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Memory
Short-term/Working Memory
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Basic info-processing model of memory Atkinson-Shiffrin 1968 The modal model
Sensory RegistryShort-Term
MemoryLong-Term
Memory
Attention Rehearsal
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Sensory Memory
Recall Sperling
Participants view a briefly presented array of letters.
Tone cued participants to recall items. Change the duration between
presentation of array and the recall tone
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Sperling
Full-report paradigm Report as many items as possible Recall (no delay) = 3-4 items Recall decreased with short delay
Partial-report paradigm Tone cued which line of the array to recall
High = top line Medium = middle line Low = bottom line
Compare recall across rows
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Partial-report paradigm
Recall with no delay roughly ~3 regardless of row
Same pattern of results with tone delay All information gets in Lasts a short time Sensory memory is rather large but has a
short duration
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Short-term memory
The theory of STM was brought about during the cognitive revolution and is a product of the information processing perspective
It proposed that attended information went into an intermediate short-term memory where it had to be rehearsed (processed) before it could go into a relatively permanent long-term memory.
STM is biased toward keeping recent information available and has a limited capacity to do so. Memory span - the number of elements one can
immediately repeat back
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Short-term memory
In a study of memory span, participants might rehearse digits by saying them over and over again to themselves.
With each rehearsal of an item, it was assumed there was a probability that the information would be transferred to a relatively permanent long-term memory.
If the item left short-term memory before a permanent long-term memory representation was developed, however, it would be lost forever.
One could not keep information in short-term memory indefinitely because new information would always be coming in and pushing out old information from the limited short-term memory.
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One of the questions with STM regarded its duration
What determines the duration of STM? Decay?
Gradual loss of memory “strength” over time. Interference?
Access to information is blocked by the retrieval of other information
Overwriting? Original memory trace is altered
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Decay
Brown-Peterson Task Use unrelated information
‘T’ ‘K’ ‘B’ “wood” “dog” “candy”
Many study-test trials “You will not be shocked in this experiment”
Paradigm Study three items Count backward by 3’s
Prevent rehearsal Vary duration of counting Recall studied items
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Brown-Peterson
Decay (on average) memory information is
accessible up to 18 seconds.
Interval of counting (sec.)
Pro
port
ion
of c
orre
ct r
ecal
ls
0
100
1 18
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Decay
Reconcilable with sensory memory Use it or lose it.
Once memory is established, decay is constant
What constitutes “established?” Is it always 18sec.?
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Interference
Memory is more active Newly encountered information (if
used) limits the access to previous information.
Interference is often confounded with “decay”
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Interference
Waugh & Norman (1965) Present a set of 16 digits at a fixed interval.
1 digit per second 4 digits per second
Last digit in the set served as a probe, and had previously been presented once
Report the digit that appeared after the probe digit had appeared in the list the first time (target).
Manipulate the number of digits that appear between target and the probe. Retention interval
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Waugh & Norman
1 per sec. Condition
1597? 9 ?
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Waugh & Norman
4 per sec. Condition
1323574895467318? 9 ?
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Waugh & Norman
If forgetting is a function of decay (time) then there should be less recall for slower rate (16 secs) vs. faster rate (4 secs)
If interference then should be little to no difference between the two.
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Waugh & Norman
Number of items between target & probe
Pro
port
ion
Cor
rect
0
100
1 13
1 Cond.4 Cond.
More about the number of items that interfered rather than decayover time
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Interference
So the Waugh and Norman results suggest interference from additional information can disrupt memory for particular items
Two types of interference Retroactive Interference
New information interferes with previously learned information
Proactive Interference Previously learned information interferes with the
acquisition of new information
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Retroactive Interference & Proactive Interference
Two-list paradigm Paired associates Two items paired with same target
across lists Probe with target
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Retroactive Interference & Proactive Interference
List 1 List 2A - B A - C
DOG - BALL DOG - WIRE
RetroactiveLater learning interferes with previously learned material A
ProactivePrior learning interferes with material learned later
???B (ball)
C (wire)
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Release from PI (Wickens, 1972)
Design Given three items of a
particular category Countdown Recall Repeat with new
category exemplars a 2nd and 3rd time
4th time repeat or give three from a new category
Recall goes back to original levels with new category
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Very Rapid Forgetting Sebrechts, Marsh, & Seamon (1989) based on
Muter (1980) Used a modified Brown-Peterson paradigm with
false trials. B-P task
Acoustic (shallow) Long E sound?
Semantic Is it animate?
Reading say the stimuli aloud
Exp 1 regular B-P experiment Exp 2 “Surprise” memory test
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Sebrechts, Marsh, Seamon
Ss presented words sequentially and made a yes/no decision for each word presented or just read aloud depending on condition
Countdown followed
Brown-Peterson trial
WOOD KEY TIME
382
Recall
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Sebrechts, Marsh, & Seamon
Forgetting within 6 seconds Expectation of retrieval is
necessary to maintain information in memory, but also elaboration can have an effect
So again the idea of decay doesn’t provide for the whole story
.27.44Acoustic
.35.55Semantic
.52.73Reading
Non-ExpExpectLOP
Proportion of words recalled*
Interval of counting (sec.)
Prop
orti
on R
ecal
led
0
100
1 18
B-P
Surprise Trials
*They looked also at the strict scoring i.e. remembering the whole trigram, the pattern was the same but with poorer performance overall
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Interference
A possible explanation for interference is that when given cue, information associated with cue interferes with other info also associated with cue More items a cue is stored with the less effective it will be
in retrieving any one particular item Recall fan effect
But along with interference as another possible explanation of forgetting, the Sebrects et al., shows other factors will have a say in how forgetting occurs Expectancy ‘Depth’ of encoding
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The decline of STM
The idea of a short-term passive ‘store’ fit in with the current information processing models Rapid forgetting
Transient nature suggests different type of store
Amount of rehearsal controlled the amount transferred to LTM More rehearsal more remembering Info had to ‘do time’ before getting to LTM
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The decline of STM
Problems Loss similar for better learned material (initial rapid loss followed by
slower loss later) Rehearsal by itself won’t determine what makes it to LTM: Chunking
7 + 2 What may be chunked and how chunking occurs can depend on a
variety of factors and varies across individuals Depth of processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
The Sebrechts article was an example of how DoP had a role even if there was decay
Some experiences gain immediate access to LTM E.g. traumatic events
Such findings suggest there is more to short-term memory functioning than as a passive storage device until information makes it to LTM through rehearsal or just goes away
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Working Memory Function = short-term retention and manipulation of
information. Active memory Issues regarding working memory
How long? How much? What type?
Capacity Forgetting curve (Brown-Peterson) Miller’s 7 +/- 2
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Capacity
Measured by span The number of items reproducible over a short
interval. Incrementally add items to a memory set.
Span varies … Among individuals
Individual Differences Across types of information
Rhyming > Non-rhyming Digits > Words Pictures > Labels
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Baddeley
Model of WM Based on perceptual codes
Acoustic Visual and Spatial
Information can be retained separate from its use for a short time
Coordinating process guides the use of retained information
Central Executive “Slave” systems
“Rehearse” information for a short time Perceptually based
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Baddeley’s Model of WM
Maintains visual and
spatial information
Maintains acoustic
information
Central executive
Coordinates the Slave Systems
Response Selection
Guides Attention
Visuo-Spatial
Sketchpad
Phonological
Loop
Central Executive
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Baddeley’s Model of WM
Brown-Peterson Task CE attends to memory
set elements CE “stores” memory
set in phonological loop PL attempts to
rehearse the memory set during distraction
CE involved in distractor task (calculation)
CE coordinates retrieval from PL during recall
Visuo-Spatial
Sketchpad
Phonological
Loop
Central Executive
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Phonological Loop
Two components Phonological store Articulatory control process
Subvocal articulatory rehearsal Traces within the store decay over a period of about two
seconds unless refreshed by rehearsal, a process akin to subvocalization and one that is dependent on the second component, the articulatory system
Important for long-term phonological learning e.g., language learning
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Some evidence for the loop
Phonological similarity effect PGTVCD vs. RHXKWY Similar phono code leads to confusion
Irrelevant speech effect Colle & Welsh (1976): even a foreign language can interfere with
immediate recall of items Because of the nature of the code, the language gains access to
the phono store Articulatory suppression
Operation of the loop is disturbed if overt or cover articulation takes place
Vocalization utilizes same system as subvocal rehearsal, and hence can lead to difficulty learning verbal information
Word length effect
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Word-length Effect Span decreases as the length of a word increases Less can be rehearsed within the ~2 sec time frame
ASSOCIATION
PARLIAMENT
CONCENTRATION
EMPOWERMENT
DOG
HOUSE
BAT
GLASS
WOOD
BIKE
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Visuo-spatial Sketchpad
Temporarily maintains and manipulates visuospatial information
Plays an important role in spatial orientation and in the solution of visuospatial problems Both visual (imagery) and spatial
component Possibly two different systems
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Some evidence for the sketchpad
Baddeley & Lieberman (1980) Visual tracking
interferes with imagery mneumonic
Irrelevant picture effect Same result even from
just looking at visual stimuli
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Central Executive
Most complex and least understood component of WM
Model suggests CE coordinates the activity of the two slave systems
Other potential roles Coordinating retrieval strategies Selective attention Suppression of habitual responses Task switching Temporary activation of long term memory Binding of sensory and conceptual information
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Assumptions and Predictions
Slave systems are independent of each other It is possible to do a both a verbal task and a spatial task at the
same time Extremely difficult to do two verbal (or two spatial) tasks at the
same time. Dual-Task Paradigm
Participant must perform more than one task at a time Slave systems have limited capacity
Span Slave systems can function autonomously from the Central
Executive Can do “Central Executive tasks” and slave system tasks at the
same time Central Executive coordinates information based on current
goals Implies intentional (conscious) control of WM Coordination involves many processes.
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Questions regarding the WM model
Articulatory suppression: AS should prevent registration of visual material
(which must be recoded phonologically) In fact, span only drops slightly How is this material stored?
Chunking: Presumably info in LTM is used to chunk How is this information integrated?
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Rehearsal Does rehearsal have to be subvocal? How are items in VS rehearsed? What about children? (they do not spontaneously
rehearse subvocally)
The role of consciousness CE originally proposed to assist in binding - our ability to
integrate information about location, color, size, smell, feel etc of objects.
How could it do this without a multimodal short term store?
Questions regarding the WM model
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The Episodic Buffer
“A limited capacity temporary storage system that is capable of integrating information from a variety of sources”
Controlled by the CE
Feeds information into and retrieves information from LTM
Uses a common “multidimensional” code
The Episodic Buffer makes the link between Working Memory and LTM more explicit
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Working Memory today