennial species is thus

compromised and their density on the pastureland decreases. If the species

concerned is a tree sought after by cattle, young plants are not able to establish

themselves. On the other hand, less appreciated species will develop and,

eventually, invade the land.

− Proliferation of species less palatable to, or rejected by cattle. These have

time to complete their vegetative cycle and disseminate their seeds.

Furthermore, extinction of the most sought after species encourages this

proliferation, because rejected species meet less root competition. Only grazing

management that limits cattle density, encouraging the spread of best forage

species through adequate rotation of pasture and reaping periods, and

diversifying forage stratum enables unwanted proliferation of poor quality

species to be avoided. Fallow periods must be planned every year and over

different periods in order to periodically allow all species the occasion to

produce their seed and allow them to become established.

− Reaping does not have the same effects as cattle grazing, because all grasses

are cut, good and bad fodder alike. The least prized species do not have the

opportunity to proliferate by seed as is the case with grazing. It is necessary to

cut poor forage species rejected by cattle wherever they have a tendency to

proliferate.

− Stalling is another factor of impoverishment and reorganisation of forage

vegetation. Young plants of seed-reproducing seasonal species are either

totally destroyed by stalling, or damaged: their growth is disturbed and they are

badly developed when they reach maturity. Where pasture is constantly

exploited, stalling encourages tuft species. Soil between tufts is so compressed

and constricted that it is impossible for young plants, whether herbaceous or

28

woody, to develop there. Fire and erosion reinforce pasture development

against invasion by rhizome species. These tuft-forming species resist well

against fire whereas other species are more sensitive. Erosion occurs between

tufts, digging into the soil.

− Cultivation of lands is an additional factor regarding the reduction of natural

forage production. Successive ploughing and hoeing prevents natural forage

from developing and results in the collapse of the herbaceous forage species

seed stock.

2.15.5.2.15.5.2.15.5.2.15.5. OOOOVERGRAZINGVERGRAZINGVERGRAZINGVERGRAZING

Overgrazing may be defined as action by livestock which modifies the potential

of a range land. The first manifestation of overgrazing is the modification of the

floristic composition. The sought-after palatable disappear giving way to non-

palatable species which are not sought after which have been given the chance

to multiply. This disappearance of sought-after species may be due to the

depletion of the root system, as will be seen later. But in physiognomic terms, this

development is not particularly visible. The other visible manifestation of

overgrazing is better known, because it brings erosion, and sometimes to a

spectacular degree. The gradual disappearance of the grass cover, and even its

total disappearance, and trampling encourage water erosion. This is particularly

acute in hilly areas, such as in the Adamawa in Cameroon. (Bellefontaine & Al.,

2000: 154)

Continuous grazing, which often leads to overgrazing, reduces the production

of regrowth. The grasses are unable to reconstitute their underground reserves,

with the result that the root system is depleted by losing mass. This reduces

production the following year. However, by introducing a rest period, since the soil

is not depleted, the grazing potential is restored. Old fallows and savannas which

seem to be fairly hardy and have sufficient biomass need to be managed with

great care. Range management in savanna areas must in fact operate to

maintain the pasture potentialities, while avoiding bush encroachment.

(Bellefontaine & Al., 2000: 162)

29

Figure: Evolution of the floristic composition resu lting from different treatments on the Abokouamékro Ranch in Côte d’Ivoire.

Source: Bellefontaine & Al, 2000: 163

2.15.6.2.15.6.2.15.6.2.15.6. BBBBUSH USH USH USH FFFF IRES IRES IRES IRES ((((PASTORALISTSPASTORALISTSPASTORALISTSPASTORALISTS ’’’’ POINT OF VIEW POINT OF VIEW POINT OF VIEW POINT OF VIEW))))

When discussing bush fires two questions arise: their causes and their

usefulness. CIRAD has addressed the question of bush fires in the paper Fiches

techniques d’élevage tropical (Ministry of Cooperation and Development, 1990),

and what follows is largely taken from this paper.

Apart from rare cases in which they are due to lightning, the main cause is

man. Fire is deliberate (fires ignited by hunters and herdsmen, or of malevolent

origin) or accidental (travelers’ fires not properly extinguished, agricultural

clearing fires which get out of control, etc.).

The impact of fire on the chemical contents of the soil is small. Virtually all the

mineral elements return to the soil after burning, except for nitrogen. However, it

30

should be remembered that the organic matter supplied to the soil comes

essentially from the underground system, which in humid regions, has a greater

biomass than the aerial complex. The rate of root renewal in tropical soils is

extremely fast. Considering the aspects of natural resource management through

use of early brushwood burnings and the problem of livestock production, the

author of this report concludes as far as the Sudano-Guinean area is concerned

that fire should not be viewed as a factor of transformation but as a factor of

savanna conservation. It is necessary in order to maintain the floristic variety of

the savanna, and particularly the grass cover which is indispensable to livestock.

To keep a neutral vision of bush fires, here’s a table showing the advantages

and disadvantages of using fire on pasture lands.

Table: Pros and cons of using fire to manage natura l pasture

Advantages Disadvantages

− Stimulates vegetative regrowth, not only of grasses but also of many shrubs and trees during the dry season.

− Loss of plant biomass and thus short-term decrease in available forage.

− Increases plant biomass production in the following wet season, at least in some cases.

− Increased danger of erosion.

− Rapidly mineralizes dead biomass, thus making the minerals which were fixed in it available for plant growth.

− Destruction of micro-organisms near the soil surface because of increased soil temperature.

− Controls bush encroachment, thus favouring growth of the herbaceous layer, which is important for the nutrition of cattle, buffaloes and sheep.

− Loss of nutrients.

− Favours desired species (depending on plant community).

− Suppresses desired species (depending on plant community).

− Decreases the risk of uncontrolled fires.

Source: BAYER (1998)

The usefulness of fire depends, among other things, on the interests of the

people who use it. Pastoralists set fire to grassland mainly to stimulate plant

regrowth during the dry season. Mature plants are under considerable moisture

stress. The removal of much of the leaf and stem material greatly reduces the

plant surface from which evaporation can occur. Pastoral fires are often set early

in the dry season in upland areas and in the middle of the season in low-lying

areas, where regrowth is stronger than on the uplands. Crop farmers tend to burn

31

later than pastoralists, in the late dry season, to clear natural vegetation for

cultivation and to clean the fields. (BAYER and WATERS-BAYER, 1998: 85)

2.15.7.2.15.7.2.15.7.2.15.7. PPPPASTURE ASTURE ASTURE ASTURE IIIIMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENTMPROVEMENT

This activity which demands a great deal of manpower often at a time when it

is not available is becoming evermore costly. It can therefore only be undertaken

on limited areas, which will facilitate guarding, because once they are restored,

grazing lands are often used by herds coming from elsewhere. (Bellefontaine &

Al., 2000: 165)

The most simple improvement technique consists in soil preparation. As far as

possible, the soil is turned over or ploughed along the contour lines. The lines are

about 10 m apart. This light preparation is sufficient to retain water and the seeds

of annual species. After the rains, the lines of grass become clearly visible, and

are effective for several years, in helping restore the soil, until its surface cover is

totally rehabilitated. This presupposes that for two to three years the area is under

full grazing exclusion. This technique can be improved by sowing fodder species

along the lines. At the beginning, the normal practice is to use seeds of natural

species collected during the previous dry season. The results are encouraging

but the village community that undertakes this work needs to exert perfect control

and supervision over its land.

Figure: Schematic profile of a sub-soiled and cresc ent-ridged compartment

Source: Bellefontaine, 2000 (from Toutain, 1993)

This technique can be improved by tracing the lines with a plough and a

tractor. The hollow and the cross fall form a small ditch which holds the water and

32

the seed on the slope on which legumes, hardy grasses and fodder shrubs can

be sown. Another variation is to make this ditch in a crescent shape in order to

collect the water from a micro-watershed. In this case the results are more

spectacular, but the whole area must be put under strict grazing exclusion.

Sometimes vegetation can develop between the small water-retention ditches,

particularly spectacular woody plant regeneration. (Bellefontaine & Al., 2000: 165)

According to DUPRIEZ & De LEENER (1993), there’s a lot of means in order

to avoid worsening in forages lands.

− To keep watch over or to fence in plots of land allows the development of

natural vegetation without cattle. Protected from herbivores, overgrazed

lands repopulate at different speeds depending on the diversity of both

herbaceous and woody local species. Keeping watch and erecting fences

allows the enrichment of vegetation by sowing or planting useful and diverse

forage species. This enrichment can be achieved at a maximum volume

level: lower strata can be made accessible to cattle, whilst higher strata can

be made inaccessible. This can be managed by the cattle breeder.

− Development of forage associations . This involves trying to understand the

most productive associations of woody and herbaceous species, in order to

encourage the most valuable combinations.

− Setting up a system of grazing rotation . Parcels of land are divided into

several plots that will be used for grazing at different times and on a rotational

basis. Rotation enables a more regular regrowth on non-grazed plots. It is

important to plan a staggered rotation, so that any given plot will not be

systematically grazed during the same period each year. Where possible,

one of all the parcels of land should be left fallow.

− Development of woody fodder strata . Fodder trees forming productive

strata inaccessible to cattle constitute an important fodder potential for cattle

breeders. However, it is necessary to take care not to compromise these

fodder resources by damaging or overexploiting trees. In natural pastures,

fodder trees are generally used as a contribution during the rainy season and

as the main resource during the dry season. Fully exploited during the rainy

season and stored after drying, tree fodder can be used as stock for the dry

33

season. Existence of a wooded forage producing stratum in fields during the

dry season is beneficial as it enables the global yield of the land to increase.

However it also allows attracts cattle onto temporarily uncultivated land.

Woody fodder strata also allow field fertility to increase as animals leave their

excrement whilst grazing at the foot of the trees.

− Fodder catch crops have also been developed in the aim of improving

forage production: millet, sorghum, beans, siratro2 etc are placed between

lines of seasonal crops at the end of the rainy season. Young plants will die

as the dry season progresses, but stocks of dry fodder are left to be either

reaped, or eaten by the cattle that remain there until the following rainy

season. Fodder trees and fodder catch crops allow the productive season to

be prolonged by a few weeks or a few months after cereal crops.

There are many ways to diversify fodder resources, as we attempt to organize

the productive strata on lands dedicated to either subsistence or commercial

productions.

Associating fodder crops and erosion control is an intelligent practice. This can

be achieved by inserting grassy hedges on plots whose leaves can be cut and

given to cattle. It is possible to associate fodder trees with these live hedges, an

association that would greatly improve the forage productivity of anti-erosion

buffer strips.

2.16.2.16.2.16.2.16. IIIIMPROVEMENT BY MPROVEMENT BY MPROVEMENT BY MPROVEMENT BY HHHHAYAYAYAYMMMMAKINGAKINGAKINGAKING

Hay is the oldest, and still the most important retained forage, despite its

dependence on a favourable climate during the harvesting period. This can be

produced with simple equipment, manual or mechanised, and many small

farmers make hay to feed livestock through the lean season. The livestock needs

feed throughout the year. Plant growth is determined by the weather, but fresh

alimentation is only available during certain periods of the year, and the shorter

the period of plant growth, the greater the irregularity of the feed supply.

2 Macroptilium atropurpureum is a perennial twining legume, combined with tall grasses.

Siratro grows well in moist, subtropical and tropical climates with 800 – 1,500 mm rainfall and on a wide range of reasonably drained soils (Partridge, 2003)

34

Consequently, in most climates (excepting temperate regions), in the period

where fresh feed is lacking, feed must be provided to substitute pasture and fresh

forage if losses in weight and production are to be avoided. Forage and crop

conservation is a traditional method for reducing seasonal variations of the

available feed.

Haymaking involves the reduction of humidity of freshly cut pastoral grass from

70-90% to 15-20% or less. This is simple in theory, but dependant on climactic

conditions, on the farmer’s technical knowledge and on his sense of observation.

Hay is classified as forage, that is, a feed with approximately 18% of raw cellulose

and less than 20% of raw proteins in dry matter. In practice, most hay has a

nutritive value far below these levels. It is rarely a complete feed and must -be

used as part of a global alimentary system. Crops residues, especially straws and

stems, but not limited to cereals, are also important cattle feed during the lean

season, and are often used in association with hay.

Natural drying of cut grass by the sun and wind is always the most common

method of forage conservation, natural grasses and crop residues. Artificial drying

is sometimes used in some highly mechanized systems. Hay is the best

conserved forage for small producers because in all but the most humid climates

it can be undertaken with little equipment and produced, excluding the costs

related to the labour force, at low-cost. Hay can be made with simple equipment

and, once dried properly, is easy to transport and store, and can be distributed

with very little wastage. As an adequate conserved forage for small cattle

breeders with limited resources, hay should be encouraged wherever climatic and

economic conditions are favourable. (Suttie, 2004)

35

Chapter Three. Chapter Three. Chapter Three. Chapter Three. MMMMETHODOLOGYETHODOLOGYETHODOLOGYETHODOLOGY

3.1.3.1.3.1.3.1. RRRRESEARCH ESEARCH ESEARCH ESEARCH DDDDESIGNESIGNESIGNESIGN

This is a non-randomised survey research to understand the silvopastoral

system in the Mbororo community of the North West region of Cameroon.

3.2.3.2.3.2.3.2. PPPPOPULATION OF THE OPULATION OF THE OPULATION OF THE OPULATION OF THE SSSSTUDYTUDYTUDYTUDY

The sampling frame consisted of the Mbororo herders of the subdivision of

Santa in the Mezam division in the North West region of Cameroon.

The subdivision of Santa involves 13 Ardorates whose 10 are Mbororo-en and

3 are none Mbororo-en.

Table of sampling distribution:

ArDos Village Number of Mbororo householders Sampling Rate (%)

Julie Ndzong 30 9 30

Musa Yaya Akum, Baba II, Alatening, Mbuh

115 41 35.7

Yaya Hamman Pinyin *

Sikod (NM) Pinyin *

Bouniidu Pinyin *

Umarou Pinyin *

Garga Buba Pinyin 40 15 37,5

Wilfred Muluh (NM)

*

Nana Jaki Baligham 13 3 23

Yaya Dewa Awing 18 7 39,9

Jaligae Awing 20 7 35

Bandiri Awing *

Ndenkeh (NM) Awing 11 5 45.5

Total and average rate 247 87 35,5

NM: None Mbororo, * No data

36

For this study, 7 ArDos were visited with a total of 87 participants. I choose to

sample around 30% of the population of each ArDos.

The sampling was entirely and deliberately selective. Reasons of that choice

were the lack of means of transport, the availability of my translators and field

assistants; climatic conditions, etc. I had to choose people living in places where I

could have access.

For a dependable study, I know I had to do a randomized sampling, for

example: putting the names of all Mbororo-en inhabitants of Santa subdivision in

a bucket and taking names one by one until reaching 30% of the whole

population. But instead of following the standards of the sampling methodology, I

choose the feasibility with the means in my possession.

3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. DDDDESCRIPTION OF THE ESCRIPTION OF THE ESCRIPTION OF THE ESCRIPTION OF THE AAAAREA OF REA OF REA OF REA OF SSSSTUDYTUDYTUDYTUDY

3.3.1.3.3.1.3.3.1.3.3.1. GGGGEOGRAPHICAL EOGRAPHICAL EOGRAPHICAL EOGRAPHICAL LLLLOCATIONOCATIONOCATIONOCATION

Source: World Factbook of Central Intelligence Agen cy of USA

The study was done in the North West region of Cameroon. Cameroon is

located in Western Africa. It is bound by the Gulf of Guinea to the West, Nigeria to

the Northwest, Chad to the Northeast, Central African Republic to the East,

Republic of the Congo to the Southeast, Gabon to the South and Equatorial

Guinea to the Southwest. Its geographic coordinates are: 6°00N and 12°00E. The

37

country has a whole surface area of 475,440 km² (involving 6000 km² of water

and 469,440 km² of land). The highest point of Cameroon is on Mount Cameroon

with 4,095m. Land use is distributed in this ratio: 12.54% of arable land, 2.52% of

permanent crop and 84.94% of other. (The World FactBook, CIA).

Source: MINEF, 1994

38

The North West region lies between latitudes 5° 43” and 7°9”N and longitudes

9°13” and 11°13”E and covers an area of about 17,40 0 km². It is bordered in the

North and West by the Republic of Nigeria, in the South by the Western and

South Western Provinces of Cameroon, in the East by the Adamawa region. The

Province is divided into seven Divisions: Boyo, Bui, Donga-Mantoung, Menchum,

Mezam, Momo and Ngoketundjia with the following respective administrative

headquarters – Fundung, kumbo, Nkambe, Wum, Bamenda, Mbengwi and Ndop.

Santa Subdivision lies at latitudes 5.80° N and at longitudes 10.17° E. Santa

Subdivision includes these following villages: Akum, Alatening, Awing, Baba II,

Baligham, Mbei, Mbuh, Ndzong and Pinyin.

Source: CAMGIS, 2003

3.3.2.3.3.2.3.3.2.3.3.2. TTTTOPOGRAPHYOPOGRAPHYOPOGRAPHYOPOGRAPHY

The topography of the region is generally mountainous and undulating,

characterised by abrupt escarpments, towering mountain peaks, deep valleys and

broad alluvial plains. The highest point in the province is Mont Oku (in the Bui

division) with an altitude of 3011m above sea level (a.s.l.) and the lowest being

Mbembe plain with an altitude of 211 meters a.s.l.

39

This topography can be classified into three main zones: the lower altitude (<

900m a.s.l.), the mid altitude (900 – 1500m a.s.l.) and the high altitude (> 1500m

a.s.l.).

The topography of the region explains the difficulties encountered in the

attempts to reach a greater part of the province either by vehicle or even on foot.

Some areas are still isolated and not accessible by road. (MINADER, Nov 2006)

3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. CCCCLIMATELIMATELIMATELIMATE

The climate is greatly influenced by the topography. It is described as a tropical

transitional climate in the central mountainous region of Cameroon from the rainy,

humid and continuously warm climate in the south, to the extremely changeable

(in terms of temperature and rainfall) but relatively dry and hot climate of the

north.

On the average the North West region has a mild climate which is very

conducive for hard work. The province is marked by two distinct seasons. The dry

season starts from mid October to mid March and the rainy season from mid

March to mid October.

The dry season is characterised by harmattan3 and cold dry and biting wind

which blows from the Sahara desert. The evenings and morning are very chilly.

The atmosphere is generally clumsy and the monthly average maximum

temperatures for the Province range between 15°C (i n the high mountainous

areas) to 27°C (in the low altitude zones). The ann ual rainfall varies from

1300mm in Ndop plains to over 3000mm at Mbande and Mount Oku. (MINADER,

Nov 2006)

3 This is a hot, dry wind that blows from the northeast or east in the Western Sahara into the

Gulf of Guinea between the end of November and the middle of March. (“Harmattan”, Wikipedia 2009)

40

Source: MINTRANS (2009)

Rainfall Data - Bamenda Station

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Hei

ght (

mm

) 0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Day

s

Height (mm) 8.3 16.6 107.4 190.0 173.7 323.7 376.3 414.5 414.0 244.1 59.6 20.6

Days 1 4 11 20 22 24 27 26 26 25 12 2

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Source: MINTRANS (2009)

41

Temperature Data - Bamenda Station

10.0

12.0

14.0

16.0

18.0

20.0

22.0

24.0

26.0

28.0

30.0

T (

°C)

Maxima 26.6 27.2 26.7 25.2 25.1 23.7 22.4 22.2 22.9 24.6 25.2 25.9

Minima 13.4 14.4 15.3 15.3 14.8 14.3 13.8 13.8 14.0 14.4 14.1 13.3

Moyenne 20.0 20.8 21.0 20.2 20.0 19.0 18.1 18.0 18.4 19.5 19.7 19.6

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Source: MINTRANS (2009)

Both charts that I made above are an average of the monthly average data on

10 years. Primary data comes from the ministry of transports.

3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3.4.3.3.4. VVVVEGETATIONEGETATIONEGETATIONEGETATION

The vegetation is as a result of the local climate, altitude, soil conditions, and

human activities on the natural resources. In the lower transitional zone and low

lands, we have the savannah covered with woods, mostly among the rivers

(Donga peneplain), shrubs and lower mountain forest (Batibo, Bambui, mount

Oku).

In the highland zone, we have grassland vegetation that is derived from

mountainous forests (Nkambe-Banso plateau, Santa and Oshie highlands). In the

mountain (and escapements) prevails a variable ecological condition with the

savannah-like vegetation in the escapements (Donga escapement, Jakiri and

Njnikom) and the grassland vegetation on the mountains (mount Oku, mount

Lefo). (MINADER, Nov 2006)

42

− Savanna: “vegetation type that grows under hot, seasonally dry climatic

conditions and is characterized by an open tree canopy (i.e., scattered

trees) above a continuous tall grass understory.” (Encyclopaedia

Britannica online)

− Grassland: “area in which the vegetation is dominated by a nearly

continuous cover of grasses. Grasslands occur in environments

conducive to the growth of this plant cover but not to that of taller plants,

particularly trees and shrubs.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

3.3.5.3.3.5.3.3.5.3.3.5. SSSSOIL OIL OIL OIL TTTTYPEYPEYPEYPE

The province is characterized by many soil types, which give, rise to the

cultivation of a variety of crops. The soils are gradually being modified by some

circumstances like weathering, human activities (farming, construction and

burning)

Soil type of the North West Province:

Altitude Topography/Relief Soil type Areas

< 1000m Low altitude

Valley bottom Alluvial/Colluvial Widikum

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam

Lowlands Lateritic Dumbo, Tingo

1000 – 1500m Medium altitude

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam Belo

Plains Sandy-Loam Ndop and Mbaw plains, Binka-Lus

> 1500m High altitude

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam Santa, Takum

(MINADER, Nov 2006)

43

3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4. CCCCOLLECTION OF OLLECTION OF OLLECTION OF OLLECTION OF DDDDATAATAATAATA

Collected data are from two types: primary data and secondary data. Primary

data were collected trough interviews on the field with tools like a questionnaire, a

transect, maps, direct observations which were administered in the selected area

of study.

Secondary data were obtained from magazines, books, reports, journals,

handbooks, etc… from the following organizations:

− Regional Antenna of IRAD Bambui

− Provincial Delegation of MINEPIA

− Provincial Delegation of MINADER

− ANAFOR for Humid Savannah Area

− SNV documents and reports

− MBOSCUDA archives in Bamenda

− Websites on internet

3.5.3.5.3.5.3.5. PPPPRIMARY RIMARY RIMARY RIMARY DDDDATAATAATAATA

Collection of primary data was based on the RRA method (Rapid Rural

Appraisal method). Which is a semi-structured activity carried out on the field by a

multi-disciplinary approach and is designed to quickly acquire information on, and

new hypothesis about rural life.

Typology of participation: Participation in information . People participate by

answering questions posed by extractive researchers giving questionnaire

surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence

proceedings, as the findings of research are neither shared nor checked for

accuracy.

This methodology is relevant only to a multidisciplinary team. This study being

undertaken by but one relatively inexperienced person however, the choice was

made to not apply the RRA method as a whole but to draw from it extensively in

order to make this study viable for a Master’s degree student. With the aim of

44

studying a socio-economic system and a silvopastoral system, it makes use of

some of the tools of the RRA method.

3.5.1.3.5.1.3.5.1.3.5.1. QQQQUESTIONNAIRE UESTIONNAIRE UESTIONNAIRE UESTIONNAIRE DDDDEVELOPMENTEVELOPMENTEVELOPMENTEVELOPMENT

A questionnaire was drawn up and used for data collection In order to obtain

accurate information for this study. The questionnaire was written in English and

included both closed and open-ended questions. As the Mbororo cattle breeders

do not speak English, I was assisted by several translators, all of whom had a

level of education sufficient for the comprehension of questions included in the

questionnaire. A briefing was conducted before field interviews to be certain that

the questions were understood.

The questionnaire was divided in two sections: the first relates to the

participative interview and the second considers the socio-economic data of the

individual. The first, group section has two sub-sections: Part A covering

questions of transhumance and part B covering questions related to

silvopastoralism.

3.5.2.3.5.2.3.5.2.3.5.2. IIIINTERNAL NTERNAL NTERNAL NTERNAL VVVVALIDITY OF THE ALIDITY OF THE ALIDITY OF THE ALIDITY OF THE QQQQUESTIONNAIREUESTIONNAIREUESTIONNAIREUESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire was tested on a Mbororo group in ArDo Jullie’s compound,

in the Santa subdivision. The group included eighteen cattle breeders as well as

ArDo himself. This test highlighted the fact that it was easier and safer to

interview Mbororo-en in groups regarding agronomic questions rather than

individually. According to the one of my Mbororo-en translators, this is because

they feel more comfortable in groups than on their own. The sections of the

questionnaire relating to transhumance and silvopastoralism were lead in a

participative way whereas for the socio-economic section, we passed from one

person to another to collect data individually.

The test made it clear that the interview, taking 2.5 hours, lasted too long. It

should be taken into account however that this was the first interview, and time

was lost correcting some questions during the interview and agreeing on a good

translation in Pidgin English or in Fulfulde (language of the Mbororo-en).

45

Regarding the questions themselves, some were corrected during the

interviews and others were modified later. As I passed from the individual survey

to the participative survey for two of the three sections of the questionnaire, I

changed its presentation in order to establish a logical interview framework.

Ultimately, we began with the participative survey and finished with socio-

economic data.

3.5.3.3.5.3.3.5.3.3.5.3. DDDD IRECT IRECT IRECT IRECT OOOOBSERVATIONSBSERVATIONSBSERVATIONSBSERVATIONS

Direct observations were made to be compared to collected data from the

questionnaire.

3.5.4.3.5.4.3.5.4.3.5.4. TTTTRANSECTSRANSECTSRANSECTSRANSECTS

Transects are systematic walks taken with farmers or key informant through an

area. Transects walks are recorded using sketches in the form of a matrix table

with the relief of the walked transect along forming the top of the table and the

studied criteria listed in the left-hand column. Field notes and comment are

entered in the appropriate box.

3.5.5.3.5.5.3.5.5.3.5.5. CCCCHART OF HART OF HART OF HART OF TTTTRADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY UUUUSED SED SED SED PPPPLANTSLANTSLANTSLANTS

This is a table including scientific names of plant in regards of their Mbororo

names and their use by the community. The chart is in the form of a matrix and

includes an exhaustive list of the use of each plant, whether it be animal

medicine, human medicine, animal feed, human food, water catchment

protection… A cross marks the correct use of each plant by the community.

This list of plants was created from a document called: “Taxonomic

classification of ethno-veterinary medicinal plants collected by HPI/Cameroon:

1991-1994”. The chart was next elaborated with the collaboration of Mbororo-en

in several villages.

46

3.5.6.3.5.6.3.5.6.3.5.6. VVVV IRTUAL IRTUAL IRTUAL IRTUAL PPPPLANT LANT LANT LANT CCCCOLLECTIONOLLECTIONOLLECTIONOLLECTION

A plant collection was made in the form of a herbarium to identify trees and

shrubs traditionally used by Mbororo grazers to cure and feed their animals

and/or humans.

The original herbarium is conserved in the National Botanic Garden of

Belgium, where plant names were verified by tropical experts. A high resolution

scan of the herbarium was made there. A virtual presentation of the plant

collection was subsequently created in HTML format and saved on a DVD-ROM.

3.6.3.6.3.6.3.6. LLLL IMITATION OF THE IMITATION OF THE IMITATION OF THE IMITATION OF THE SSSSTUDYTUDYTUDYTUDY

This study suffered from a number of constraints, the first of which relate to

language. I conducted the work in the English region of Cameroon where people

mainly speak Pidgin English, language drawing on both standard English and

dialects from different tribes. The study focused on the Mbororo-en community

where only a few members speak English. Their common language is ‘Fulfulde’.

I was not assisted financially in my work by any organizations. I was confronted

by a lack of relevant documentation, especially reference books and magazines.

Without assistance and without personal means of transport, I was largely

dependant on local transport. Furthermore, the field research was conducted

during the rainy season when roads are often dangerous and unusable.

I initially planned to use the PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) method for the

semi-interview aspect of the study method. This method however necessitates a

multidisciplinary team and more time to collect data than was available to me. I

decided to give up on the formal utilisation of the PRA and developed a

questionnaire. I am aware however that the results are not as dependable as

PRA results.

The sample of interviewees was deliberately non-randomized for the reasons

explained above: lack of assistance, local transport and the rainy season. I

deliberately selected the people partaking in this study on the basis of their

presence in the region at the moment I conducted my field research. This non-

randomized choice introduces statistical errors in the results of the questionnaire.

47

Although I am conscious that the data collected through my questionnaire is not

completely reliable it can still be used to provide an approximate understanding of

the socio-economic and silvopastoral situation in the Mbororo community.

3.7.3.7.3.7.3.7. AAAANALYZING NALYZING NALYZING NALYZING DDDDATAATAATAATA

It’s difficult to suggest a technique of analyzing the data and information in

RRA-like interviews as qualitative as well as quantitative methods. Both are

employed and each technique has its own methods of analysis. The analysis

should be kept simple. If complex data are to be used, then every effort should be

done to convert in non-technical language. Data and information should be

arranged according to category, issue, topic, sub-topic or questions.

Qualitative Analyze

Categorization of data should be done. And data should be analyzed according

to category. The category should be inclusive and mutually exclusive. Data could

be coded according to inductive category (for open-ended questions) and

deductive category (such as farmer, farm-worker, non-farmer, etc…).

48

Chapter Four. Chapter Four. Chapter Four. Chapter Four. RRRRESULTS AND ESULTS AND ESULTS AND ESULTS AND DDDDISCUSSIONS OF THE ISCUSSIONS OF THE ISCUSSIONS OF THE ISCUSSIONS OF THE RRRRESULTSESULTSESULTSESULTS

4.1.4.1.4.1.4.1. VVVV IRTUAL IRTUAL IRTUAL IRTUAL PPPPLANT LANT LANT LANT CCCCOLLECTIONOLLECTIONOLLECTIONOLLECTION

The virtual plant collection is an HTML presentation on a DVD-ROM that will be

found at the end of the book.

4.2.4.2.4.2.4.2. TTTTABLES OF ABLES OF ABLES OF ABLES OF TTTTRADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY RADITIONALLY UUUUSED SED SED SED PPPPLANTSLANTSLANTSLANTS

These following charts were completed with Mbororo stories in many villages.

It has to be considered there are many language differences between Mbororo

communities, thus Fulfulde names are only indicative. They may change

according to the community.

There were also many botanical errors in the original list of plants done by

HPI/Cameroon. I corrected some of them with an online plant collection database

(http://www.aluka.org/) and the help of the National Botanic Garden of Belgium,

through my herbarium. However, I cannot certify that all errors were corrected.

Results of these charts show the great diversity of trees used by Mbororo-en,

especially, to feed their cattle or to cure themselves and their animals. This kind

of list could be very useful in the development of a silvopastoral system dedicated

to Mbororo-en, in the highlands.

These charts highlight the importance of some trees, like Piliostigma

Thonningii: it is the most interesting, its name appears in every conversation,

every interview. Some people say that none project could be realised in the

Mbororo community without the plantation of Piliostigma thonningii. We can say

that species which got the status of ritual tree are the most useful for cattle

breeders.

49

FamilyScientific

NameAF HF AM HM

WCP

Fo Fe LF T FW S LB O R Other

1 Anacardiaceae Lannea kerstingii Soonyi X X X X

2 Anacardiaceae Lannea schimperi Hoyaahi Lyinde X X

3 Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Mangorohi X X X X X X

4 Anacardiaceae Pseudospondias microcarpa Jillahi Gorki X X

5 Annonaceae Annona senegalensis Dukuhi X X X X X X X

6 Apocynaceae Carissa edulis Beebohi X X

7 Apocynaceae Voacanga africana X X Economic tree, drugs

8 Araliaceae Cussonia arborea Hoyaahi X X X

9 Asteraceae Vernonia amygdalina Suwaaka X X X X X X Ndole, a popular plate

10 Bignoniaceae Kigelia africana Jillahi X X

11 Bignoniaceae Markhamia tomentosa Jillarehi X X X X X

12 Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra Bantahi X X X

13 Caesalpiniaceae Daniella oliveri Kayallahi X X X X

14 Clusiaceae Harungana madagascariensis Burugalhi Bodeehi X X X

16 Combretaceae Combretum rhodanthum Saakatahi X X X X

17 Combretaceae Terminalia glaucescens Bawshihi (Bodhi) X X X X

AF = Animal Food, HF = Human Food, AM = Animal Medicine, HM = Human Medicine, WCP = Water Catchment Protection, Fo = Fodder,Fe = Fertilizer, LF = Live Fence, T = Timber, FW = Fuel Wood, S = Shade, LB = Limit Boundary, O = Ornemental, R = Ritual

Botanical denominationMbororo

Name

Utilisation

50

AF HF AM HMWCP

Fo Fe LF T FW S LB O R Other

18 Cupressaceae Cupressus lusitanica X X X X Insecticide, house fumigation

19 Dracaenaceae Dracaena arborea X X X X

20 Euphorbiaceae Bridelia ferruginea Buduudi Jolde X X X

21 Euphorbiaceae Bridelia speciosa Buduudi Layinde X

22 Euphorbiaceae Croton macrostachys Ngalwahi X X X X X X

23 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia kamerunica Keranahi X X

24 Euphorbiaceae Jatrophas curcas Kabelhi X X X X Economic tree, biodiesel

25 Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus muellerianus Dibruhi (Dibrukulhi) X X X

26 Fabaceae Albizia spp. Nareehi X X X

15 Fabaceae Dichrostachys cinerea Burulihi X X X X X

27 Fabaceae Entada abyssinica Pelluwahi X X X X X X

28 Fabaceae Erithrina spp. Boobillohi X X X X X X

29 Fabaceae Leucaena leucocephala Solihi X X X X X X X

30 Fabaceae Piliostigma thonningii Barkehi X X X X X X X

31 Fabaceae Rhynchosia spp. Dannililli To coagulate milk, conservation

32 Fabaceae Tephrosia vogelii Youmji X X X X X Insecticide, to atrophy fishes

AF = Animal Food, HF = Human Food, AM = Animal Medicine, HM = Human Medicine, WCP = Water Catchment Protection, Fo = Fodder,Fe = Fertilizer, LF = Live Fence, T = Timber, FW = Fuel Wood, S = Shade, LB = Limit Boundary, O = Ornemental, R = Ritual

51

AF HF AM HMWCP

Fo Fe LF T FW S LB O R Other

33 Guttiferae Psorospermum febrifugum Sawooiki X X X

34 Guttiferae Psorospermum spp. Sawoiki Jolde X X

35 Lamiaceae Hemizygia welwitschii Dutalhi X X X

36 Lauraceae Beilschmiedia talbotiae Koukobihi X

37 Loranthaceae Tapinanthus globiferus Sotore (+ Dibruhi) X X

38 Malvaceae Gossypium barbadense Hotolohi (Lierehi) X X Economic tree, cotton trade

39 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Dogonyaro X X X X Insecticide

40 Meliaceae Khaya anthotheca Kahi X X X X X

41 Moraceae Ficus burretiana Biskehi Jolde X X X X X X X X

42 Moraceae Ficus platyphylla Dundehi X X X X X X Sleeping bed with the leaves

43 Moraceae Ficus spp. Ibbi Daneehi X X X X X X X X X

44 Moraceae Ficus spp. Kalaldihi X X X X

45 Moraceae Ficus sur Gobarehi X X X X X

46 Myrtaceae Eucalyptus spp. Fursigal X X X X X X X

47 Myrtaceae Psidium guajava Ngoyaabehi X X X X X X

48 Myrtaceae Syzygium spp. Burugalhi X X X Utensil to mix milk and soup

49 Myrtaceae Syzygium spp. Sikacondohi X X X X X

AF = Animal Food, HF = Human Food, AM = Animal Medicine, HM = Human Medicine, WCP = Water Catchment Protection, Fo = Fodder,Fe = Fertilizer, LF = Live Fence, T = Timber, FW = Fuel Wood, S = Shade, LB = Limit Boundary, O = Ornemental, R = Ritual

52

AF HF AM HMWCP

Fo Fe LF T FW S LB O R Other

50 Palmae Elaeis guineensis Dalli (Korahi) X X X X X X Economic tree, oil production

51 Palmae Phoenix reclinata Dalli X X X X X X X X Building of mud houses

52 Palmae Raphia vinifera Paajie X X X X X Ropes production

53 Polygalaceae Securidaca longepedunculata Yamasettohi X X X X X

54 Proteaceae Protea madiensis Lebrehi X X X X X

55 Rosaceae Prunus africana Bakurehi Layinde X X X X Economic tree, drugs

56 Rubiaceae Gardenia ternifolia Dingali X X X Strong wood: Handle of knifes

57 Rubiaceae Nauclea latifolia Bakurehi X X X X

58 Sapotaceae Butyrospermum paradoxum Karehi X X X X X X To produce oil

59 Sapotaceae Butyrospermum spp. Karerehi X X

60 Solanaceae Solanum aculeastrum Gittenai X X X X Soap production with fruit

61 Sterculiaceae Cola acuminata Gorohi X X X X X X

62 Verbenaceae Vitex doniana Bummehi X X X X X X Arabic ink production

AF = Animal Food, HF = Human Food, AM = Animal Medicine, HM = Human Medicine, WCP = Water Catchment Protection, Fo = Fodder,Fe = Fertilizer, LF = Live Fence, T = Timber, FW = Fuel Wood, S = Shade, LB = Limit Boundary, O = Ornemental, R = Ritual

53

4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3. TTTTABLES OF ABLES OF ABLES OF ABLES OF RRRRESULTSESULTSESULTSESULTS

a) SOCIO-ECONOMIC DATA

Here is some data about the Mbororo interviewees to provide the social

background of this study. First, all interviewed persons are Muslim and, except

for one, they are all male.

I wanted to know the numbers of cows per cattle grazer but this is something

people do not wish to communicate, for tax reasons. In order to respect their

choices, the question was structured using a range of intervals. The amount of

cows in a family remains the most important sign of wealth. Generally speaking,

the oldest Mbororo grazers have the greatest number of cattle.

Number of cows per interviewed Mbororo cattle breeders

< 2015%

21 - 4030%

41 - 6025%

61 - 8010%

81 - 10015%

> 1015%

The next two graphs show the age distribution and the educational standards

of the study participants. The graph indicates that about 24% of the participants

are more than 51 years old, something to remark upon in a country where the life

expectancy is 54 years.

54

Interviewed Mbororo's age distribution graph

20 - 3024%

31 - 4029%

41 - 5017%

> 5124%

Not Communicated

6%

Interviewed Mbororos educational standards graph

Arabic36%

Primary18%

Secondary9%

Tertiary2%

Not communicated

4%

None31%

Arabic education is provided by the Imam, and involves learning the Arabic

language for Koranic readings and prayers.

Information about educational standards is important so strategies can be

planned to inform and sensitize Mbororo-en about silvopastoralism in the

highlands. The greater the number of educated people, the easier it will be to

explain new techniques or different points of view about animal husbandry in

general.

55

b) TRANSHUMANCE DATA

In response to the question: “Why do you go in transhumance?” people replied

that this was due to insufficient pasture and water in the highlands during the dry

season. A few Mbororo-en consider this to be part of their culture.

During the period of transhumance, the main problems faced by grazers are

disease, theft and accidents, because of which they can lose between 2 and 10

cows. The grazers have to travel far with their cattle and during this time animals

may get sick. Mbororo-en may also be attacked by villagers attempting to steal

cows, especially during the night. Security is provided only by themselves.

The greatest cause of animal losses stays diseases and the most important

diseases met are the followings:

− The liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica

− Aphelic fever

− Trypanosomiasis (caused by Tsé-Tsé fly)

− Tuberculosis

− 3-days fever

− Liver cirrhosis

− Tenia saginata

− Heartwater disease, Cowdria ruminantium (propagated by ticks)

− Strongylus spp. (nematode)

− Running stomach (diarrhoea)

For the most part, diseases are contracted during the journey between the

highlands and lowlands when the animals are weak and lack food and water.

During the journey animals suffer from the change in climate which is cold and

dry climate in the highlands and a hot and humid climate in the lowlands

contribute to making the cattle more sensitive to illness. Also, the spread of

parasites is facilitated by the close proximity of a large number of cows.

56

86% of people replied ‘yes’ to the question: “In the case that you find

everything you need to feed the cattle during all the year in the highlands, do you

want to see transhumance stopped?” and 13% “No” (1% did not respond). In

majority, Mbororo-en respond positively to giving up transhumance and thus

bringing an end to the movement of cattle that causes losses by disease and

accidents that result in income reduction. Furthermore, they say that this could

bring an end to their problems, particularly those involving conflicts with villagers.

Those who responded negatively to this question did so because they consider

transhumance to be part of their culture and that when they practice

transhumance, the land is burnt to regenerate fresh grasses.

During the transhumance period, when grazers go down to the lowlands in the

middle of October, serious conflicts do not arise because farmers have not yet

planted crops. But when they return from transhumance (in the middle of March),

conflicts develop because farms are cultivated – especially along river banks –

and grazers need to find food and drinkable water for the cattle. In the lowland

pastoral zones, the main problems the grazers have to face are disease –

because of the changing climate – and insufficient pastures along rivers where

farmers cultivate the land.

c) SILVOPASTORAL DATA

In response to the question: “What do you know about improved pasture?” I

represented the answers by the following chart:

What do you know about improved pasture? Ratio (%)

Nothing 12

I have heard about it 48

I have seen a demonstration 30

I have practiced it 8

I do it 2

57

Improved pasture distribution graph

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Nothing

I have heard about it

I have seen a demonstration

I have practiced it

I do it

Improved pasture in this context was defined as the fertilization of pastures by

animal droppings and/or the use of particular grass species like Brachiaria spp.

or Pennisetum clandestinum (Kikuyu grass).

97% of grazers use animal droppings. Of these users, all collect cow manure

and 43% also collect sheep droppings. They use animal droppings in the

following way: 95% of the Mbororo-en use droppings for fertilizing food crops in

the family compound and 15% use droppings to fertilize pasture lands (5% did

not respond).

What do you know about hay? Ratio (%)

Nothing 24

I have heard about it 52

I have seen a demonstration 23

I have practiced it 1

I do it 0

Hay knowledge distribution graph

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Nothing

I have heard about it

I have seen a demonstration

I have practiced it

I do it

58

When asked if they are prepared to cultivate some crops to feed their cattle, 74% of participants said “Yes” and 21% said they are not prepared to do so (5% did not respond).

What do you know about silage? Ratio (%)

Nothing 34

I have heard about it 40

I have seen a demonstration 26

I have practiced it 0

I do it 0

Silage knowledge distribution graph

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Nothing

I have heard about it

I have seen a demonstration

I have practiced it

I do it

For the question: “Would you accept to make silage and/or hay to feed your

cattle?” 85% participants replied “Yes”, and 4% “No” (11% did not know). For

those who replied positively there are conditions that would first need to be met

such as receiving support from organizations or the government to train them

and eventually assist them financially.

All Mbororo-en interviewed would like to see water sources improve and

pastures remain longer in the highlands. All would like to see a silvopastoral

system developed in the highlands and are ready to participate if trained.

Participants would like to see some plant species protected and propagated,

especially trees. Here’s a non-exhaustive list of plants they need:

− Piliostigma thonningii

− Khaya anthotheca

59

− Combretum rhodanthum

− Albizia spp.

− Plants that provide water like Vitex doniana

− Hemizygia welwitschii

− Daniella oliveri

− Entada abyssinica

− Psorospermum febrifugum

− Ficus burretiana

− Markhamia tomentosa

4.4.4.4.4.4.4.4. BBBBRACKEN RACKEN RACKEN RACKEN FFFFERN ERN ERN ERN IIIINVASIONNVASIONNVASIONNVASION

North West Region grasslands are invaded to a significant extent by bracken

ferns (Pteridium aquilinum). Bracken ferns represent a double threat for the

grazers. First, they are poisonous for the cattle and, secondly, they compete with

nutritive grasses grazed on by cattle. The ferns also reduce the amount of

exploitable pasture in a region where people, especially Mbororo-en, suffer from

limited land. At present nobody fights against the bracken fern invasion.

Culturally, Mbororo-en consider themselves solely as cattle breeders and hence

do nothing to look after their lands.

Bracken Ferns in grasslands around Ndzong village. Source: Mercier (2009)

60

Total invasion of Pteridium in pastures in Tadu (Bui division). Source: Mercie r (2009)

4.5.4.5.4.5.4.5. TTTTRANSECTRANSECTRANSECTRANSECT

Transect started from Mount Lefo and extended to Santa road in a Westerly

direction.

This transects show two different realities. The life in the village focused on

agricultural activities with commercial crops and plantations on one hand, and on

the other pastoral lands where Mbororo-en live off animal husbandry, primarily

rearing cattle.

Source: Google Earth, 2010

61

Lands around the village have reached saturation levels in terms of population. Thus, to find new incomes, farmers from the village invade pastoral lands, especially on the banks of streams where soils are more fertile.

The pasture lands from Mount Lefo in a Westerly direction. Source: MERCIER (2009)

Ndzong village with Mount Lefo in the background. Source: MERCIER (2009)

62

Wetlands Hills Mountain Forest

Vegetation Humid savanna Crops: licks, potatoes, cabbages, beans, maize…

Mixed: grasses, forbs, ferns, a few trees. Mixed: herbaceous savanna, shrubs and trees.

Trees Pear tree, banana tree, Croton macrostachys, Cypressus spp., Dracaena arborea, Prunus africana, Mangifera indica, Eucalyptus spp., Raffia spp., Albizia spp., Phoenix reclinata, Polyscias fulva, Ficus spp., Entada abyssinica, Trema guineensis, unidentified trees.

Eucalyptus spp., Cypressus, spp., Croton macrostachys, Erithrina sigmoidae, Raffia spp., Dracaena arborea, Trema guineensis, unidentified trees.

Eucalyptus spp., Cypressus spp., Croton macrostachys, unidentified shrubs and natural trees.

Soils Dark brown soil with laterite Lateritic soil with rocks in surface. Humus and lateritic soil.

Activities Grazing: 75% Farming: 25%

Grazing by Mbororo, Mbororo’s settlement, Farming by villagers.

Grazing: 90% Farming: 10% Forest plantation (Eucalyptus)

Notes Market crops in expansion. Villagers’ gardens protected with live fences, especially with cypress.

Massive invasion of the pasture lands by ferns. Mbororo’s settlement, Market gardening by villagers

1:12000

480 m ~2400m

63

Villagers Farming System Wetlands Secondary Forest

Vegetation Especially crops: maize, beans, macabo, licks, potatoes, cassava, yams, onions, cabbages,…

Wetlands vegetation: grasses, forbs, shrubs and trees.

Secondary forest.

Trees Eucalyptus spp., Cypressus spp., Leucaena spp., Borassus aethiopum, Calliandra calothyrsus, Palms, Callistemon viminalis, unidentified trees.

Pear tree, Ficus spp., Psidium guajava, Raffia spp., Croton macrostachys, albizia spp., Eucalyptus spp., Cola spp.

Plum tree, Cola spp., Eucalyptus spp. (mainly), pear tree, Canarium spp., Mangifera indica, Ficus spp., Psidium guajava, Croton macrostachys, Raffia spp., Albizia spp., Prunus africana, Tephrosia vogelii, Entada abyssinica, unidentified trees

Soils Garden soil: black superficial soil on laterite. Enhanced soil by silt Humus and lateritic soil.

Activities Farming and habitations. All lands are divided into crop plots. Livestock farming: goats and poultry.

Palm wine, crops on water stream banks, goats.

Hunting, timbering, fruit harvesting, some crops like cabbages and maize

Plantation: coffee, Prunus africana, Podocarpus, …

Notes Potatoes, tomatoes, cabbages, licks, onions, bananas and others vegetables and fruits cropped to be sale on market

Problems: crops are invading the forest because of lack of lands.

1:12000

480 m

64

Chapter Five. Chapter Five. Chapter Five. Chapter Five. CCCCONCLUSIONS AND ONCLUSIONS AND ONCLUSIONS AND ONCLUSIONS AND RRRRECOMMENDATIONSECOMMENDATIONSECOMMENDATIONSECOMMENDATIONS

This research focused on the study of silvopastoralism in the Mbororo

Community in the North West Region of Cameroon. The main objectives were to

identify the socio-economic activities of the Mbororo-en; examine the

silvopastoral system in the Mbororo community; identify plant species used by

them; and finally, to determine the problems arising in their silvopastoral

community and trying to provide advice that can lead to solutions.

Mbororo-en are traditional breeders and as such were initially nomads, they

are now partially or totally settled. However they feel ostracised from

Cameroonian society and live in often divided communities separate from towns

and villages. One important point is the lack of education which contributes to

their feeling of marginalisation. The Mbororo-en are cattle rearing specialists and

dedicate their life to cattle. In the Mbororo culture, the greater the number of

cows an owner has the more powerful the person. With this in mind, they

continue to work in terms of quantity without improving quality.

Mbororo-en participate actively in dairy economic activities and are the primary

producers of milk. Mbororo women are charged with transforming milk into

cheese and yoghurt for conservation.

Transhumance is one of the most important activities of Mbororo-en. During

the dry season, when there is a lack of grass and drinkable water in the

highlands, cattle breeders have to go down in the lowlands for several months.

During this period, they suffer diseases for the cattle and themselves. They also

lose animals through accidents and theft. The tension between villagers

(cultivators) and the Mbororo (cattle breeders) are thus exacerbated and conflicts

arise more frequently. The reason for this is that cattle breeders must trespass

through villagers’ property to reach drinking water. Alternatively they fight for the

control of land that a villager would like to cultivate and the Mbororo would like to

use for grazing. Transhumance forms part of Mbororo culture, but the welfare of

their cattle is the single most important thing to them. Mbororo-en would like to

65

see transhumance stopped if it were possible to stay in the highlands all year

round.

Another consequence of the dry season is income reduction caused by

reduced production that in turn is caused by a lack of feed. Introducing

techniques such as haymaking and silage production to breeders may improve

their lot by allowing them to feed their animals during the dry season.

The Population in the North West is growing consistently. Cities tend to

occupy ever-increasing surfaces, pushing farmers further back into the

grasslands. Furthermore, farmers must cultivate more surfaces of land to cater

for the increase in population. These facts contribute to the invasion of farmers

into pastoral lands, increasing tensions between farmers and Mbororo-en. The

Government clearly shares responsibility for this because of the non-existence of

territory or sector maps. Indeed, the Government must give actors – both farmers

and Mbororo-en – the opportunity to debate the land rights of each community.

Authorities should then, without bias and with the assistance of experts, create a

legal territory map on the basis of which the rights of each community will be

respected.

The Mbororo community has a broad knowledge of trees, herbaceous plants,

and shrubs particularly in relation to veterinary and medical uses. Unfortunately,

the majority of trees they need for medicine or food are located in the lowlands –

not in the highlands where they live.

An absence of management of the grasslands has led to a massive invasion

of Bracken ferns. In some region of the North West, bracken ferns occupy up to

90% of grassland. There are two main methods to eliminate bracken ferns: the

use of the chemical product Asulam, Methyl ((4-aminophenyl)sulfonyl)

carbamate, a systemic weed killer; and the second is to cut them twice per year

which weakens the rhizome. Although this is a slower technique it is also longer

lasting. There is evidence of overgrazing in the grasslands caused by cattle

herders. Overgrazing is part of the cause of the bracken fern invasion, because

of the non-interest shown by cattle herders in pasture management. Erosion is

another impact of overgrazing. There are some spectacular examples of this

where cattle tracks have left the earth bare.

66

The Mbororo community has been settled in the highlands ever since they

arrived in the North West region prior to Cameroon independence. The highlands

are their home and their only home. For this reason, thinking must be done to

insure the community’s future prosperity. Highlands should be developed to

provide all the resources needed by Mbororo-en. This development requires the

recognition of community territories. It requires pasture management: pasture

improvement, overgrazing control and bracken fern eradication. The

development of the Highlands may also require the protection of water

catchments and the creation of wooded zones with plant species adequate to

supply the requirements of the Mbororo-en.

Through this study I have attempted to contribute to the preservation of a

culture. I have tried to outline some potential solutions and I am convinced that

there is a lot of work to do to help the Mbororo-en develop their standard of living

and bring an end to conflicts between them and villagers. In this way, others

could:

− Examine solutions to eradicate bracken ferns from pasture lands and

sensitize Mbororo-en to bracken ferns destruction;

− Study the possibilities of improving pastoral lands and sensitizing Mbororo-

en to pasture management by themselves;

− Look at ways to feed cattle during the dry season and teach Mbororo-en how

to make silage and hay, developing a method that would render this

applicable to local breeds;

− Consider possible techniques to developing water catchments in the

highlands in order to provide drinking water to the Mbororo community all the

year round;

− And finally, investigate the possibility of stopping transhumance by

developing an effective silvopastoral system in the highlands with adequate

plant species.

67

Chapter Six. Chapter Six. Chapter Six. Chapter Six. BBBBIBLIOGRAPHYIBLIOGRAPHYIBLIOGRAPHYIBLIOGRAPHY

− ANAFOR (2009). Rapport des Activités 2008. Antenne Régionale Savane Humide.

− BAYEMI P. H. & Al. (2005). Participatory Rural Appraisal of Dairy Farms in the North West Province of Cameroon, Bambui: IRAD.

− BAYEMI P. H. & Al. (2007). Economic Opportunity Survey of Small Scale Dairy Farms of the North West Province of Cameroon. Bambui: Tropical Animal Health Production (IRAD).

− BAYER W. and WATERS-BAYER A. (1998). The Tropical Agriculturalist: Forage Husbandry. London: Macmillan Education LTD

− BELLEFONTAINE R. and Al. (2000). Management of Natural Forests of Dry Tropical Zones. Rome: FAO.

− BOUTRAIS Jean (1995). Hautes Terres d’élevage au Cameroun. Paris: ORSTOM Éditions. 2 volumes, 1302 pages.

− CAMGIS (2003). Santa Rural Council. Monographic Study.

− Capacity-building for sustainable participatory management of natural resources in some pastoralist communities, transhumance and protected areas of the North West region of Cameroon. Report of the first phase of the pastoral resource component. 2008

− DAFINGER A and PELICAN M. (2006). Sharing or Dividing the Land? Land Rights and Farmer-Herder Relations in Burkina Faso and North West Cameroon

− DE BOER, F.; KESSLER, J.J., 1994 - Le système d’élevage peuhl dans le sud du Burkina Faso. Une étude agro-écologique du département de Tô (province de la Sissili). Université Agronomique de Wageningen, Pays-Bas, 96 p.

− DUPRIEZ H. and De LEENER PH. (1993). Arbres et Agricultures Multiétagées d’Afrique. Nivelles (Belgique): Terres et vie. 280 pages

− FOMBASOH Dieudonne FOMBOH (2001). A Critical Survey of the Structures and Systems Put in Place by the BALLOTIRAL Program in View of Demarginalizing and Empowering the Mbororo-en of Dongamantung Division of the North West Province. Pre-professional Internship Report, University of Dschang.

− GAUSSET Q. (2005). Agro-pastoral conflicts in the Tikar plain (Adamawa, Cameroon). In: GAUSSET Q, WHITE M, BIRCH-TOMSEN T (Ed) Beyond territory and scarcity exploring conflicts over natural resource management. 218 p.

− HAMIDOU IBRAHIM Joro (2006). Socio-economic Implication of Farmer-Grazier Conflicts and the Impact of Farming and Grazing on the Environment: Case Study of Fundong Central Subdivision. Memoir, University of Yaounde 1.

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− HIERNAUX, P.Y.; CISSE, M.I.; DIARRA, L.; DE LEEUW, P.N., 1992 - Fluctuations saisonnières de la feuillaison des arbres et des buissons sahéliens. Amélioration de l’évaluation des ressources fourragères des parcours sahéliens. Centre International pour l’Elevage en Afrique, Mali, 26 p.

− IFAD (2009). Livestock and Land. Rome.

− IWGIA (2003), The indigenous World 2002 – 2003. Copenhagen: Ed. IWGIA. 448p.

− IWGIA (2009), The Indigenous World 2009. Copenhagen: Ed. IWGIA. 655p

− KERKHOF Paul (1991). L’Agroforesterie en Afrique. Paris: Ed. PANOS. 254 pages

− MINADER (2006). Baseline Study of the North West Province. Elaborated by SIRDEP-Cameroon.

− MINAGRI (2009). Annual Report of Activities for 2008, Regional Delegation for the North West.

− MINEF (1994). Summary of Results of the Regional Consultation Seminar. Bamenda.

− MINEPIA (2006). Annual Report. North West Provincial Delegation

− MINEPIA (2008). Transhumance Report for 2007/2008, Sub-Divisional Delegation MINEPIA – Babessi.

− NDAMBI Oghaiki Asaah (2005). Perspectives for Dairy Development in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. Master Thesis, Universität Hoheneim.

− NEBA Derik AKUME. (1999). Dynamics of the Agroforestry Practices in the Periphery of the Banyang – Mbo Wildlife Sanctuary: Case of Akiriba Village. End of Study Memoir, University of Dschang.

− NWOGU K.N. (2002). Technical Report Writing: A Practical Guide to Writing-Up Research in Science, Medicine, Engineering and Technology. Yola: Paraclete Publishers.

− PELICAN Michaela (2008). Mbororo Claims to Regional Citizenship and Minority Status in Northwest Cameroon. University of Zurich. Africa 78 (4)

− SUTTIE J M. (2004). Conservation du Foin et de la Paille pour les Petits Paysans et les Pasteurs. Rome: FAO.

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− YEBIT George. (2006). Common Agroforestry Species of the Highlands of Cameroon: Identification Handbook. Peace Corps Cameroon. 92 p.

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ANNEXANNEXANNEXANNEX 1 1 1 1

INTERVIEW ABOUT MBORORO SILVOPASTORALISM This questionnaire has been formulated to ease the collection of data relating to the socio-

economic system and the silvopastoral system in the FulBe community in the North West

Region. Hence all information collected shall be strictly confidential and used only for

academic purpose and the enrichment of literature on the subject matter.

Date interviewed:……………………………

Name of the respondent:……………………………………………………….

PART I: PARTICIPATORY INTERVIEW (IN GROUP)

A.A.A.A. Transhumance dataTranshumance dataTranshumance dataTranshumance data

1. Why do you go in transhumance?......................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. Are you satisfied about your transhumance? Yes � No �

If yes, why?..........................................................................................................................

3. Do you have a pre-determined route for transhumance? Yes � No �

If No, for which reason? Farmers blocked the route � Infrastructural development � Other…………………………………

4. Do you lose animals in course during transhumance? Yes � No �

If yes, how many?...............

5. For which causes?

Disease � Theft � Accident � Attacked � Other…….......................

6. Are there any pests or diseases that affect your cattle during transhumance?

Yes � No �

If yes, which type of diseases that affect your cattle during transhumance? (Rank answer)

Disease Causes/reasons of the disease Possible treatment

1.

2.

3.

7. How does this affect your life? No effect � Reduce income �

Reduced farm output � Other…………………………………...

8. What are the different problems that you met during transhumance? (Rank answer)

70

Problems Causes/reasons for the problem Possible solutions

During the travel - Going

1.

2.

3.

Coming back

1.

2.

3.

In the zone of pasture

1.

2.

3.

9. Are there any problems arising between Mbororo during transhumance? (Rank answer) Problems Causes/reasons for the problem Possible solutions

1.

2.

3.

10. What method of treatments do you use in transhumance?

Traditional �, which ones?.....................................................……………………………………..

Recommended by vets �, do you have access to veterinary services during transhumance?

Regularly � Often � Sometimes � Never �

11. When you trespass in the property of somebody, do you pay for it? Yes � No �

If yes, how do you pay? Cash � Exchange �……………….…..

Other �……………..………

12. What about your own security?...........................................................................................

………………………………….....................................................................................................

13. Who provides for security?..................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. What about the security of your cattle?

It’s safe � Attack � Theft � Abused � Other…………………………………...

15. What preparation do you need before going for transhumance?

You have to inform: None � Government � Traditional chiefs � Councils �

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16. What do you do to solve personal health problems?...........................................................

B.B.B.B. Silvopastoral DataSilvopastoral DataSilvopastoral DataSilvopastoral Data

1. What would you want to see improved to stay longer in the highlands?

Water sources � Pasture � Both � Other………………..

2. Do you know about trees and shrubs for animal feeding? Yes � No � 3. If yes, what do you know?................................................................................................... 4. What do you know about improved pastures?

Nothing �

I have heard about it �

I have seen a demonstration �

I have practiced it �

I do it: usually � / Sometimes �

5. Do you use animal droppings? Yes � No � 6. If yes to 5, from which animals do you collect droppings (percentage of the group)?

Cattle Poultry Sheep Goat

7. How do you get animal droppings?

Gather them � Buy them � Negotiate with the cattle owner �

8. What do you use it for?

Fertilizing food crop � Fertilizing pasture � Both � Other……………

9. Would you accept to do improved pasture by yourself? Yes � No � 10. Are you ready to make some crops to feed your animals? Yes � No � 11. What do you know about silage?

Nothing �

I have heard about it �

I have seen a demonstration �

I have practiced it �

I do it �

12. What do you know about hay?

Nothing �

I have heard about it �

I have seen a demonstration �

I have practiced it �

I do it �

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13. Would you accept to make silage and/or hay to feed your cattle in dry season?

Yes � No �

If yes, are there any conditions?......................................................................................

14. What are the plant species you would like to see protected and propagated? (List).........

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. Why these plants? (Indicate the number in the box)

Animal feeding Human feeding Fertilizer

Medicine for animals Medicine for humans

16. Do you want to develop a pastoral system in the highlands? Yes � No �

If yes, how? Browse plants �

Hay / Silage �

Artificial feeds �

Making food crops for animals �

If Yes, are you ready to participate? Yes � No �

17. In the case that you find everything you need to feed the cattle during all the year in the highlands, do you want to see transhumance stopped?

Yes � No � Why?..................................................................................................

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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PART II: INDIVIDUAL QUESTIONNAIRE

C.C.C.C. SocioSocioSocioSocio----economic Dataeconomic Dataeconomic Dataeconomic Data

1. Gender: Male � female � 2. Age: 20-30 � 31-40 � 41-50 � Above 51 � 3. Village:…………………… Sub-Division:…………………….. 4. Marital status: Married � Single � Divorced � Separated �

Widowed � 5. If married, types of marriage: Monogamy � Polygamy � Co-habitation � 6. Education: Non � Primary � Secondary � Tertiary � 7. Religion: Non � Muslim � Christian � Animist � 8. Occupation: Food Crops � Animal production � Both � 9. If you do animal production: Cattle rearing � Sheep � Goat � All � 10. Farm size or animal husbandry?

< 1 ha � 1-2 ha � 2-3 ha � 4-5 ha � > 5 ha �

11. Land ownership: Inherited � Renting � Bought (freehold) � Family land � Community land � State land �

12. How many cows do you have? < 20 � 21 – 40 � 41 – 60 �

61 – 80 � 81 – 100 � > 101 �

13. Do you have other animals? Yes � No � If Yes, what type? Animals Sheep

Goats

Horses

Chickens

How many animals do you lose in course during transhumance?....................................

74

ANNEX 2ANNEX 2ANNEX 2ANNEX 2

Here are some photos to illustrate my work and many notions within it.

A Mbororo compound near the village of Tadu (Bui di vision). Source: MERCIER (2009)

Gudali, a mixed breed between Red Fulani and White Fulani, near Tadu. Source: MERCIER (2009)

75

A Red Fulani, near the village of Ndzong. Source: M ERCIER (2009)

A Mbororo woman milking her cow and teaching it to her daughter, near Tadu. Source: MERCIER (2009)

76

Woody savanna near Sabga, where I collected a great part of my plants. Source: MERCIER (2009)

Villagers invade the grassfields to make commercial crops closed to water stream banks, near Ndzong. Source: MERCIER (2009)

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Cattle using always the same ways, near Ndzong. Sou rce: MERCIER (2009)

Cattle tracks are responsible of an important part of land erosion. Near Ndzong. Source: MERCIER (2009)