MEMORY: RETRIEVAL AND PROBLEMS

AP Psychology

Memory Retrieval and Forgetting

Let’s Test Your LTM!

You will see several words, one at a time

Do whatever you can to try and remember as many of the words as you can

At the end of the list, try to recall as many words as you can

Let’s Test Your LTM!

Bed Clock Dream Night Turn Mattress Snooze Nod Night

Artichoke Insomnia Rest Toss Night Alarm Nap Snore Pillow

Let’s Test Your LTM!

Write down the words you saw!

Here’s the Words

Bed Clock Dream Night Turn Mattress Snooze Nod Night

Artichoke Insomnia Rest Toss Night Alarm Nap Snore Pillow

Memory Demonstration

Did you Recall? Bed or Clock Snore or Pillow Night Artichoke Toss and Turn Sleep

Explanation Primacy Recency Spacing Effect Distinctiveness Clustering False Memory

Memory Retrieval

We can recognize more than we can recall.

Recognition is easier than recall because it provides retrieval cues or hints that help us remember where the information is stored in our memory.

Recall vs. Recognition tests

Must retrieve info learned earlier.

Two step process: 1) generate a

mental list, 2) recognize the

answer from the list.

Examples: Fill-in-the-blank test; essay exams

Only need to identify the correct answer.

1 step process: 1) recognize answer

from the list. List was already generated for you.

Example: Multiple choice tests

Recall Tests Recognition tests

Recall vs. Recognition

What is the capital of Vermont? Raise your hand if you know the answer

Recall vs. Recognition What is the capital of Vermont?

A. Brattleboro B. Montpelier C. Rutland D. Cabot

Raise your hand if you know the answer

Recall vs. Recognition What is the capital of Vermont?

A. Brattleboro B. Montpelier C. Rutland D. Cabot

Which was easier: recall or recognition? For your psychology exam, would you

rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test?

What affects retrieval?

Priming – the activation of particular associations in our memory; is often unconscious. For example, we may suddenly remember

something that we thought we had forgotten when we smell or taste something associated with the memory.

In this case, the smell is priming our memory

What affects Retrieval?

Context effects – we are more likely to remember something if we learn it in the same context. For example, you will likely do better on a psychology test if you take it in this room.

An example of

the Encoding Specificity Principle!

What affects Retrieval?Memory and Mood

State-dependent memory – we are more likely to remember something if we are in the same psychological state (happy, sad, etc.) that we were in when we learned it.

An example of

the Encoding Specificity Principle!

What affects Retrieval?Memory and Mood

Memories are mood-congruent – that is, if we are in a good mood, we are more likely to recall events as positive.

If we are in a bad mood, we are more likely to recall events as negative.

This is true even if we are recalling the SAME event in two different states of mind.

An example of

the Encoding Specificity Principle!

What affects Retrieval?Memory and Mood

For example, let’s say you went on a family vacation to the beach and there were tons of mosquitoes and your parents never let you out of their sight, and the weather and beach was beautiful.

If someone asks you about your vacation later, what aspects of it you will remember (the bad or good ones) depends on your current mood.

Memory and Mood

Mood-congruent memories explain how depression can easily become a downward spiral.

A person in a depressed mood recalls or interprets events negatively, thus leaving them feeling even worse.

Forgetting

Forgetting – Forgetting is an important adaptation.

If we couldn’t forget most of the information that enters our senses, we would be distracted most of the time.

Why do we Forget?

Encoding Failure – information never enters long-term memory; usually because we didn’t make an effort to pay attention and rehearse the information

Why might Encoding Failure Happen?

When you don’t use elaborative rehearsal, or provide enough meaning, to a term or event,

People fail to encode information because: It is unimportant

to them It is not necessary

to know the information

A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

Why do we Forget?

Decay theory is the gradual disappearance of a memory because the memory has not been thought about, or retrieved, from long-term memory into short-term memory

Ex: If a person does not dial their childhood phone number for a few years, then the memory of that number will start to decay, or fade away.

Decay

• Biology-based theory• If unused, normal brain

metabolic processes erode memory trace

• Theory not widely favored today • Ability of people to

retrieve memories from long ago with retrieval cues would show this is not true.

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables

Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2.

The more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

How to combat the Forgetting Curve:

Overlearning Continuing to

rehearse after the point the information has been learned

Rehearsing past the point of mastery

Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

Forgetting as retrieval failure

Retrieval—process of accessing stored information Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t

retrieve it Retrieval Failure – inability to “locate” memories

Retrieval failureleads to forgetting

RetrievalX

Encoding

Short-termmemory

Long-termmemory

Why do We Forget?

Tip-of-the-tongue, occurs when a retrieval cue is not strong enough to retrieve, or trigger the memory stored in long-term memory.

Tip of the Tongue

Why do We Forget?

Interference theory is the process through which either the storage or retrieval of a memory impairs other information and memories

Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference

Why do We Forget?-Retrieval Failure

Proactive interference occurs when previous, old information affects, or interferes, with trying to remember new information. An example of proactive

interference is when you try and can’t remember your NEW locker combination because you keep on dialing your old locker combination.

Why do We Forget?-Retrieval Failure

Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned new information affects, or interferes, with remembering old information. An example of retroactive

interference is when you can’t remember your OLD class schedule because your new class schedule is interfering, or causing you to forget your old class schedule.

How can we remember….

When trying to remember the difference between Proactive and Retroactive, it may be helpful to think about porn.

Yes, P.O.R.N.

P= ProactiveO= Old interferesR= Retroactive N= New interferes

Why do We Forget?-Retrieval Failure

Motivated Forgetting–people repress or suppress memories that are painful or that conflict with their self-image.

Undesired memory is held back from awareness Suppression— conscious

forgetting Repression— unconscious

forgetting (Freudian)

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

1.Stimuli are recorded by our senses and held briefly in sensory memory.

2.Some of this information is processed into short-term memory and encoded through rehearsal .

3.Information then moves into long-term memory where it can be retrieved later.

The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

Amnesia

Amnesia is the loss of memory

Amnesia

Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall past memories due to an injury to the head Tends to be

temporary. As the brain starts to

heal from an injury, the memories start to come back.

Amnesia

Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories due to damage to the hippocampus “50 First-dates” is an example of

anterograde amnesia she could not form any new memories

Clive Wearing

The man with no short-term memory

What type of Amnesia would this be?

Clive Wearing

Jill Price

The woman who never forgets

What issues might this cause?

The Woman Who Never Forgets

False Memories

Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors

Why do the details change over time?

Two general areas that errors occur in memory reconstruction

1. Info stored before the memory occurred may interfere

2. Info stored after the memory occurred may interfere

Sources of Potential Errors

Source Confusion – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten. This could be attributing an imagined

event to real life or attributing a story read in a book to your own childhood.

False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory. False Memory-Lost in the

Mall

Sources of Potential Errors

Cryptomnesia – a seemingly new or original memory is actually based on an unrecalled previous memory. inadvertent

plagiarism

Can happen in everyday conversation "Somebody says, 'Mary is so

effervescent,' and then the word 'effervescent' keeps coming up."

Cryptomnesia stems from a failure to simultaneously engage in creative thinking and monitor where incoming ideas are coming from, according to Marsh's research.

Elizabeth Loftus (1944- )

Does research in memory construction

Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions

Demonstrated the misinformation effect

Memory Construction-False Memories

Misinformation Effect – If we are primed with misleading information, we are likely to incorporate it into our memory; As we retell stories, we will fill make guesses about memory gaps. These guesses then become

part of our memory.

Affects Eyewitness Testimony

The Bunny Effect (Priming)

Memory Distortion

Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas

Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information Do politicians do this? How?

Loftus Experiment

Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects

asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?

Accident

Leading question:“About how fast were the cars going

when they smashed into each other?”

Memory construction

Loftus Results

Word Used in Question

Average Speed Estimate

Smashed 41m.p.h.

Collided 39 m.p.h.

Bumped 38 m.p.h.

Hit 34 m.p.h.

Contacted 32 m.p.h.

Eyewitness Testimony

Scripts—type of schema Mental organization of events in

time Example of a classroom script:

Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.

Eyewitness Testimony

Recall not an exact replica of original events What you recall is a construction built and

rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs or

schemas Schema—mental representation of an

object, scene or event Example: schema of a countryside may include

green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.

You Be the Eyewitness

Imagine you are at a gas station buying milk

A man walks in, threatens the employee at the counter, robs the cash register, and runs out

The entire ordeal lasts about five seconds

This is the man you saw…

You Be the Eyewitness

The police have asked you to help them identify the perpetrator

They will show you a set of pictures, and it is your responsibility to select the picture of the man you saw rob the gas station…

How Did You Do?

So, which picture did you choose?

And the correct answer was... #2

Were you right?

What does this tell you about eyewitness testimony?

Implanting Memories and Eyewitness Testimony

Do they play a big role?

When Eyes Deceive- Eyewitness Testimony http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSzPn9rsPcY&feature=related

What kind of impact did the professor have in implanting false memories?

Crime Scene Challenge

Now that your eyes and brain are warmed up, let’s test your observation skills a bit more

You will have 2 minutes to study a photograph of a crime scene on the next slide

Try to pay close attention to detailsYou are not allowed to write anything down

until time is upReady?

Answer Each Question Below:1. What color was the coffee mug? Blue Red Yellow

2. When was the deadline? Yesterday Today Tomorrow

3. What time was on the clock on the wall? 10:40 11:05 1:55

4. How many sticky notes were on the whiteboard? 4 6 8

5. What was NOT in the picture? Stapler Trash Can Printer

6. What was the name on the plaque? Bill Brian Carl

7. What color was the victim’s shirt? Black Blue Red

8. How many plants were in the picture? None One Two

9. What color was the marker in the drawer? Red Blue Green

10. Where was the book? On a box In the trash can Under the body

Check Your Answers

1. Yellow2. Today3. 11:054. 65. Stapler

6. Brian7. Blue8. Two9. Green10.On a box

Eyewitness Testimony

How accurate is eyewitness testimony?

Let’s see it in action!

Picking Cotton Part 1 Picking Cotton Part 2

Factors that Influence Memory

How can we tell if memories are true or false?

The hippocampus is equally active when a person recounts true and false memories. However, other areas (such as association areas) are only active when a person recounts a true memory.