Sara DashtiGhufran MearajRawan Najeeb

Mohammed EbrahimHunter Aly

12AMarch 25, 2014

Memory & Thought

Ch.10. 1 pg. 273

The Processes of Memory

Memory is the input, storage, and retrieval of what’s been

learned/experienced.There are three processes;

encoding, storage, and retrieval .

Encoding

Transforming information to the nervous system to be processed.

You use your senses to establish and encode a memory .

Storage

Information is maintained over time .

Information can be stored for a few seconds or longer depending on how much effort was used to

encode it .

RetrievalInformation is brought to mind

from storage .How easily you can retrieve

information depends on how it was encoded and stored .

Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

The senses of sight and hearing are able to input for a fraction of a second before

it disappears .Example: when you watch a moving

picture, you do not notice the gaps between the frames, the action seems smooth because each frame is held in

sensory storage until the next frame arrives .

Three Stages of Sensory Memory

Sensory Memory Capacity Virtually everything you hear Or see at one instant.Duration Fraction of a secondExample You see something for a instant and then someone asks you to recall one detail.Short Term memoryCapacity: 7 items in healthy adults.Duration: less than 20 secondsExample: you look up a telephone number and then try to memorize it

enough to dial it Long Term MemoryCapacity: uncountableDuration: a life timeExample: you remember the house you lived when you were 7 years

old

Short Term Memory

Limited memory in capacity to about 7 times and in duration by the subject's active rehearsal. It

is when you don't pay full attention and then someone

accuses you because of that, you then deny not paying attention

then repeating the last words they said. Holding the words in

your mind is short term memory .

Maintenance Rehearsal

It is a system that involves repeating information to oneself without

attempting to find meaning in it, it is also in a limited duration .

For example: looking at a number long enough to dial then it'll be in

your mind. When you get distracted or if you make a mistake in dialing,

you will look at the number once again. It has been lost by short term

memory.

Chunking Grouping items to make them

easier to remember. Short term memory is not only limited in duration, but also in capacity.

The Primary Recent Effect

Remembering first items and last items in a list but forgetting the

middle items.

Working Memory Short term memory is also known

as the working memory. It includes the short term memory

and information stored in long term memory.

Long-term memoryLong- term memory refers to the storage

of information over extended period of time.

The capacity of long-term memory appears to be limitless

Represents of countless facts, experience and sensations.

Information can be programmed, stored, and retrieved.

Types of long term memory

•Procedural: Permanent

storage of learned skills that does not

require conscious

recollection.

*Declarative: Stored knowledge that can be called forth consciously as needed.

Types of declarative Semantic is the memory of

knowledge of language including rules, words and meanings

Episodic is the memory of remembering

How do we encode information into long-term memory?

The more we process information, the better it is remembered.

The longer we are exposed to information, the better we remember it.

The more we rehearse a piece of information, the higher its probability of

being remembered

Elaboration The way in which we process stimuli

influences our ability to encode.Intention, in and of itself does not

help us learn.Depth of processing, or thinking

about what we learn, improves our ability to instruct information.

How is memory studied?

Human patients with brain structural abnormalities

◦Disease◦Injuries

Animal models to study causationMRI, CAT, PET scans

Memory and The BrainLong term memory is just begging to find out what

happens for long term memory to be stored. One theory is that the neuronal structure of nerves change and another s that molecules and chemicals in the brain

change. Evidence has shown that both theories might be correct. The changes in memory depend on how

hard you examine something. Procedural Memories may occur in the striatum in the front part of the cortex.

Declarative memories happen because of activity in the hippocampus and amygdala. It is not certain how nerve

cells establish connections with each other. It is a complex process which allows for new connections to be made. Chemicals such as calcium and potassium

affect the process. But it is not certain how these factors are all connected.

Video

Now we will watch a video about happiness in memory and

thought .

THE END

Chapter 10 Section 2

Noor AlBuainainJenan HabibClara Nabil

Retrieving Information

Two types of long-term memoryDeclarative memory: memory which

can be continuously recalled.Example: facts and knowledgeProcedural memory: memory for the

performance of particular types of action; unconscious memory.

Example: Skills (learning to play a game)

RecognitionKnowing whether or not something is

familiar.Measure of declarative memory.Identify a person, object, idea or situation,

that has been seen or been through before.For example: a child says “cat” when he

sees one for the first time because he has seen a picture of a cat before. In this case, the child recognizes the cat because of the

memory of the picture seen.

RecallReconstruction of information.Measure of declarative memory.Reconstructive process: memories may be

altered or distorted depending on experience, attitudes, and inferences from other information.

Confabulation: filling in memory gaps.Schemas: conceptual frameworks used to make

sense of the world .Eidetic memory: ability to remember with great

accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure.

23, ,76 ,89 ,98 ,57 ,43 ,64 ,21 ,36 ,90 ,95 ,49 ,30.

Time is too slow for those who wait, too swift for those who fear, too long for those who

grieve, too short for those who rejoice, but for those who

love, time is eternity. -Henry Van Dyke

RelearningA measure of both declarative and

procedural memory.Learned something years ago, which

can benefit you by learning it quickly now.

For example: you have studied your subjects a long time before your test,

then relearn it the day before the test, which makes it easier.

AmnesiaLoss of memory after a blow to the

head or brain damage .Amnesia may be a result of drug

use or severe psychological stress.Infant amnesia: lack of early

declarative memories .For example: not remembering

your childhood (infant amnesia)

ForgettingFail to remember something or someone .Involved into three parts:Decay: fading away of memory over time.Repression: to forget by force. Interference: the blockage or erasing of

memory by previous or subsequent (following) memories .

•Proactive: earlier memory blocks you from remembering later information .

•Retroactive: new memory blocks you from remembering earlier information.

“Do Not Forget” Challenge

You are supposed to remember this sentence until the end of

the presentation to win the challenge.

Improving Memory Elaborative rehearsal: the linking of new

information to material that is already known.Mnemonic Devices: techniques to memorize

and retrieve information.Method of Loci was used by ancient Greeks

which is associating each line of a speech with a different spot, to memorize speeches.

For Example: when studying history, you can relate dates and years with someone’s birthday;

the WWII ended on 1945, relating it to 1954, which is your father’s birth year, which can

make it easier to remember.

Volunteer to try the Method of Loci .

“Do not Forget” Challenge Winner

Now which genius still remembers the sentence

word by word?

Game time !

Thinking and Problem Solving

Abdulla Ahmed Al Bin AliMohamed Al AbbasiTarek AhmedAbdulla Ali Albalooshi

CH11.1

ThinkingThinking: when information stored in memory is

changed and reorganized in order to create new information.

◦Even the simplest of actions requires individuals to think. An example of thinking can include the creation of this

PowerPoint to walking a dog.◦Thinking has 5 major units that are the building blocks of

mental activity.◦There are three kinds of thinking: Convergent, Divergent, and

metacognition thinking.

Units of ThoughtThinking involves 5 units:

◦Image: A visual representation of a event or objectExample: determining whether two shapes are identical or different

◦Symbols: A sound, object, or design that represents an object or qualityExample: Commas, apostrophes, hyphens, etc. all symbolize punctuation

◦Concept: Labeling a class of objects or events with one or more common factors.

Example: what factor makes something a fruit or vegetable ?◦Prototype: A representative example

Example (ironically): When someone says the word celebrity, you may think of Tom Cruise, Robert Downey Jr., etc

◦Rule: A statement of a relation between conceptsExample: You can’t walk on air

Forms of ThinkingConvergent/Directed thinking: Logical attempt to reach

an objective .◦Depends on symbols, concepts, and rules.◦Used to solve problems

Divergent/Non-directed thinking: Free flow of thoughts with no specific objective

◦Depends on images and emotions◦Used to relax, daydream, etc.

Metacognition: Thinking about thinking

Problem SolvingProblem solving: Use of direct thinking to

move from a problem to a solution.Strategies of problem solving:

◦Creating subgoals for a complex problem◦Working backwards (ex:ending to beginning)◦Thinking about various methods to reach the goal

(ex: shortcuts in a road trip to Kuwait)◦Algorithms: Fixed set of rules that lead to a

solution. (ex: Chess, checkers, math problems)◦Heuristics: Rule-of-thumb/simplifying problems

Problem Solving ObstaclesMental set: Habitual strategy of problem

solving.Functional fixedness: Inability to imagine

new uses for familiar objectsWrong assumptionsRigidity is the most influential factor in

problem solving

CreativityCreativity: When information and abilities are used in

a new and original wayCreativity involves:

◦Flexibility: ability to overcome rigidity (inflexibility)◦Recombination: Rearranging a problem’s elements for a

creative solution◦Insight: Realization of a problem’s solution

Journal Question

How often do you talk to yourself? (6

sentences)

Chapter 11 Section 2

Language

Objectives

–Explain the structure of language.–Describe how children develop language.

Understanding and speaking a language is a complex processIt incorporates learning thousands of words and countless rules

of grammar to make sense of those words

to communicate

Introduction

Some people talk to themselves when they are thinking or solving a problem.

When we are talking or thinking, we are using language.

Language is a system of communication that involves using rules to make and combine symbols in ways that produce meaningful

words and sentences .

The Structure of Language

Language permits us to communicate facts and ideas.

We can solve problems and make decisions every day largely because of what we learn from experience and from each

other, which is transmitted through language.

Language consists of four rules, or parts: phonemes, morphemes, syntax,

and semantics.

The Structure of Language (cont.)

The smallest units of sound in the human language, such as consonants and

vowels, are phonemes.Phonemes can be a single letter, such as t,

or a combination of letters, such as sh.We can produce about 100 different

recognizable sounds, but not all sounds are used in all languages.

Phonemes

A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a given language.

It is made up of one or more phonemes.Morphemes can be a word, a letter (s),

a prefix (un in uncertain), or a suffix (ly in slowly).For example: Love is one morpheme, Loves is two

morphemes (love and –s)

Morphemes

Phonemes and Morphemes

A set of rules for combining words, phrases, and sentences to express

thoughts that are meaningful syntax.In English we follow certain grammatical rules.

For example: placing adjectives in front of nouns.What happens if we don’t have syntax? Sentences won’t

make sense: “Boy small bike large rode”

Syntax

Activity

“ Disconnected Phone” game. Listen to the rules!

Understanding the meaning of words or phrases when they appear in certain sentences or contexts is semantics.

The same word can have different meanings.

People know what different words mean depending on the context.

Semantics

Semantics Activity

Come up with two sentences that give different meanings to the same word.

For many years a debate over exactly how children learn language raged.

B.F. Skinner believed that children learned language as a result of

operant conditioning.Critics state that children understand language before they

speak–and before they receive any reinforcement.Some psychologists propose that children learn language

through observation, exploration, and imitation.

Language Development

Psychologist Noam Chomsky did not believe that all the complex rules of

language could be learned by imitation, observation and exploration

Chomsky proposed that infants possess an distinctive capacity for language; that is,

children inherit a mental program that enables them to learn grammar.

Language Development (cont.)

If Chomsky is right, then we would expect that all children go through similar stages

of language development, no matter what culture or language group they

belong to.Infants, in fact, do go through four stages of

language development.

How Language Develops

Around 2 months of age, infants begin to coo.

Cooing refers to long, drawn-out sounds such as oooh or eeeh.

At around 4 months of age, infants reach the first stage of language development

and begin to babble.Babbling includes sounds found in all

languages, such as dadada and bababa .

How Language Develops (cont.)

At around 12 months of age, infants begin to utter single words.

They use these words to describe familiar objects and people, such as

da-da or doggie.At this stage, children use single words

to describe longer thoughts.At around age 4, children begin to

form sentences.

How Language Develops (cont.)

The first sentences a child utters, though, follow a pattern called telegraphic speech.

Telegraphic speech is a pattern of of speaking in which the child leaves out the

articles (the), prepositions (with), and parts of verbs.

How Language Develops (cont.)

Animals communicate with one another.However, do animals learn language?

Language involves more than just communicating–it involves rules

of grammar.Although animals do not possess the ability to use

grammatical rules, they have been taught to communicate

with humans .

Do Animals Learn Language?

People use language to communicate their culture and express their ideas.

Do people who speak different languages actually think differently

from one another?Benjamin Whorf argued that language affects our basic

perceptions of the physical world.

Whorf used the term linguistic relativity to refer to the idea that a person’s language influences

his or her thoughts .

Gender and Cultural Differences

Does the English language express a particular value system?

Some people argue that certain words in language create gender stereotypes.

The use of pronouns also affects our thinking.

Many organizations have instituted guidelines for the use of nonsexist

language.

Gender and Cultural Differences (cont.)

End of the Lesson

What was the main idea of the lesson?